Improving

Goat Production
in the

Tropics
A Manual for
Development
Workers

risiie r^eacoc

An Oxfam/FARM-Africa Publication
 OXFAM
LIBRARY
This book is due for return on or before the last date shown below.

I S MAY 001

Don Gresswell Ltd., London, N.21 Cat. No. 1208 DG 02242/71

Oxfam (UK and Ireland)

in association with FARM-Africa
First published by Oxfam (UK and Ireland) 1996

FARM-Africa and Oxfam (UK and Ireland) 1996

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This book converted to digital file in 2010

 To the memory of
Professor Joseph Peacock
and
Wagaye Ayele
Contents

List of tables xiv

List of illustrations xvi
Acknowledgements xix

1 Introduction
1.1 Historical background 1
1.2 Current status 2
1.3 The role of goats in developing countries 2
1.4 The environmental question 4
1.5 Research and development 5
1.6 The potential role of goats in development programmes 6
1.7 The aimofthisbook 7
Further reading 7

2 Common problems of goats in the tropics

2.1 Introduction 8
2.2 Africa 9
2.2.1 Pastoral systems: arid and semi-arid 9
2.2.2 Agro-pastoral systems: semi-arid 10
2.2.3 Mixed farming: humid 11
2.2.4 Mixed farming: sub-humid 12
2.2.5 Mixed farming: highland 13
2.3 Asia 14
2.3.1 Mixed farming: humid (irrigated) 14
2.3.2 Mixed farming: humid/sub-humid (rain-fed) 15
2.3.3 Extensive systems: semi-arid (high altitude) 16
2.4 Central and South America 17
2.4.1 Extensive systems: semi-arid 17
2.4.2 Mixed farming: sub-humid 18
Contents

2.5 Minor systems 19

2.5.1 Perennial tree-crop systems 19
2.5.2 Urban goat-keeping 19
2.6 Which system is closest to the one in which you work? 20
Further reading 20

3 Assessing goat-production problems

3.1 Introduction 21
3.1.1 Methods to identify specific problems 21
3.2 Low-cost methods of assessing production problems 22
3.2.1 Secondary information 24
3.2.2 Public meetings 24
3.2.3 Approaching interviews and discussions 25
3.2.4 Group discussions 25
3.2.5 Feed calendars 26
3.2.6 Disease calendars 27
3.2.7 Ranking problems and identifying improvements 29
3.2.8 Rapid flock-appraisal method 31
3.2.9 Individual interviews 40
3.2.10 Key informant interviews 40
3.2.11 Direct observation 41
3.2.12 Maps and walks 41
3.2.13 Problem analysis and objectives analysis 42
3.2.14 Reporting 44
3.2.15 Community consultation 44
3.2.16 Have a go! 46
3.3 Higher-cost methods of assessing production problems 46
3.3.1 Selection of sample sites 47
3.3.2 RRA procedures 48
3.3.3 Setting objectives 48
3.3.4 Sampling size and recording frequency 48
3.3.5 Farmer participation 49
3.3.6 Setting up the monitoring study 49
3.3.7 Goat identification 51
3.3.8 Weighing goats 53
3.3.9 Continuous monitoring 55
3.3.10 Milk measurement 55
3.3.11 Investigating and monitoring disease 58
3.3.12 Feed monitoring 61
3.3.13 Management monitoring 62

VI
 Contents

3.3.14 Marketing studies 63

3.4 On-farm trials of improvements 63
Further reading 64

4 Basic nutrition
Introduction 65
4.1 The feeding habits of goats 66
4.2 The feeds available to goats, and their characteristics 68
4.2.1 Natural bushes and trees 68
4.2.2 Natural grasses 69
4.2.3 Crop weeds and thinnings 69
4.2.4 Crop residues 69
4.2.5 Planted legumes 70
4.2.6 Planted grasses 70
4.2.7 Crop by-products 70
4.2.8 Crops 70
4.3 The composition of feeds 70
4.4 Methods of feed analysis 72
4.5 Digestion in the adult goat 74
4.6 Manipulation of digestion in the rumen and small intestine 77
4.7 Digestion in the kid 79
4.8 Digestibility 80
4.9 Feed in-take 81
4.10 The feed requirements of goats 83
4.10.1 How much dry matter? 84
4.10.2 How much energy and protein? ^
4.10.3 How much water? 90
Further reading 91

5 Improved nutrition
5.1 Introduction 92
5.1.1 Checklist of questions on feeding
5.1.2 Common feeding problems of goat;
5.1.3 What practical options are available
5.2 Improving feed supply: grazing manage
5.3 Improving feed supply: forage developi
5.3.1 Forage for what? 96
5.3.2 When and where can forage be gro
Contents

5.3.3 What species to use? 99

5.3.4 Back-yard pasture 104
5.3.5 Forage strips and alley farming 108
5.3.6 Undersowing 112
5.3.7 Oversowing and improving communal grazing areas 114
5.3.8 Fodder crops 116
5.3.9 Permanent grass/legume pasture for goats 116
5.3.10 Planning and implementing forage development 117
5.3.11 Planting trees, herbaceous legumes, and grasses 119
5.4 Feed conservation 125
5.4.1 Drying 126
5.4.2 Silage 127
5.5 Improving the quality of feed and quantity eaten 127
5.5.1 Treatment of fibrous feeds 128
5.5.2 Supplementation 130
5.5.3 Improving feed intake: methods of feeding goats 133
5.6 Feeding special goats 135
5.6.1 Feeding the doe 135
5.6.2 Feeding the kid 139
5.6.3 Feeding for fattening 141
5.7 Case studies 143
5.7.1 Housed goats in Java, Indonesia 143
5.7.2 Tethered dairy goats in the highlands of Ethiopia 147
5.7.3 Goat herding by the Maasai in Kenya 149
Further reading 152

6 Goat health
6.1 Introduction 153
6.1.1 The goat, its environment and defence mechanisms 154
6.2 Assessing health and disease: the clinical examination 156
6.2.1 Observations to make of a sick goat 157
6.2.2 Physical examination 158
6.2.3 History of disease 158
6.2.4 Taking samples 160
6.3 Common disease problems 161
6.3.1 Kid death (with or without diarrhoea) 161
6.3.2 Diarrhoea and loss of condition (adults) 162
6.3.3 Respiratory problems and fever 162

vm
 Contents

6.3.4 Skin diseases and swellings 163

6.3.5 Poor condition, anaemia, pale mucous membranes 164
6.3.6 Lameness 165
6.3.7 Nervous diseases 166
6.3.8 Female and male infertility 166
6.3.9 Abortion 169
6.3.10 Udder problems 169
6.4 Common diseases of goats 171
6.4.1 Internal parasites 171
6.4.2 Mange 185
6.4.3 Tick-borne diseases and tick control 188
6.4.4 Contagious caprine pleuropneumonia (CCPP) 194
6.4.5 Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) 195
6.4.6 Pneumonia 196
6.4.7 Caseous lymphadenitis 197
6.4.8 Brucellosis 200
6.4.9 Mastitis 200
6.4.10 Foot problems 202
6.4.11 Orf 202
6.5 Other goat diseases 203
6.5.1 Diseases of the digestive system 203
6.5.2 Diseases of the respiratory system 206
6.5.3 Diseases of the reproductive system 206
6.5.4 Diseases of the blood, lymph, and immune system 207
6.5.5 Diseases of the muscles and skeleton 208
6.5.6 Diseases of the mammary gland 209
6.5.7 Diseases of the eye and skin 210
6.5.8 Diseases of the nervous system 212
6.5.9 Diseases of nutrition and metabolism 214
6.5.10 Diseases of the liver 217
6.6 Treating and investigating diseases 217
6.6.1 Treatment and nursing of sick goats 217
6.6.2 Procedure after death 218
6.7 The organisation of goat health care 226
6.7.1 Training of paravets 227
6.7.2 Organising, monitoring, and evaluating paravets 232
Further reading 234

IX
Contents

7 Management of reproduction
Introduction 235
7.1 Reproduction in the goat 235
7.1.1 Female reproduction 235
7.1.2 Male reproduction 237
7.1.3 Mating and fertilisation 238
7.1.4 Age at first mating 239
7.1.5 Intersex goats 239
7.2 Mating management 239
7.2.1 Detecting oestrus 239
7.2.2 Manipulation of breeding 241
7.2.3 Planning breeding seasons 242
7.2.4 Artificial insemination 242
7.2.5 Embryo transfer 244
7.2.6 Oestrus stimulation and synchronisation 244
7.3 Reproductive problems 244
7.4 Pregnancy 248
7.4.1 Normal pregnancy 248
7.4.2 Causes of abortion 248
7.4.3 Kidding 248
7.4.4 Difficult kidding 250
7.4.5 After kidding 250
7.4.6 Problems after kidding 251
7.5 Measures of reproductive efficiency 251
Further reading 252

8 Breeds and breeds improvement

Introduction 253
8.1 Principles of breed improvement 253
8.1.1 Variation 254
8.1.2 Selection 255
8.1.3 Genetic progress 255
8.1.4 Relationships between traits 256
8.1.5 Identification of superior stock for selection 256
8.1.6 Mating plans 258
8.1.7 Cross-breeding 258
8.1.8 Grading up 261
8.1.9 In-breeding 261
8.1.10 The application of bio-technology in breeding 261
8.2 Tropical goat breeds
 Contents

8.2.1 The development of tropical breeds 262

8.2.2 The characteristics of tropical breeds 264
8.2.3 Conservation of goat genetic resources 265
8.3 Practical breed improvement for individual farmers 267
8.3.1 Improvement of individual flocks 267
8.3.2 Breeding and culling guidelines 268
8.4 Practical methods of breed improvement for groups and
governments 268
8.4.1 Selection within a breed 269
8.4.2 Cross-breeding methods 275
Further reading 286

9 Management of large goat farms

9.1 Introduction 287
9.2 Setting up a goat farm 288
9.2.1 Definition of objectives 289
9.2.2 Assessment of resources 289
9.2.3 Flock-management system 290
9.2.4 Farm layout and infrastructure 290
9.2.5 Housing 290
9.2.6 Equipment 296
9.2.7 Purchase of foundation stock 298
9.2.8 Staff recruitment 298
9.2.9 Records and record-keeping 300
9.3 Annual planning 301
9.4 Daily management 305
Further reading 306

10 Processing and marketing goat products

Introduction 307
10.1 Milk 308
10.1.1 Milking practice 308
10.1.2 Milk handling 309
10.1.3 Milk collection, processing, and marketing 310
10.1.4 Milk products 310
10.2 Meat and carcass products 315
10.2.1 How to kill a goat 315
10.2.2 Preservation of meat 316

XI
Contents

10.3 Skins 317

10.3.1 Preservation of skins 317
10.4 Mohair and cashmere 318
10.5 Manure 319
10.5.1 Soil fertiliser 319
10.5.2 Fish-pond fertiliser 320
10.6 Marketing goats and goat products 322
Further reading 324

11 Goat-improvement programmes
11.1 Introduction 325
11.2 Goat-improvement strategies 325
11.2.1 Improvement of existing systems 325
11.2.2 Stocking/restocking people with goats 328
11.3 Participatory planning 329
11.3.1 Introduction 329
11.3.2 The planning process: alternatives analysis and participation
analysis 329
11.4 Writing a plan 333
11.4.1 Objectives 333
11.4.2 Physical context 333
11.4.3 Socio-economic context and target population 334
11.4.4 Statement of current situation and problems 334
11.4.5 Project activities and organisation 334
11.4.6 Project period, phasing of activities, and targets 336
11.4.7 Inputs required 336
11.4.8 Making predictions about the future 338
11.4.9 Flock projections 339
11.4.10 Partial budgets 340
11.4.11 Expected benefits and number of beneficiaries 341
11.4.12 Environmental impact 341
11.4.13 Other side-effects of proposals 342
11.4.14 Budget 342
11.5 Methods of implementation 344
11.5.1 Introduction 344
11.5.2 Farmer/pastoralist organisations 345
11.5.3 Training 346
11.5.4 Extension materials 347

xn
 Contents

11.6 The role and management of credit 349

11.6.1 Why do producers need credit? 349
11.6.2 Likely sources of credit for goat purchase 350
11.6.3 Terms and conditions 351
11.6.4 Repayment in cash 352
11.6.5 Repayment in kind 353
11.6.6 Insurance 354
11.6.7 Purchasing goats 355
11.6.8 Group development and training for credit
management 357
11.6.9 Gifts of goats 357
11.6.10 Restocking pastoralists 358
11.7 Evaluation of goat-improvement programmes 360
11.7.1 Introduction 360
11.7.2 Quantifiable information 361
11.7.3 Qualitative information 362
Further reading 363

Glossary 364

Appendix: useful addresses 368

Index 371

xni
 List of tables

1.1 Goat population estimates 2

1.2 Goat products and services 3
1.3 Some advantages and disadvantages of goats 6

3.1 Procedures to identify problems of goat production 23

3.2 Guide to problem specification 30
3.3 The age of goats as shown by dentition 36
3.4 Sex and age structure of Maasai goats in Kenya 38
3.5 Parturition histories 39
3.6 Off-take methods 40
3.7 Conversion of heartgirth measurements to weight 53
3.8 Body-condition scores 55

4.1 Feed components of proximate analysis 73

4.2 Proximate feed analysis for Leucaena leucocephala 73
4.3 Degradability and by-passability of proteins from different
feeds 77
4.4 Total energy requirements for goats 86
4.5 Digestible crude-protein requirements for maintenance
and growth 86
4.6 Energy and protein requirements for one kg milk 87
4.7 General nutritive value of common feed types 87
4.8 Alternative sources of the energy requirement 89
4.9 Alternative sources of the protein requirement 89

5.1 Options to improve feed supply, nutrient balance, and

quantity of feed consumed 94
5.2 Key features of the major forage types 100
5.3 Common forage species suitable for different climates 100
5.4 Characteristics of common forage crops 102-105
5.5 Typical nutritional values of some fibrous residues 128
5.6 The effect of urea treatment on rice straw 130

xiv
 List of tables

5.7 Ranking of common supplements 131

5.8 Quantity of different feeds required by a 30 kg doe 137

6.1 Likely causes of kid death 162

6.2 Likely causes of diarrhoea and loss of condition (adults) 163
6.3 Likely causes of respiratory problems and fever 164
6.4 Likely causes of skin diseases and swellings 165
6.5 Likely causes of poor condition, anaemia and pale mucous
membranes 166
6.6 Likely causes of lameness 167
6.7 Likely causes of nervous diseases 168
6.8 Likely causes of female and male infertility 169
6.9 Likely causes of abortion 170
6.10 Likely causes of udder problems 171
6.11 A guide to the interpretation of faecal egg counts 174
6.12 Anthelmintics for goats 183
6.13 Acaricides for goats 193
6.14 Some natural ectoparasite control medicines 194
6.15 Mineral-deficiency symptoms 215
6.16 Vitamin-deficiency symptoms 216

8.1 Heritabilities of some characteristics in goats 255

8.2 Advantages and disadvantages of tropical goat breeds 265
8.3 The major goat breeds in the tropics 266
8.4 Some goat improver breeds 277

9.1 Influence of farm objective on management system 288

9.2 Effect of available resources on management system 289
9.3 Factors affecting goat-house design 291
9.4 Example of a calendar of goat-farm activities 302
9.5 A cash-flow budget for a farm of 100 milking does 304

10.1 Composition of goat milk 308

10.2 Composition of goat manure 319

11.1 Projected flock structure (before the project) 338

11.2 Projected flock structure (after the project) 339
11.3 Goat enterprise budget for 10-doe flock 340
11.4 Sample budget format for a project proposal 343
11.5 Basic monitoring information required for quantifiable
outputs 361

xv
 List of illustrations
2.1 African pastoral system 9
2.2 Agro-pastoral system 11
2.3 Dry sub-humid system 12
2.4 Housed goats in Java 15
2.5 A mixed flock of sheep and goats in Bolivia 17
2.6 Urban goats in Addis Ababa 19
3.1 A seasonal feed calendar 28
3.2 A disease calendar 29
3.3 Low milk production: a causal chain 31
3.4 Form for recording goat-flock structure and progeny histories
34
3.5 Sets of teeth at different ages 36,37
3.6 Flock size distribution by household 37
3.7 Age pyramid of a goat flock 38
3.8 Problem analysis: low milk production 43
3.9 Objectives analysis to increase milk production 45
3.10 Applying an ear-tag 51
3.11 Initial format for goat monitoring 52
3. 12 Construction of a weighing sling 54
3.13 Construction of a tripod 54
3.14 Weighing a goat with a sling and a spring balance 54
3.15 Some formats for monitoring goat flocks 56,57
4.1 A goat browsing on its hind legs 66
4.2 Goats kneeling to eat from the ground 67
4.3 Feeding heights of sheep, goats, cattle, and camels 67
4.4 The main components of food 71
4.5 Digestive system of the goat 75
4.6 Protein digestion in the rumen and small intestine 76
4.7 Rumen and small intestine feeding 78
4.8 Factors affecting feed in-take 82
5.1 A forage-development strategy 98
5.2 The forage strategies appropriate for different slots of space
and time 99

xvi
 List of illustrations

5.3 Back-yard pasture 106

5.4 High cutting of tree legumes 107
5.5 Grass strip used to feed goats and check soil erosion 108
5.6 Alley farming: maize intercropped with leucaena 109
5.7 Simple Agro-Livestock Technology 111
5.8 Multi-layered pasture for goats 116
5.9 A legume root with nodulation 121
5.10 Bare-root planting 121
5.11 Key features of a community tree nursery 123
5.12 A woman weeding sesbania in her own tree nursery 124
5.13 Planting elephant grass 124
5.14 Hay-box construction 126
5.15 Using a manually operated chopping machine 129
5.16 A tied bundleof leucaena 134
5.17 A simple feeding rack 135
5.18 Energy and protein needs of does at different stages 136
5.19 Breeding season matched with feed supply 138
5.20 Sweet-potato vines hung to feed recently weaned kids 140
5.21 Traditional goat house, Java 143
5.22 Rainfall, cropping, and feed calendar, west Java 144
5.23 Improved house design 146
5.24 A goat tethered at the edge of a field 148
5.25 Shaking seed pods from an Acacia tortilis tree 150

6.1 Measuring respiration rate, pulse, and temperature 159

6.2 Location of main parasites in the goat 172
6.3 Life cycle of Haemonchus contortus 175
6.4 A case of bottle jaw 177
6.5 Drenching regime: two wet seasons 180
6.6 Drenching regime: one wet season 180
6.7 Methods of applying anthelmintics 181
6.8 Fasciola hepatica and Fasciola gigantica 184
6.9 A case of sarcoptic mange 185
6.10 Using a castor-bean wash 186
6.11 Demodectic mange 187
6.12 Amblyomma variegatum 188
6.13 Rhipicephalus tick 190
6.14 Two ways of applying acaricide 192
6.15 AchroniccaseofPPR 196
6.16 Simple goat house 197
6.17 A case of Caseous lymphadenitis 198
6.18 Treating an abscess 199
6.19 Infusing an infected teat with antibiotic 201

xvn
List of illustrations

6.20 Foot trimming 202

6.21 AcaseofOrf 203
6.22 Post-mortem procedure 219-226
6.23 Pictorial treatment guide and treatment chart 229
7.1 Female reproductive organs 236
7.2 Male reproductive organs 238
7.3 When to mate? 240
7.4 Using a buck apron to prevent conception 241
7.5 A Burdizzo castrator 242
7.6 Why no kids born? 245
7.7 Normal and abnormal presentations 249
8.1 Histogram of variations in weaning weight 254
8.2 Selection differential 256
8.3 Heterosis in good and bad environments 259
8.4 Criss-cross mating 260
8.5 How to decide the method of breed development 270
8.6 Cooperative breeding scheme 274
8.7 Breed and management improvement 276
8.8 Goat breeds 280
9.1 Goat-house layouts 292
9.2 Principles of good ventilation 293
9.3 Milking platform 294
9.4 Dip-bath design 295
9.5 Water-trough dimensions 296
9.6 Kid-box design 297
9.7 Weighing crate 297
10.1 The conversion of milk into its products 311
10.2 ILRI butter churner 312
11.1 Alternatives analysis 331
11.2 A flip-chart in use 348
11.3 A doe with a good wedge shape and a well-hung udder
356

xvin
Acknowledgements
The book has greatly benefited from the suggestions of Bill Forse,
David Hadrill, Nick Honhold, David Little, Alemayehu Mengistu,
Alan Mowlem, Emyr Owen, Clare Oxby, Dick and Stephen
Sandford, David Sherman, and Alan Wilson.
Many extension staff read early drafts of the book. The
comments of Gezu Bekele, Teferra Gebre-Meskel, Getenet
Lemma, Nima Lepcha, Teferi Seifu, Feleke Tadele, Sisay Takele,
and Kettema Yilma have been particularly helpful.
I am very grateful for the support and encouragement of David
Campbell of FARM-Africa, Chris Mason and Liz Stone of Oxfam
(UK and Ireland) in Ethiopia, and my mother.
Catherine Robinson edited the text, and Paul Kendall designed
it. All line illustrations were drawn by Mandefro Haile-Giorgis.
Most of the photographs were taken by Jenny Matthews or
myself, but some have kindly been provided by David Little, Alan
Mowlem, John Petheram, Peter Roeder, Alan Walters, Trevor
Wilson, and the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI).
Financial support during the writing of the book was provided
by FARM-Africa, through a generous grant from the Baring
Foundation.

xix
 FARM-Africa
FARM-Africa specialises in agricultural development in Africa.
Established in 1985, it is committed to helping the smallholder
farmers and herders of Africa to help themselves, thereby break-
ing the cycle of famine and bringing new prosperity to neglected
marginal communities. In partnership with local people, FARM's
projects pioneer new strategies and techniques in crop and
animal husbandry, aiming to produce more food and income in a
sustainable way that does not damage the environment. Current
projects cover dairy goats, pastoralist development, farmers'
research, community forestry management, and general rehabil-
itation and resettlement projects. FARM currently operates in
Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, and South Africa.
FARM-Africa is the recognised development organisation of
the United Kingdom's agricultural community, and provides a
channel through which supporters can give direct assistance to
rural people in Africa.

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Oxfam (UK and Ireland) was founded in 1943 to send relief
supplies from British people to starving civilians in Greece
during World War II. Now working in over 70 countries in
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xx