All About Slide Rules 2012 PDF

ALL
ABOUT
SLIDE
RULES
A publication of The Oughtred Society

ALL
ABOUT
SLIDE
RULES
Compiled by Richard Davis and Ted Hume from an original design by Bob Koppany.
Roseville, California
2012
PREFACE
The Oughtred Society is pleased to present this new document, All About Slide Rules, for all to use.
With this document, the Oughtred Society wishes to introduce itself and provide a service to the
great numbers of slide rule enthusiasts, collectors, and users with whom the Society is not currently
acquainted. In doing this, the Society extends an invitation to all to join us in this fascinating
pursuit.
This online document, All About Slide Rules, presents what its title suggests, complete information
about slide rules. In its seventeen chapters, with 103 pages and 114 photographs, it contains
information of all types, from What Is a Slide Rule and How It Works, to History, to Common and
Less Common Types, to How to Use a Slide Rule, to Major Makers and Some of Their Common
Models, to Books and Manuals, to Cleaning and Care, to Slide Rules on the Internet, to Collecting
... and more.
The Oughtred Society was founded in 1991 by a group of slide rule collectors and is dedicated to
the preservation and history of slide rules and mechanical calculators. In the past 21 years, it has
evolved to an international organization of some 400 members in 23 countries. It is noted for its
highly acclaimed Journal of The Oughtred Society, published twice annually, containing articles by
its members and others. The Society's activities are carried out by members who volunteer to do
various jobs and projects. Membership is open to anyone. Additional membership information is
available at the end of this document.
Objectives of the Society include the dissemination and sharing of information about slide rules
and mechanical calculators, and encouragement for collectors and researchers. The Society is a
non-profit educational organization and is affiliated with similar organizations in Great Britain,
Germany, and The Netherlands.
Benefits of membership include:

Subscription to the Journal of The Oughtred Society, published twice annually. This
internationally acclaimed journal is the most authoritative source on slide rules and mechanical
calculators, with each issue containing a wealth of information about makes and makers,
models, uses, history, and more. Members are encouraged to submit articles.
Members can acquire back issues of the Journal from its inception in 1991.
Annual Members Directory, a great resource for locating and communicating with other
collectors, enthusiasts, and dealers.
Annual meetings and auctions for members occur on the West Coast in June, the East Coast in
November, and the Southwest in February. At meetings, members exchange information, display
items from their collections, and have the opportunity to participate in an auction in which many
kinds of slide rules and calculators are sold, from the ordinary and inexpensive to the rare.
All About Slide Rules was compiled for internet presentation by Oughtred Society member
volunteers Richard Davis and Ted Hume.
The Oughtred Society

2012
Table of Contents
(Click Chapter Title to jump to Chapter)
I What Is a Slide Rule

1 Definition of a Slide Rule... and What It Can and Cant Do
2 Unique Characteristics of the Slide Rule
4 How Slide Rules Are Made
5 What Slide Rules Do
5 What Slide Rules Have Done
II How a Slide Rule Works
7 Logarithms Are Simple
8 Common Logarithms
9 A Couple of Strange Terms Characteristic and Mantissa
10 The Starting Point in Slide Rule Operation Multiplication
10 Numbers Less Than One
III History of the Slide Rule
11 Just Before the Slide Rule
11 Chronological History of the Slide Rule
16 The Slide Rules Last Century the 20th
19 Epilogue
IV Common Types of Slide Rules
23 Basic Types - Closed Body Linear, Open Body Linear, Circular
24 The Materials Used to Make Slide Rules
24 Wood
24 Celluloid on Wood or Bamboo Core
25 Plastic
25 Aluminum
26 Steel
26 Scale Arrangements on Common Slide Rules
26 Mannheim and Enhanced Mannheim
26 Rietz
27 Darmstadt
27 Log Log Duplex
28 Slide Charts
V Less Common Types of Slide Rules
29 Less Common Linear Slide Rules
30 Other Less Common Types and the Quest for Greater Precision
31 Some Scarce Linear Slide Rules that Are Popular with Collectors
31 Some Scarce Circular Slide Rules that Are Popular with Collectors
VI Learning Your Way Around a Slide Rule
35 Basic Terminology The Anatomy of a Slide Rule
35 What the Scale Letters Mean on a Basic Slide Rule
36 How to Read the Scales
VIII Performing Basic Calculations
39 Multiplication
41 Division
42 Chain Calculations and Reciprocals
44 Squares and Square Roots
46 Cubes and Cube Roots
48 Dealing with Pi
VIII Performing Advanced Calculations
51 Trigonometry
53 Logarithms
55 Exponentiation Fractional Powers, Roots and Other Calculations
IX Tricks and Time Savers
X List of 24 Common Slide Rule Scales and Their Functions
63 List of Common Slide Rule Scales
XI Advanced Slide Rule Features
67 GaugeMarks
67 Multi-Line Cursors
68 Color Coding
69 Rulers
69 Addiators
69 Electronic Calculators
XII Slide Rules for Special Applications
71 Chemistry, Surveying, Electricity, Radio, Electronics, Business and Finance, Navigation, Metric Coversion
XIII Major Slide Rule Companies and Some of Their Common Models
75 United States: Keuffel & Esser, Pickett, Post, Dietzgen, Lawrence, Sterling, Gilson
76 Japan: Hemmi, Relay/Ricoh, Concise
76 Germany: Faber-Castell, Aristo, Nestler, Reiss
77 England: Thornton, Unique. France: Graphoplex. Denmark: Diwa
XIV Books, Manuals, and Articles
83 Books About Slide Rules
86 Manuals and Articles
86 Additional Book Lists
XV Cleaning and care for your Slide Rule
87 General Comments
87 Wood Body Slide Rules with Celluloid Surface
90 Plastic Body Slide Rules
90 Bamboo Body Slide Rules
90 Cleaning Cursors
91 Repairing Cursors
91 Cleaning Metal End Braces
92 Leather Cases
XVI Slide Rules on the Internet
93 General Information
94 Slide Rule Organizations
95 Dealers -- Places to Buy Slide Rules
96 Private Slide Rule Collections
97 Slide Rule Museums
97 Slide Rule Manufacturer
XVII Collecting Slide Rules
99 Why Collect Slide Rules?
99 What Slide Rules to Collect?
100 What Makes Slide Rules Valuable?
101 The Oughtred Society - Information
103 Index
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ALL
ABOUT
SLIDE
RULES
Chapter One - What is a Slide Rule? 1
What is a Slide Rule?
Definition of a Slide Rule ... and What It Can and Cant Do
A slide rule is a simple looking mechanical device based on logarithms that

performs a wide range of mathematical operations. Visually, it just looks like an
assembly of sliding and stationary scales, but hidden in the design of the scales
is extraordinary mathematical sophistication, able to perform simple operations
from multiplication or division to complicated fractional powers and roots, and
complex trigonometric functions. The range of its power is quite incredible, and
few people can even perform its more complex functions manually. For ex-
ample, how are your manual cube root skills today?
K&E 4O53-3F, 25 cm
It can work with numbers of any size but can typically provide only 3 signif-
scales (1O inch), cel-
icant figures of resolution. It also does not do regular addition and subtraction luloid on mahogany core,
(get out your abacus for that), although its fundamental design is based on the simplex, USA. Front and
addition and subtraction of logarithmically related distances. edge view.
Precision of 3 significant figures is enough for most engineering design in
the real world, as it provides accuracy to 0.1%, quite adequate for serious work,
especially in a world where many measurements and parts are rarely even ac-
curate to 1%. Your calculator may produce 8 significant figures, but when the
total uncertainty of your data is considered, often only 3 are used.
The slide rule also has one truly magical property it is a parallel cal-
culator, rather than a serial one like your desktop electronic calculator. Once a
relationship is set up on a slide rule, all variations are also set up at the same
time, allowing you to have a visualization of changing results with different
values, without any additional real work. On your electronic calculator, you will
be pressing buttons for hours to see what a slide rule does just by existing. In the
engineering world, this is called a Monte Carlo analysis, where the values are
varied to see the results, usually with a powerful computer to provide the
calculating horsepower. Even the lowliest student slide rule does this
automatically.
For a simple example, lets say you are on vacation in India and want to
buy an antique statue. Set up the exchange rate of rupees to dollars or your
currency of choice on your slide rule, and you can see what it costs, BUT, you
also see every other price at that rate at the same time (thus making dickering
2 All About Slide Rules
over the price much easier). This is quite amazing, and impossible for your
electronic calculator, but just everyday life for a slide rule.
Unique Characteristics of the Slide Rule
The slide rule demonstrates elegant simplicity (few pieces, only two moving
parts).
It embodies classical grace (its dimensions approximate the ratio of length to
width of a column in a Greek temple such as the Parthenon).
It has total transparency (every register and scale is readily visible).
It has very large dynamic range and sufficient precision for most engineering
tasks.
It is easy to learn and simple to operate.
It provides automatic parallel computations.
And it has wide computational flexibility.
These features, when coupled with the slide rules different scales and
labels, hint of great complexity and tactile, intimate control of mathematics.
To appreciate the power of this deceptively simple looking tool, pick up a
well-made example, and feel its weight, balance, and precision.
You hold mathematical magic in your hands!
The scales and arrangements have been refined through 20 generations of
mathematicians and engineers, creating adjacent mathematical relationships
that still outperform the calculator and computer generated spreadsheet for
certain problems in electronics, surveying, financial risk forecasting, and propor-
tion dependent analysis.
This is simply magic to the uninitiated ... and a marvel to watch in action.
How Slide Rules are Made
The most commonly seen slide rules are made of wood or bamboo covered
with celluloid or are made entirely of plastic. One leading American company
made them of aluminum. Some were made of plain wood or steel or other
metals.
Pickett N1010ES, 25cm

scales, aluminum, USA
Gilson Midget, 4" diam-

eter, aluminum, USA
Virtually all 20th Century slide rules have a glass or plastic cursor, or indica-
tor, with a hairline, which slides along its length. The sliding scales allow
relationships to be set up, and with a cursor, complex relationships may be used
across the entire slide rule body, not just between adjacent scales.
Most slide rules are linear, like a ruler, but some are circular discs.
Some scarce types are cylindrical.

Linear slide rules were made in several scale lengths. Otis King,
Ten inch scale length is by far the most common. (Actually the length is cylindrical, metal with
usually 25 centimeters, but it is normally called a ten inch slide rule.) varnished paper scales,
England
Five inch scale length (actually 12.5 centimeters) pocket slide rules are
also quite common.
Many major slide rule manufacturers also produced a few examples of
their most popular 10 inch rules in a 20 inch (50 cm) size. The additional space
between markings on the scales contributes to greater precision and the 20
length certainly creates an imposing desktop presence.
The actual overall length of a slide rule is slightly greater than the scale
length, so the cursor does not fall off while working at the scale ends, and to
provide space for the end braces on duplex slide rules.
Post 1444K, 12.5 cm

scales (5 inch), cellu-
loid on bamboo core,
simplex. Made by Hemmi
of Japan for Post, USA
What Slide Rules Do

Pickett 120, 25 cm
scales, (10 inch) Slide rules calculate by adding and subtracting logarithmic distances by
plastic, simplex, USA
positioning the slide and body. As a result, they can multiply, divide, do roots
Aristo 1067U, 50 cm and powers, calculate logarithms and a wide variety of trigonometry functions.
scales (20 inch), The mathematical relationships are locked into the scale distances specific to
plastic, Germany the calculation.
Scales vary greatly. For example, a scale used to calculate tangents (often
called a T scale) has very different arrangements of scale numbers and markings
than scales used to calculate squares and square roots (often called A and B
scales).
Slide rules cannot add or subtract in the conventional way ... though they
work by adding and subtracting logarithms in order to multiply and divide. The
designers of most slide rules felt that addition and subtraction could be done
adequately by manual computation, but this could have been done (with
limited range) simply by putting two linear scales on a slide rule.
Scales have been designed and refined over many years to facilitate chained
calculation, thus they are very good for quickly solving complex formulas,
especially those with many multiplied or divided terms. Slide rules also visually
reveal ranges of answers in a way that calculators cannot do.
What Slide Rules Have Done
It is interesting to consider that virtually all bridges, buildings and other

structures built in the past three hundred years or more were designed with an
ordinary ten inch slide rule. This includes the Brooklyn Bridge, Hoover Dam,
Empire State Building, roadways and land reclamation projects, and the design
of cities and waterways all over the world. Airplane design, basic and advanced
electronic design and space ballistics work was also done with a slide rule.
Pickett N600ES Apollo,

12.5cm scales, aluminum,
duplex, USA
It was the state of the art technology for calculating until inexpensive
electronic calculators became available in the early 1970s. Click Here to
see a chapter on the history of slide rules.
In fact, there is some rocket science here, as slide rules were carried (and
presumably used) on Apollo Space Missions. We will assume they were not used
to swat space flies, and had some real merit, as every payload ounce was very
precious. You could calculate exactly how precious with your slide rule.
They were an incredibly weight effective back up computer system to the
onboard computers. Pilots all over the world still carry the E6B flight computer
and its relatives today, a specialized circular slide rule for doing speed, distance,
wind and fuel calculations. Image It is fast, easy, and the batteries never go
dead on final approach.
While slide rules blossomed with up to 34 scales, sometimes more, the
simpler designs retained their power and popularity. Wernher von Brauns
favorite was a 9 scale Nestler 23R slide rule that he used during his career at
NASA. Albert Einstein also used a Nester 23R in his work.
Chapter Two - How a Slide Rule Works 7
How a Slide Rule Works
A slide rule multiplies by adding logarithms of numbers.

It divides by subtracting their logarithms.
Now ... dont go running out the door! Logarithms are simple. Although
one does not need to know logarithms to use a slide rule, a basic understanding
of them is helpful.
Logarithms are exponents. Exponents are powers to which one may raise a
number ... like 42 = 16 (4 to the 2nd power equals 16) and 43 = 64 (4 to the 3rd
power = 64). The little 2 and 3 are exponents.
When you multiply numbers, you add their exponents. When you divide,
you subtract exponents.
Thus 22 = 4. 23 = 8. 22 x 23 = 25 = 32. And 25 _: 22 =23. 32 _: 4 = 8
A slide rule does this by sliding logarithmic scales of numbers alongside

each other and thus adding or subtracting the logarithmic distances.
It is very easy to add numbers with a ruler, as shown in the illustration
below.
The ruler on top will add 3 to any number on the bottom ruler. For ex-
ample, look at 2 on the top ruler and read the answer 5 on the bottom ruler.
Look at any number on the top ruler and the number on the bottom ruler will
be 3 greater.
photo of 2 rulers
Your slide rule adds logarithms in the same way. set to add 3.
At the top of page 8, we see a slide rule adding the logarithm of 2 to the
logarithm of 3 to get the logarithm of 6 ... thus multiplying 2 by 3 to get 6.
(Remember that when we add exponents, or logarithms, we are multiplying the
numbers they represent.)
Common Logarithms
The common logarithm of a number is the power to which one must raise
the number 10 (the base) to obtain the number in question. This power, or
8 All About Slide rules
Post 1444K, 12.5 cm

scales, celluloid on
bamboo core,
simplex, USA
exponent, is thus called the base 10 logarithm, or the common logarithm, of the
number. Any number can be expressed as ten to some power. (Other bases are
sometimes used, but 10 is the most common.)
Using 10 as the base (common logarithms), note the following:

The logarithm of 1 is zero. Log 1 = 0. 100 = 1. 10 to the zero power = 1.
Logarithm of 10 is 1. Log 10 = 1. 101 = 10. 10 to the first power = 10.
All numbers between 1 and 10 may be expressed as 10 to some power between
0 and 1, for they are all between 100 and 101. For example, Log 2 = 0.301. 10
to the 0.301 power = 2. 100.301 =2.
The logarithm of l00 is 2. Log 100 = 2. 102 = 100. 10 squared = 100. All
numbers between 10 and 100 may be expressed as 10 to some power between 1
and 2, for all are between 101 and 102.
The logarithm of 1000 is 3. Log 1000 = 3. 103 = 1000. 10 cubed = 1000.
The logarithm of 0.l is minus 1. Log 0.1 = -1. 10-1 = 1/101 = 1/10 = 0.1
Logarithm of 0.01 is minus 2. Log 0.01 = -2. 10-2 = 1/102 = 1/100 = 0.01.
Here is an example:
The logarithm of 375 (Log 375) is about 2.574. (Ten to the 2.574 power =
375.) This makes sense, for 10 to the 2nd power is 100, and 10 to the 3rd power is
1000. Thus, the exponent of ten, the logarithm for 375, must be somewhere
between 2 and 3. For instructions on how to use your slide rule for
logarithms Click Here.
A Couple of Strange Terms... Characteristic and Mantissa

A logarithm consists of two parts.
In the case of the logarithm of 375, which is 2.574, the 2 is called the char-
acteristic. The characteristic tells us how big the number is... like the words
used to describe the characteristic of a person... He is a big fellow... or She is
a petite lady. The number 2, the characteristic, tells us that the number is
between 100 and 1000... between 10 to the 2nd power and 10 to the 3rd power.
The .574 is called the mantissa. (You find this on the L scale of your slide
rule.) The mantissa .574 tells us where in that range the number actually is.
10 to the 2.574 power (102.574) = 375. Log 375=2.574
Chapter Two - How a Slide Rule Works 9
It is interesting to note that the mantissa of 375 is the same as the mantissa
for 37.5 or 3.75 or 375,000,000! The characteristic tells us which number it is.
Log 3.75 = 0.574
Log 37.5 = 1.574
Log 375 = 2.574
Log 375,000,000 = 8.574
Each successive characteristic represents a number that is 10 times, or one
tenth, the number represented by the adjacent characteristic. But ... logarithms
of numbers less than 1 are slightly different! See end of this chapter.
The Starting Point in Slide Rule Operation Multiplication
The basic scales, C and D, on a common 10 inch slide rule, are therefore 10
inch rulers whose markings are not in uniform inches, but in the number of
inches of the mantissa for each number between zero and 10. The logarithm of
2 is 0.301... and you will find the number 2 on the C and D scales 3.01 inches
from the left end. The logarithm of 3 is 0.477, and you will find the number 3
engraved 4.77 inches from the left end. Adding the two distances gives one
7.78 inches, and sure enough, the number 6 is 7.78 inches from the left end.
You dont actually have to add the distances to calculate the numbers. The
slide rule has already done this for you.
To multiply 2 times 375, a slide rule adds the logarithms of the two numbers
and reaches the logarithm of the answer. But... although the scales are spaced
logarithmically, they are labeled with the actual numbers, not the logarithms.
So, you read the answers directly.
2 (logarithm is 0.301) times 375 (logarithm is 2.574) = 750 (logarithm is

2.875) The logarithms are added. The numbers are multiplied. Check it out!
See photo below.
Pickett 160, 12.5 cm

scales, plastic,
simplex, USA
Logarithms of numbers less than 1
But ... what about numbers less than 1?

They are represented by a logarithm with a negative characteristic.

To determine the logarithm of 0.375, we subtract 1 from the logarithm of
3.75.
Log 0.375 = Log 3.75 - 1.000 = 0.574 - 1.000 = -0.426.
We shifted the decimal point one place to the left of a single digit whole
number (3.75), and in doing so we divided by a factor of 10, thus we subtract 1
from the logarithm of 3.75.
Another example:
Log 0.0375 = Log 3.75 - 2.000 = 0.574 - 2.000 = -1 .426
And ... Log 0.00375 = -2.426
This is the same process and reasoning we use for numbers greater than
one. For example:
Log 37.5 = Log 3.75 + 1. Log 37.5 = 0.574 + 1 = 1.574.
Click HERE for instructions on how to use your slide rule for logarithms.
Chapter Three - History of the Slide Rule 11
History of the Slide Rule
The pre-eminent figures in science both contributed to the creation of

the slide rule and made use of it in their work, inciuding Galileo, Napier,
Gunter, Oughtred, Newton, Gauss, Watt, Priestley, Fulton, Fuller, Einstein,
Fermi, and Von Braun. A quick look at the first five of these men covers the
creation and initial evolution of the slide rule.
Just Before the Slide Rule
Galileo Galilei popularizes the sector at the very end of the 16th Century.
The sector is a graduated ruler that uses trigonometric formulae and a
caliper to calculate squares, cubes, reciprocals and tangents of numbers.
Galileos design of the sector as a mathematical tool can be seen as the
moment when calculation aids cease to be based upon counting and instead
exploit the deeper relationships among numbers. His invention is still in use
as a navigation aid in the 20th Century ... 300 years later.
Sector, Ivory, with brass

hinge and gauge points
Chronological History of the Slide Rule
John Napier dramatically advances the understanding of number rela-

tionships in 1614 with his invention of logarithms. Since logarithms are the
foundation on which the slide rule is built, its history rightly begins with
him. His early concept of simplifying mathematical calculations through
logarithms makes possible the slide rule as we know it today.
The ability of logarithms to decompose any number into two parts a
base and an exponent allows the products and dividends of large numbers
to be determined by addition and subtraction. Also, using base e (rather
than the common base 10) opens the way for tremendous advances in
engineering and science, induding the differential calculus.
Napiers Bones, plate,

Diderots
Encyclopedia, France,
1762
Calculating instruments now begin to appear in rapid succession ...
Napier himself contributes Napiers Bones in 1617, calculating sticks

based on the geologia (lattice) multiplication method. In 1620 Edmund
Gunter of London makes a straight logarithmic scale and performs multipli-
cation and division on it with the use of a set of dividers, or calipers.
Gunters scale, wood, In about 1622 William Oughtred, an Anglican minister ... today recog-
England, first devised nized as the inventor of the slide rule ... places two such scales side by side
Ca. 1620
and slides them to read the distance relationships, thus multiplying and
dividing directly. He also develops a circular slide rule.
In 1675 Sir Isaac Newton solves cubic equations using three parallel
logarithmic scales and makes the first suggestion toward the use of the
cursor.
Early slide rules are carefully incised by hand on boxwood or pearwood,
of no uniform length, with each bearing the scale divisions of a unique
maker. Expensive handcrafted instruments find use among the scientific
elite, but this is hardly a sufficient market to sustain slide rule production.
Advances in rule design without practical business application are ignored
and then forgotten.
Oughtreds circular
slide rule, plate, The
Circles of
Proportion and the
Horizontal
Instrument,
W. Oughtred,
Oxford, England, 1660
In 1677, two years after Newton invents the cursor, Henry Coggeshall
perfects the timber and carpenters rule. Newtons cursor fails to catch on at
the time. The Coggeshall rule remains in common use 200 years later. His
design and its standardization move the slide rule from a tool of mathemati-
cal inquiry to specialized applications.
Beginning in 1683, Thomas Everard popularizes the gauging rule, used to
determine the content of ale, wine and spirits barrels and to calculate the
excise tax thereon. This design, first created by William Oughtred in 1633,
sees widespread use well into the 19th Century.
Throughout the 18th Century, slide rule production and use is mostly
English, with limited penetration into other capitalist economies, including
France and the Netherlands. Interesting to note is the lack of slide rules and
makers in Germany, Switzerland, and Italy ... countries which at this time
Coggeshall timber and
are producing cutting edge mathematics. carpenters rule,
The slide rule delivers the mathematical framework for advances in the boxwood, England, first
industrial arts and for ways of thinking about numbers and their applications described
in engineering. These discoveries are in turn applied to improvements in the in 1677
slide rules accuracy, precision, and mass production.
In 1722 John Warner, a London instrument dealer, uses square and cube
scales. By 1790 James Boulton and James Watt are modifying slide rules to
improve their accuracy and usefulness. By 1799 their Soho slide rule helps to
usher in the lndustrial Revolution. It facilitates the design and manufacture
of their seminal machine, the steam engine.
Soho Slide Rule, James In the l9th Century the engineer learns that precision to the third
Watt and James Boulton, decimal place suffices to create superb structures. The slide rule allows such
boxwood, England, Ca. calculation, while its portability encourages design verification and stan-
1800
dardization on the job.
Modern engineering is invented through the use of the slide rule, itself a
design that could only create this impact through modern engineering.
In 1815 Peter Roget, an English physician (and the author of Rogets
Thesaurus), invents a log log scale, which he uses to calculate roots and
powers to any number or fraction thereof. It is regarded at the time as a
mathematical curiosity.
Fifty years later, advances in electrical engineering, thermodynamics,
dynamics and statics, and industrial chemistry make these scales so necessary
they are rediscovered. In the next fifty years they increase from three, to six,
to eight scales on the slide rule, as engineering extends its grip on modern
computation.
During the first half of the 19th Century slide rule use broadens with the
extension of education, democracy and free trade. Britain sees tremendous
expansion of slide rule types and manufacturers. Frances revolution of 1795
ushers in a period of extreme mathematical rationality. Results include
invention of the metric system, advanced knowledge of the movements of
the heavens and earth, and the first requirement that all civil servants
demonstrate slide rule proficiency as a part of qualifying exams.
In 1851 a French artillery officer named Amede Mannheim standardizes
a set of four scales for the most common calculation problems. The four
scales include two double length, named A & B, for squares and square roots
... and two single length, C & D, for multiplication and division. This scale
set becomes the basis of slide rule design for the next 100 years and bears his
name today. His design and use of a cursor hastens the eventual widespread
acceptance of this feature.
Tavernier & Gravet of Paris quickly develops an international reputa-
tion for accuracy in production of the Mannheim design. An inverted C
scale (CI) and a K scale (for cubes and cube roots) were added later to the
face of the rule by others, along with two trigonometry scales (S & T) and a
logarithm scale (L) on the back of the slide. These additions comprise what
is often called the Enhanced Mannheim scale set.
Tavernier & Gravet slide

Early in the 19th century the first slide rules come into use in the United
rule, Mannheim design,
States. Ex-president Thomas Jefferson has one, and Joseph Priestley recog- boxwood, France, ca.
nizes their advantages in his chemistry work, which includes the discovery of 1900
oxygen.
Belcher Brothers, New York (1821-1876), E.A. Stearns & Co., Vermont
(1838-1863) and Stanley Rule & Level Co., Connecticut (1857-1920), add
versions of English slide rule designs to their product lines. Palmers Calcula-
tor, a circular slide rule, is produced in the United States about 1845.
Richardson follows soon after with a steel linear slide rule in 1851.
By 1870, Germany produces two giants of the slide rule world, Dennert
and Pape (makers of Aristo), and Faber (later Faber-Castell). The Dennert
and Pape contributions of engine divided (engraved) scales and the stable
deposit of celluloid on wood are revolutionary. Slide rules can now be
manufactured with any scale sets desired, to a high degree of precision, with
highly visible, reproducible colored faces, allowing accurate calculations to
three or four decimal places. The tool exactly corresponds to the revolution
in engineering occurring at the same time.
The slide rules importance to the Industrial Revolution, and the impact of Dennert & Pape slide
rule, celluloid on wood
the Industrial Revolution upon the slide rule, are demonstrated by the
core,
proliferation of designs. From 1625 to 1800, the first 175 years after its inven- Germany, ca. 1890
tion, a total of 40 slide rule types, including circular and spiral designs, are
recorded. The next 100 years, from 1800 to 1899, sees the creation of 250
slide rule types and manufacturers. Over 90 designs are recorded in the first
10 years of the 20th Century.
Cylindrical calculators with extra long logarithmic scales are invented by
George Fuller of Ireland in 1878 and Edwin Thacher of New York in 1881.
The plates for printing the paper scales of both the Fuller and Thacher
calculators are produced by Stanley of London, who probably makes the first
Thachers. Production is soon taken over by a Hoboken, New Jersey instruments
company, Keuffel and Esser, that had previously imported slide rules for sale.
Thachers calculator, Thachers. Production is soon taken over by a Hoboken, New Jersey instru-
Keuffel & Esser Co., ments company, Keuffel and Esser, which had previously imported slide rules
Model 1740 (later
4012), ribbed cylindri- for sale.
cal, USA, ca. 1890
A revolutionary linear slide rule construction with scales on both front

and back and with a cursor referring to all scales simultaneously is patented
in 1891 by William Cox ... an invention he calls the duplex slide rule.
Coxs duplex slide rule,

made by Dennert & Pape The Slide Rules Last Century... the 20th
for K&E, celluloid on
mahogany core, ca. 1895.
Front and back views Folded scales CF, DF and CIF are put on slide rules about 1900 to reduce
the amount of movement and resetting of the slide. Log log scales in three
sections appear about 1901, enabling very accurate calculation of powers and
roots to any number or fraction.
Numerous improvements by several manufacturers follow, contributing to
the widespread popularity of the slide rule and its many uses in the math-
ematics of science and engineering, as well as for calculations of all kinds in
business and industry.
The evidence of the slide rules portable, immediate power stands

everywhere around us as the 20th Centurys greatest engineering examples,
from the Empire State Building to the Apollo lunar landings.
Our last century could not have been built without it, yet its direct
evidence is almost totally missing to the uninformed eye.
In the United States, this indispensability is seized upon most success-

fully by Keuffel and Esser. This firm moves from importing rules in the 1870s,
to building a complex calculating instrument (the Thacher Calculator) in
the 1880s, to manufacturing their own slide rules in the 1890s. Their contri-
butions are legion, including the CI scale, their fanatical devotion to preci-
sion, their use of colored scales and slanting italics to aid in reading direc-
tion.
Their greatest triumph paradoxically occurs in their tenacious defense of
their duplex patent. For 40 years no one but K&E could build a two-sided
slide rule in the USA. This grip is broken finally by Dietzgen, founded by an
ex-employee of K&E.
Apollo lander Eagle,

earth and moon
Keuffel & Esser 4081-3 A different path to market dominance is adopted in Japan by Jiro
Log Log Duplex Decitrig,
Hemmi. Hemmi systematically experiments with both natural base materials
25 cm scales, celluloid
on mahogany core, and celluloid, settling upon bamboo as the core, and combining this with
duplex, USA. Front and very modern manufacturing (including celluloid surface lamination), result-
back views. ing in both high quality and quantity. Hemmis intense devotion to practical
use creates economical, robust and accurate cursors, high standards in
legibility of scale numbers, and careful evolution in size, scale arrangement,
and other criteria developed from extensive overseas visits and frequent
customer questioning.
At the same time, Hemmi persistently pursues Pacific Rim market
domination through special labeling for local distributors and for Post in the
USA, and extensive marketing and promotional efforts aimed at schools and
Hemmi 259D, 25 cm technical colleges. Their efforts at slide rule magazines, adding slide rule
scales, celluloid on competence to high school and civil service exams, and other channels
bamboo core,
worked ... in the 1960s Hemmi is producing one million slide rules annually.
duplex, Japan. Back view.
Under Hemmi, the slide rule joins the automobile in a consumer equation
that touts the product as an icon of mass manufacturing quality.
Hemmi 259D, 25 cm
Epilogue scales, celluloid on
bamboo core,
The philosophy of engineering moves on. And the triumphs of 20th duplex, Japan.
Century design become limitations for the slide rule. Einstein favors a Front view.
Nestler slide rule in his work. The approaches to the Golden Gate Bridge
and the thrust profile of the Redstone Rocket are designed with simple Rietz
based slide rules ... E.H. Lowrys Dietzgen Phillips 1725 and Wernher Von
Brauns Nestler 23 respectively. Pickett slide rules provide emergency compu-
tational power aboard Apollo missions with their N600-ES model. The
Pickett N3 and N4 take their places along with the K&E Decilon and the
Post Versalog in designing the F16 fighter airplane.
Golden Gate Bridge,

San Francisco
But structural design and first principles in physics both seek answers to
how structures will react to changing loads and forces. Wind speeds, tidal
friction and interstellar collision all require dynamic computational models,
rather than the answer to a static structural problem.
Large, slow, obese computing engines designed for these questions give
birth to the sleek four-function calculator. K&Es travails with its Analon
slide rule model are an excellent example of the change in engineering
demands that surpassed the slide rule.
The four function electronic calculator is a symptom as much as a cause
of this change.
F-16 Fighter
airplane, USA
Dietzgen 1732 Slide rule researchers have estimated that possibly 40 million slide rules
Maniphase Multiplex, 25 were produced in the world in the 20th Century alone. Among these are
cm scales, celluloid on
mahogony core, duplex, many types of specialty slide rules developed and made for specific ap-
USA plications such as chemistry, surveying, electricity and electronics, artillery
ranging, hydraulics, steam and internal combustion engines, concrete and
steel structures, radio and other special fields.
The slide rule has a long and distinguished ancestry, from William
Oughtred in 1622 to the Apollo missions to the moon ... a span of three and a
half centuries ... it was used to perform design calculations for virtually all
major structures built on this earth during that long period of our history ...
an amazing legacy for something so mechanically simple.
Additional information about slide rules in general, their use, makers and
instruction manuals, mathematics, and related subjects can be found in the
extensive list of references (75 listings) in the Books, Manuals and Articles
chapter, Click Here.
Empire State Building,

New York
Buzz Aldrin walks on

tne moon
Chapter Four - Common Types of Slide Rules 23
Common Types of Slide Rules
Basic Types
Closed Body Linear
Sometimes called Simplex or Mannheim type.
Has a solid back supporting the stators (the top and bottom parts of the
body), a center slide, scales on one side of the body only (the slide frequently
has scales on both sides), and a cursor (or indicator) on one side only.
Dietzgen 1771, 12.5 cm

scales, plastic,
simplex, USA
Open Body (Duplex) Linear

End braces (or brackets) of plastic or metal supporting stators (top and
lower parts of the body), center slide, scales on both sides and two sided cursor.
Circular Keuffel & Esser 68 1000

Has scales on one or both sides and one or two or more cursors. Deci-Lon, 25 cm scales,
plastic,
duplex, USA
Gilson Binary, 8"

diameter, aluminum,
USA
The Materials Used to Make Slide Rules

Wood
The earliest slide rules were made of wood, with scales incised by hand into
the wood faces. Later inexpensive rules had scales stamped into the wood, then
filled with black color.
Keuffel & Esser 4058C, Celluloid on Wood or Bamboo Core

25 cm scales, wood, Celluloid faces laminated onto the core provided the ability to engrave
simplex USA
markings for greater precision. These markings were then filled with color of
various formulations of inks or paints. After drying, the surface was then sanded
or polished to the final finish, removing excess ink from the face and leaving it
only in the engravings.
Major manufacturers using these techniques were Keuffel & Esser, Post
(made by Hemmi for Post), Dietzgen, Hemmi, Faber-Castell, Nestler, Dennert
& Pape (Aristo) and Relay-Ricoh.
Dietzgen N1725 Plastic

Microglide, 25 cm Many later slide rules were made of plastic, ranging from very fine rules
with engraved (engine divided) scales to cheaper models with stamped scales or
mahogany core, du-
plex, USA
scales simply printed on the plastic. Many makers produced at least some plastic
rule models in their later years.
Fine plastic rules were made by Keuffel & Esser, Post (made by Hemmi for
Post), Dietzgen, Hemmi, Faber-Castell, Aristo, Nestler, Thornton, Diwa and
others.
Inexpensive plastic rules were made by Sterling (also Acu-Math), Pickett
and others.
Aluminum
Faber-Castell 52/82, 25
Aluminum slide rules were made by two common methods ... cm scales, plastic,
scales were lithographed, along with background color of yellow or duplex, Germany
white, onto the surface (Pickett)
scales engraved (engine divided) on brushed aluminum surface (Reiss)
Pickett N4ES, 25 cm
scales, aluminum,
duplex, USA
Reiss 3223 Progress

Duplex, 25 cm scales,
aluminum, duplex,
Germany
Steel
Scales were painted or printed, with white background, onto the surface.
Richardson, 25 cm
scales, steel, simplex,
Scale Arrangements on Common Slide Rules
USA
Mannheim Originally 4 basic scales A[B,C]D closed body simplex
type
Faber-Castell 57/86 Enhanced Mannheim 6 to 9 scales A[B,CI,C],D,K // [S,L,T] closed

Columbus, 25 cm scales, body simplex type
plastic, simplex,
Germany
Dietzgen 1765 Basik, 25 Rietz 10 basic scales K,A[B,CI,C]D,L // [S,ST,T] closed body
cm scales, plastic, USA simplex type popular in Europe
Faber-Castell 1/87, 25cm

Darmstadt 13 basic scales L,K,A[B,CI,C],D,P,S,T // [LL1,LL2,LL3] scales,
There are variants in Darmstadt scale arrangement with different makers and celluloid on wood
models, closed body, simplex type, popular in Europe. Has the interesting P core, Germany
(Pythagorean) scale.
Log Log Duplex Many scale arrangements exist. A basic duplex slide rule
design might have from 20 to 30 scales or more, including log log scales, C and Nestler 0210, 25 cm
D scales on both sides, etc.
wood core, Germany
The Post Versalog II 1460 has these 24 scales: LL/0,K,A,DF Post 1460 Versalog II,
[CF,CIF,CI,C]D,R1,R2,LL0 // L,LL/1,LL/2,LL/3[T,SRT,S,C]D,LL3,LL2, LL1 25 cm scales, celluloid
The popular K&E Log Log Duplex Decitrig 4081-3 has these 21 scales: on bamboo core, USA.
Front and back views.
LL02,LL03,DF[CF,CIF,CI,C]D,LL3,LL2 // LL01,L,K,A[B,T,SRT,S]D,DI,LL1
Scale length is 25 cm. Image
Note: Above is a commonly used method for listing the scales on a slide rule. Beginning
with the front side of a duplex slide rule (usually the side with the CF and DF scales), the
scales are listed from top to bottom, with the scales on the slide being enclosed with brackets
[ xxx ]. The double slash marks // mean that the scales following are on the other side of
the rule. In the case of the Versalog above, on the front side on the top stator are 4 scales ...
LL/0,K,A,DF. On the slide are [CF,CIF,CI,C]. On the bottom stator are D,R1,R2,LL0.
Slide Charts
Not all slide rules are logarithmic calculating devices of wood, plastic or metal. Some of
the most useful and commonly used rules are inexpensive cardboard or thin plastic purpose
built devices. They are not slide rules in the true sense ... most dont have logarithmic scales.
One of the original and largest makers of these specialized rules was Perrygraf. The current
largest maker is American Slide Chart Corp., who now owns Perrygraf.
Some slide charts were fairly primitive, but many are very sophisticated and are extremely
useful for specific problem solving. The electronics industry has been a large user of these
devices as product promotions and component specifier guides.
Several companies make slide charts today. They have many stock designs and will make
special designs to order. They even have websites.
American Slide Chart Co./Perrygraf

25 W. 550 Geneva Road, Carol Stream. IL 60187
800-323-4433 [email protected]
Datalizer Slide Charts, Inc.

501 Westgate Dr., Addison IL 60101-5424
IWA Incorporated
819 Newberry Drive, Batavia, IL 60510
Blundell-Harling
United Kingdom
+44 (0) 1305 206000
[email protected]
Visit http://www.sphere.bc.ca/test/perrygraf.html
for additional information on slide charts.
This is the Slide Rule Universe website, which has
several circular slide charts available for purchase.
Chapter Five - Less Common Types of Slide Rules 29
Less Common Types of Slide Rules
In addition to the most common slide rules with scale lengths of 5 and 10,
slide rules were made with other scale lengths. 4, 6, 8, 16, 20 and various
classroom demonstration models from 4 feet to 8 feet long.
Many specialty linear slide rules also were made ... for chemistry, surveying,
finance, electronics, radio, electricity, navigation, etc. Click Here to view
Chapter 12, Slide Rules for Special Applications. Special over-sized clear slide
rules were also made for use with overhead projectors.
Hemmi 32, 10 cm (4)

bamboo core, Japan
Graphoplex 615, 15 cm
(6) scales, plastic,
France
Post 1445, 20cm (8)

bamboo core, USA
Hemmi No. 200, 40 cm

(16) scales, celluloid
on bamboo core, Japan
Aristo 1067U, 50 cm Other Less Common Types and the Quest for Greater Precision
(20) scales, plastic,
Germany
Several types of slide rules were developed to obtain greater precision. Most
of them are somewhat scarce today. Among these are:
Pickett 1010ES, 25 cm,

aluminum, USA, along
with Pickett Classroom
Demonstration Slide
Rule, Model 1010-ES,
100 cm scales, painted
wood, USA. [Pet cat used
as size comparison was
made Reference Manual
mascot in lieu of model-
ing fees.]
20 scale length linear slide rules, made in both closed body and duplex
types.
5 or 10 or 20 slide rules with scales split into double or triple lengths.
Both 5 and 10 inch rules were sometimes fit with a magnifying cursor to
enable precision approaching a 10 or 20 inch rule.
Circular slide rules with spiral scales... the Gilson Atlas, an 8" diameter
rule with scales 25 feet and 50 feet long, and others.
Cylindrical slide rules with spiral scales... Otis King (scales 66 inches Fuller calculator,
cylindrical, wood with
long), Fuller (scales 42 feet long), Thacher (scales 30 feet long), Loga, Nestler
varnished paper scales,
and others. England, 1926
Some Scarce Linear Slide Rules which are Popular with Collectors
Faber-Castell 2/83N Novo-Duplex Image Aristo 0972 Hyperlog, 25

Hemmi 257 and 257L Chemistry rule Image cm scales,
K&E 68-1130 Deci-Lon 5 inch Image plastic, Germany
K&E 4160 Chamistry rule Image
K&E 4160 Chemistry rule (see page 34)

Faber-Castell 2/84
Mathema, 25 cm scales,
plastic,
Germany. Front and back
views.
K&E 68 1400 Analon, 25

cm scales, plastic, USA
Charpentier
Calculimetre,60 mm(23/8)
diameter, metal, France,
1882+
Some Rare Circular Slide Rules which are Popular with Collectors
Charpentier Calculimetre (metal, France)

Dempster Rotarule (plastic, USA)
Boucher Calculigraphe (pocket watch type: France, Germany, England
and USA)
Fowler (pocket watch type, England)
Halden Calculex (pocket watch type, England)
Lords Calculator (pocket watch type, England)
Sperry (pocket watch type, USA)
Small Calculator (USA)
Fowlers Twelve-Ten
Calculator, 3 3/8 diam-
eter, metal and glass,
England, 1898+
K&E 4160 Chemistry

rule, 25 cm scales,
celluloid on
mahogany, USA
Chapter Six - Learning Your Way Around a Slide Rule 35
Learning your way around

A Slide Rule
Basic Terminology
The Anatomy of a Slide Rule
End brace or bracket or plate

Body (top stator or stock)
Cursor or indicator
Left index
Left index Right index
Body (bottom stator or stock)

Slide
Shown is a Post 1461 Pocket Versalog, 12.5 cm scale length, laminated

bamboo core with celluloid overlay, engine divided (engraved) markings, metal
framed glass cursor, metal end braces, adjustable. This size is known as a 5
inch slide rule. Made for Frederick Post Company of Chicago by Hemmi of
Tokyo, Japan, from 1957 to 1972. This specimen was made in February, 1962. It
is the pocket version of the Post Versalog 1460 10 inch rule. It is an open body
duplex type slide rule with scales on both sides of the body and slide, and a
single hairline on each side of the cursor.
What the Scale Letters Mean On a Basic Slide Rule

K is for Cubes and Cube Roots
A and B are for Squares and Square Roots
CI is inverted C Scale, for Reciprocals, Chain Multiplication and Division
L is for logarithms. It reads the mantissa of the common logarithm.
C and D are the basic Multiplication and Division scales.
Three Trigonometry scales S, ST, T are on the back of the slide.
Note: Some older slide rules do not have scale labels. Click HERE to view
Chapter 10, a list of 24 common slide rule scales and their functions.
The slide rule shown is an Aristo 89 Rietz, 12.5 cm scale length, plastic, 10
scales, simplex, Germany. It is a typical closed body type of slide rule with the
Rietz scale set, popular in Europe.
Naming the Scales
The naming of slide rule scales was possibly the biggest design flaw in an
otherwise wonderful work. It would have made far more sense to call the scales
x, 1/x, x2, x3, etc., and some rules are made that way, particularly the French
Graphoplex rules. For reasons lost to history, the scales ended up with
meaningless letter names, especially A, B, C and D. It is likely that they first
appeared to make it simpler to produce written instructions, as it can be very
difficult to refer to the scales with no names at all, especially for a new user.
Some scales have no real reason to have the names they do; certainly K for
cube is a stretch, but L for Log makes sense, as does S for Sine, and T for
Tangent, and the added I for inverted or F for folded.
Many European and Japanese rules became self-documenting with the
function added at the right end of the scale (x, 1/x, etc.), and the scale name
letter appearing on the left end. This trend was not adopted in North America
due to an attitude best summed up by the Pickett company, who felt that any-
one smart enough to use a slide rule didnt need it. This user-hostile attitude
was to carry over into the calculator and computer software disciplines to
follow, a perpetual justification for poor user interface design. In Europe, the
focus was to create the best possible tool, and their sophisticated but easy to use
designs certainly reflect that attitude.
How to Read the Scales

Read the digits, then determine where your decimal point goes.
All the basic scales start and end with the digit 1.
Chapter Six - Learning Your Way Around a Slide Rule 37
The digit is 1. The number can be 1 or 1,000 or 0.01, etc.

The digits are 11. 3
224 38 87
175 765
Cursor reads 53 on C and D scales;

1887 on CI scale;
281 on A and B scales;
356 on BI;
149 on K scale;
0.848 on P;
32o on S;
27.9o on T
Note that the A and B scales are doubled. They have 2 cycles from 1 to 1.
They are used for squares and square roots.
The K scale is tripled. It has 3 cycles from 1 to 1. It is used for cubes and
cube roots.
The slide rule shown is an Aristo 867 Darmstadt, 12.5 cm scale length,
plastic, Germany. It is a closed body type of slide rule. Three log log scales are
on the back of the slide.
38
38 ALL ABOUT SLIDE RULES
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Chapter Seven - Performing Basic Calculations with Your Slide Rule 39
How to Use a Slide Rule

for Basic Calculations
Multiplication
The C and D Scales (and the Cl Scale)
(and CF & DF and A & B scales)
Start with a simple example: 2 X 3 = ?
Pickett N-6OOT, 12.5 cm

scales, aluminum,
duplex, USA
Move the slide until the left index of scale C aligns with 2 on scale D.
Move the cursor until the hairline is on 3 of scale C.
Read 6 at the hairline on scale D.
In slide rule language, we would write

Left index of C to 2 on D
Cursor to 3 on C Answer: 6 on D at cursor
Why does this work? What we really did was to take the distance repre-
sented by the logarithm of 2 (log 2), and added the distance represented by the
logarithm of 3 (log 3). Log 2+ log 3 = log (2 X 3) = log 6, and log 6 is repre-
sented by 6 on the D scale.
Even though the numbered locations on the scales are the locations of the
logarithms of our numbers, they are labeled with the actual numbers them-
selves, enabling us to read our answers directly.
Now try: 6 X 7
lf we slide the left index of C to 6 on D, we see that 7 on scale C is off the
end or off scale. So we switch indexes...
Right index of C to 6 on D
Answer: 42 on D at
Cursor to 7 on C
cursor
The slide rule does not tell us the location of the decimal point, but by
estimate we know it must be 42, not 4.2, or 420, etc. We recommend this type
of rough estimate procedure for determining the location of the decimal point.
See Tricks and Time Savers chapter for other methods of locating the decimal
point.
Next try: 3.6 X 2.9

Now we try to set the cursor to 29 on C, but it is about a centimeter off the
scale.
So, switch indexes.
Answer: 10.44 on D at Cursor to 29 on C
cursor
How can we be confident about the last digit ... 4? Look at where the cursor
points on D. It is somewhere between 104 and 105. In the original problem, the
last digits of the numbers we are multiplying are 6 and 9.
6 times 9 = 54 ... and the last digit of 54 is 4.
So, 3.6 times 2.9 must end with a 4.
Therefore, the cursor is at 10.44 on D
Estimate for decimal point: 4 times 3 = 12. So the answer is 10.44
We cannot always use this technique for finding the last digit in our answer.
For instance, if we multiply two numbers that have 3 digits each, then the
answer would have 5 or 6 significant digits, which is beyond the ability of slide
rule reading.
Try: 3.6 X 2.9 using the CI scale

Answer: 10.44 on D at at Cursor to 3.6 on D
left index of C
Slide to 2.9 at cursor on CI
Answer: 10.44. on DF at Try: 3.6 X 2.9 using the C and CF and DF scales
cursor Right index of C to 3.6 on D Cursor to 2.9
on CF
Answer: 10.44. on DF at
cursor
Try: 3.6 X 2.9 using only CF and DF
Slide CF index under 3.6 on DF
Answer: 10.44 on A at Cursor to 2.9 on CF
cursor
Try: 3.6 X 2.9 using only the A and B scales
Left index of B to 3.6 on A Cursor to
2.9 on B
Try: 402 X 0.071

Cursor to 7l on C
Read 285 on D at cursor Answer: 28.5 on D at
cursor
Decimal point estimate #1: 400 X 0.1 = 40.
Decimal point estimate #2: 402 is about 4 X 102. 0.071 is about 7 X 10-2.
Taking the digits first, then the powers of ten second, we see: 4 X 7 = 28. 102 X
10-2 = 100 =1. 28 X 1 = 28. Answer is about 28.
Division
The C and D Scales (and the Cl scale, CF & DF, and A & B)
Hemmi 34rk. 12.5 cm

bamboo core, simplex,
Japan
Solve: 6 divided by 4 (6/4) using the basic C and D scales:

Cursor to 6 on D
Slide to 4 on C at cursor Answer: 1.5 on D at left
index of C
You may note that when the problem is set up on your rule this way, the 4
appears on your rule above the 6 ... upside down ... the inverse of how we would
write the problem as a fraction ... 6/4. Strange! But this is a traditional way to
divide with your slide rule.
There are other ways. If your rule has CF and DF scales, you can use them
to divide ... and the fraction will appear on the 2 scales in the normal manner ...
the 6 will be over the 4. The answer 1.5 can be found either on DF or D. See
example below:
Keuffel & Esser 4181-1.

12.5 cm scales, plastic,
duplex, USA
You can also use the A and B scales to divide ... and the numbers will
appear the same on your rule as they do in the fraction ... 6/4. Any paired set of
scales can be used to divide. Some rules have paired K (cube) scales.
Another method is to set up the fraction in the normal fashion ... 6/4 ... on the
C and D scales.
Cursor to 4 on D
Answer: 1.5 on C at right Slide to 6 on C at cursor
index of D
You can also divide using the CI and D scales:
Answer: 1.5 on D at Cursor to 4 on CI
cursor
In this case, you are multiplying 6 by the reciprocal or inverse of 4, which is
1
/4. 6 X 1/4 = 1.5
Now try: 6 divided by 4 ... using a different method

Move slide until 4 on C is over the left index of D
cursor
We divided 1 by 4, then multiplied the quotient by 6
Try: 99 divided by 11 (99/11)

Here are 5 methods for solving this problem:
1. Similar procedure as the first example above, but note that using the C &
D scales requires moving the slide a very long distance.
2. You might prefer to use your CF and DF scales, which have 99 and 11
very near the center of the rule. This minimizes slide movement. Your answer
can be read on D at the right index of C ... or on DF at the index of CF.
3. Using the CI scale method would also minimize slide movement for this
problem.
4. Dividing 1 by 11, then multiplying by 99 is yet another method that
works well for this problem.
5. Using the A and B scales can also solve this problem. Note that both 99
and 11 appear on the second section, or decade, of these scales.
Chain Calculations And Reciprocals

The Cl (and Dl) Scales
Post 1441, 10 cm scale

length, celluloid on
bamboo core, simplex,
USA (Made for Post by
Hemmi of Japan)
Solve: 2 X 3 X 4
Cursor to 3 on C
Product is 6 on D
Right index to 6 on D at cursor
Cursor to 4 on C Answer: 24 on
D at cursor
But there is a better way (see photo above)
Cursor to 3 on C
Product is 6 on D
Slide to 4 on Cl at cursor (see prior page photo for this step) Answer: 24 on D at left
index of C
This method is a shortcut, which saves a step from the first method.
You can continue alternating the use of C, D and CI (and DI if your rule
has it) to easily perform chain calculations of any length, whether all multiplica-
tion, all division or both in the same problem.
Try: 12 X 6
3X4
There are different sequences which may be used to solve this problem ...
do all the multiplying first, then the division ... or vice-versa ... or alternate
them.
Lets try all the multiplication first, followed by the division:

Multiply by 6
Cursor to 6 on C (product is 72 on D)
Divide by 3
Slide to 3 on C under cursor (quotient is 24 on D at left index)
Cursor to 4 on CI Answer: 6 on D at cursor
Now try alternating:

Cursor to 12 on D
Divide by 3
Slide to 3 on C at cursor (quotient is 4 on D at right index)
Multiply by 6
Cursor to 6 on C (product is 24 on D)
Divide by 4
Slide to 4 on C at cursor Answer: 6 on D at right
index of C
Any combination of multiplying and dividing the numbers will solve the
problem. Any combination of using the C, D and CI scales will also do the
trick! If it appears that you are stuck and need to reset the slide, using the CI
scale will often save you. You can also use the CF and DF scales in chain
calculations.
Reciprocals
Find the reciprocal of 4.

The hard way:
Cursor to left index of D
Answer: .025 on D at Slide to 4 on C at cursor
right index of C
Answer: 0.25 on CI at The easy way:

cursor Cursor to 4 on C
The CI scale is the inverse, or reciprocal, of the C scale.

The DI scale is the inverse of the D scale.
CIF is the inverse of CF.
Note that C and CI, D and DI, and CF and CIF run in opposite directions,
so that every number on each is the inverse of the corresponding number on
the other.
Another easy method for finding reciprocals:

Find: reciprocal of 4
Answer: 0.25 on C at Slide right index of C to 4 on D
left index of D
Answer: 0.25 on C at Or place left index of C at 4 on D

right index of D
Squares and Square Roots

The A and B Scales
Sterling 587, 12.5 cm

scale length, plastic,
simplex, USA
The A and B scales are used for squares and square roots.
Numbers on the A and B scales are squares of numbers on the C and D

scales.
Numbers on the C and D scales are square roots of numbers on the A and
B scales.
Note that the A and B scales are in 2 sections ... 2 decades... or 2 halves
... 2 scales beginning and ending with the digit one (or on some rules the
second section begins with 10 and ends with 100). The number you seek will be
on one of these sections only ... and not on the other.
If your number has an odd number of digits before the decimal point, it will
be on the first section of the A or B scale. (If it is less than 1 and has an odd
number of zeros after the decimal point, also use the first section of the A or B
scale).
If your number has an even number of digits before the decimal point, it
will be on the second section of the A or B scale. (If it is less than 1 and has no
zeros or an even number of zeros after the decimal point, also use the second
section of the A or B scale).
Find: 7 squared (see photo above)

Cursor to 7 on D Answer: 49 on A
at cursor
Find: 18 squared
Cursor to 18 on D Answer 324 on A
(The last digit, 4, is hard to read precisely, but we know that our answer at cursor
ends with a 4 because the last digits in our problem [8 and 8] end with a 4
when multiplied)
Find : Square root of 25

Cursor to 25 on second half of A (since 25 has an even number of digits
before the decimal point) Answer: 5 on D
at cursor
Find: Square root of 625
Cursor to 625 on first half of A (since 625 has odd number of digits before Answer: 25 on D
the decimal point) at cursor
Find: Square root of 0.625

Which section of the A scale should we use? The second section ...
because 0.625 has no zeros after the decimal point.
Cursor to 0.625 on A Answer: 0.791 on D
at cursor
Answer: 2.5 on D
Cursor to 6.25 on first section of A at cursor
Try: Square root of 0.0625 Answer: 0.25 on D

Cursor to 0.0625 on first section of A at cursor

Answer: 0.0791 on D at Cursor to 0.00625 on second section of A
cursor
If you prefer not to deal with the zeros after the decimal point, and would
prefer to work with whole numbers, simply shift the decimal point to the right 2
places at a time until you have a whole number.
Then use the rules for whole numbers to locate the proper section of the A
or B scale to use. In this last example, shifting the decimal point two places to
the right twice (a total of 4 places), the whole number would be 62.5, an even
number of digits before the decimal point, which tells us to use the second
section of the A or B scale.
The square root of 62.5 is then 7.91. Shift the decimal point back to the left
2 places (since we are dealing with the square root, this compensates for our
shifting the decimal point 4 places to the right before we started) to obtain the
answer 0.0791.
Cubes and Cube Roots

The K Scale
Dietzgen 1771, 12.5 cm

scale length, plastic,
simplex, USA
Numbers on the K scale are cubes of numbers on the D scale.

Numbers on the D scale are cube roots of numbers on the K scale.
The K scale consists of 3 sections, or decades.

The first section is numbers from 1 to 10 ... numbers with one digit before
the decimal point ... or 1000 or 1 million, etc. times those numbers (numbers
with 4 digits or 7 digits, etc. before the decimal point) ... or one thousandth or
one millionth, etc. of those numbers (2 zeros or 5 zeros, etc. after the decimal
point).
The second section is numbers from 10 to 100 ... numbers with 2 digits
before the decimal point ... or 1000 or 1 million, etc. times those numbers
(numbers with 5 digits or 8 digits, etc. before the decimal point) ... or 1 thou-
sandth or 1 millionth, etc. of those numbers (1 zero or 4 zeros, etc. after the
decimal point).
The third section is numbers from 100 to 1000 ... numbers with 3 digits
before the decimal point ... or 1000 or 1 million, etc. times those numbers
(numbers with 6 digits or 9 digits, etc. before the decimal point) ... or 1 thou-
sandth or 1 millionth, etc. of those numbers (no zeros or 3 zeros or 6 zeros after
the decimal point).
The number you seek will be on only one of these 3 sections.
Find: 4 cubed (see photo above)

Cursor to 4 on D Answer: 64 on second
section of K at cursor
Find: 8 cubed
Cursor to 8 on D Answer: 512 on third
To precisely determine the last digit in our answer, we use our old trick of section K at cursor
multiplying the last digits in our head 8 X 8 = 64 .. and the 4 in 64 X 8 is 32.
So our answer ends with 2.
Find: Cube root of 216

Cursor to 216 on third section of K Answer: 6 at cursor
on D
Find: Cube root of 12,167

Cursor to 12167 on 2nd section of K. We use the 2nd section because 12,167
is 1000 times 12.167... and 12 is on the 2nd section of the K scale. Answer: 23 on D at
cursor
Find: 85 cubed
Cursor to 85 on D
Actual answer is 614,125. Our margin of error is about 0.02%... more than Answer: 614,000 on 3rd
good enough for any practical application. Even if we read 613,000, our margin section of K at cursor
of error is less than 1%. We determine our decimal point by estimation. 100
cubed would be 1,000,000 ... easy to estimate because the cube of 10 squared is
10 to the 6th power (multiply the exponents) ... or 1,000,000. Our answer must
be a bit less than that ... somewhere in the hundred thousands.
Find: Cube root of 0.0067

Which section of the K scale should we use? Hmmmm ... 2 zeros after the
decimal point. See instructions above. Use the first section.
Cursor to 67 on first section of K
Answer: 0.189 on D
Dont like dealing with numbers less than one? We neither. So ... shift the at cursor
decimal point to the right 3 places at a time until you reach a whole number.
In the last example, one such shift reaches the whole number 6.7
Using the first section of the K scale per the instructions above, we find the
cube root to be 1.89 on D. Now shift the decimal back to the left 1 place (since
we are dealing with the cube root, this compensates for our shifting the decimal
point 3 places to the right before we started). Our answer is again 0.189.
)
Dealing with Pi (
The CF and DF Scales, and the CIF Scale
Hemmi 149A. 12.5 cm

bamboo core, duplex,
Japan
The CF and DF scales are C and D scales which begin at instead of 1.

They are folded at and are referred to as folded scales. Thus, all numbers on
them are the corresponding numbers on C & D multiplied by . The CF and
DF scales may be used for multiplication and division in the same manner as
the C and D scales.
It is no accident that the slide rule is arranged this way. Two good reasons
are: Folding at puts the folded scale indices near the center. This facilitates
computations which involve numbers near an index without going off scale so
easily. And of course, multiplying by is frequently used for circle and sphere
problems.
Solve: 8 X
The hard way:
Right index of C to (3.14) on D
cursor How do we know that the last digit is 2? The cursor is between 251 and
252. The product of the last 2 numbers in our problem (the 4 in 3.14 and the 8)
is 32, which ends with 2. So our answer ends with 2.
The easy way: (See photo above)

Answer: 25.12 on DF at Cursor on 8 on D
cursor
Answer: 8.66 on D at Solve: 27.2 divided by

cursor Cursor to 27.2 on DF
Answer: 12.56 on A at Find: Area of circle of diameter = 4

index of B
Cursor to 4 on D
Slide to 1.128 on C at cursor (1.128 is the gauge point c marked on the C
scale on some slide rules, and is the square root of 4/)
This uses the formula : Area = d2/4. When dividing by the constant
square root of 4/ in the example above, we are multiplying by square root of
/4. When we use the B scale for our answer, we are squaring this value and
thus obtain the value /4 and the square of the diameter, completing the
formula.
Another method:
Slide left index of C to 1.128 on D
Cursor to 4 on D Answer: 12.56 on B at
cursor
Another method ... a direct use of the formula: Area = r 2
Slide center index of B under on A Answer: 12.56 on A at
Cursor to radius 2 on C cursor
Find: Radius of circle with area = 85

Cursor to 85 on A (on second section of A. See Page 35 for instructions for
the A & B scales)
Slide to on B at cursor Answer: 5.2 on D at left
index of C
Find: Diameter of circle with area = 85

Slide right index of B to 85 on A
Cursor to Gauge Point c on C Answer: 10.4 on D at
cursor
Find: Radius of circle with area = 680
Cursor to 680 on A (on first section of A) Answer: 14.71 on D at
Slide to on B at cursor left index of C
Answer: 25.12 on DF at
Find: Circumference of circle of diameter = 8
cursor
Cursor to 8 on D
This is the same as our first example above.
Additional Information about Using a Slide Rule

Mathematical Foundations of the Slide Rule by Professor Joe Pasquale explains
WHY a slide rule works. Click Here.
Slide Rule Seminar is a series of 27 slides explaining how to use all the scales on
a common slide rule. Click Here. Courtesy of International Slide Rule Museum.
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Chapter Eight - Performing Advanced Calculations with Your Slide Rule 51
How to Use a Slide Rule

for Advanced Calculations
Trigonometry
The S and T Scales and Their Variants
K&E 68 1130
Deci-Lon, 12.5 cm scales,
plastic,
duplex, USA
The S (sine) scale
This is a 2 section scale. The first section is usually for angles from about
5.8 degrees to 90 degrees. The second section, labeled ST, is for angles from
about 0.58 degrees to about 5.8 degrees. See below for details of the ST scale.
Sine values are read on the C or D scales. Many sine scales are also labeled
in reverse with red or other color numbers, which are, of course, the cosines.
Cosine is the complement of sine, meaning Sin 30o = Cos 60o, or Sin X = Cos
(90o X).
Find: Sin 30o

Cursor to 30o on S Answer 0.5 on C at
cursor ( see photo)
Find: Sin 60o
Cursor to 60o on S Answer 0.866 on C
at cursor
Find: 15 Sin 30o
Cursor to 30o on S Answer 7.5 on D at right
Slide to 15 on CI (on some rules, it may be necessary to flip them over) index of C
Find: Sin 30o divided by 2

Answer 0.25 on D at left
Cursor to 30o on S index of C
Slide to 2 on C at cursor
Find the acute angle in a triangle whose hypotenuse is 3.5 and opposite side is
1.5.
Since the sine is opposite side divided by hypotenuse, we can use the S
scale to solve this problem directly.
Left index of C to l.5 on D
52 All ABout Slide Rules
Answer 25.4o on S at Cursor to 3.5 on CI (sine is 0.428 on D at cursor)

A B
Rules
out Slide
cursor (may need to

center the slide on some
rules for this step) The ST (sine and tangent) scale
The scales on ST run from about 0.50 to 5.8 degrees.
The ST scale is for both sines and tangents, since they are very nearly the
same for small angles.
Thus, on the ST scale, sin 4o = 0.0698 = tan 4o. Values are read on the C
or D scales.
The T (tangent) scales
Single Tangent Scale
The tangent scale is commonly found as a single scale on many rules ... and
as a 2 section scale on many others.
In its simplest form, the graduations run from about 5.8 to 45 degrees.
(Tangents of angles smaller than 5.8 degrees are found on the ST scale.)
Tangent values are read on the C or D scales.
Find: Tan 30o

Answer 0.577 on C Cursor to 30o on T
at cursor
Find: 15 Tan 30o

Answer 8.66 on D at Cursor to 30o on T
right index of C Slide to 15 on CI (may need to flip your rule over for this step)
Find: Tan 60o

Since our single T scale ends at 45 degrees, we must use a different method
to find tangents of angles greater than 45 degrees. We will use the complement
(30o) of the given 60o angle and find the inverse of its tangent, the cotangent,
which is the same as tangent of 60o. This works because tan 60o = cot 30o= 1/
tan 30o.
Cursor to 30o on T (your rule may have a red 60o marking beside the mark
Answer 1.732 on CI at for 30o.)
cursor (may need to flip
your rule over for this Find acute angle in triangle whose opposite side is 4.8 and adjacent side is 12.4
step)
Right index to 4.8 on D
Answer 21.2 degrees on Cursor to 12.4 on CI (tangent is 0.387 on D at cursor)
T at cursor (may need to
flip your rule and Double Tangent Scales
center the slide)
Some larger slide rules have two T scales on the body of the rule, often
labeled T1 and T2. T1 runs from about 5.8 degrees to 45 degrees. T2 runs from
45 to about 84.3 degrees, at which point the value of the tangent becomes
greater than 10 and is off the scale of the slide rule.
These scales often have the complementary angles labeled in red every ten
degrees, running in reverse, which represent the cotangent values for these
angles.
To find tangents using these scales you simply set the cursor on the angle
and read the tangent directly on the D scale at the cursor. To multiply the
resulting tangent by a number, using only one movement, use the CI scale.
Logarithms
The L Scale
Remember that logarithms have 2 parts. the characteristic and the man-
tissa.
The characteristic tells us how large the number is. It defines a range into
which our number fits. The mantissa tells us where in that range the number is.
In the system of common logarithms (Base 10 logarithms)...
A characteristic of zero means 10 to the zero power (10o), which is 1.
A characteristic of 1 means 10 to the first power (101), which is 10.
A characteristic of 2 means 10 to the 2nd power (102), or 10 squared,
which is 100.
A characteristic of minus 1 means 10 to the minus 1 power (10-1), which
is 1 divided by 10 to the first power (1/101), which is 1 divided by 10, which is
0.1.
A characteristic of minus 2 means 10 to the minus 2 power (l0-2), which is
1 divided by 10 to the 2nd power (1/102), which is 1 divided by 100, which is
0.01.
The L scale gives us the mantissa of the logarithm to the base 10 (the
common logarithm), which tells us where in the specified range the number
actually is.
Diwa 601, 12.5 cm

scales, plastic, sim-
plex, Denmark
Find: The common logarithm of 21 (Log 21)

Cursor to 21 on D
Mantissa = .322 at cursor on L
Logarithm is 1.322 (Characteristic is 1, because 21 is between 10 (whose
characteristic = 1) and 100 (whose characteristic = 2).
Or we can say 10 to the 1.322 power = 21.
Find: Log 2100

Mantissa is still .322
Characteristic is 3, because 2100 is between 1,000 (Characteristic = 3) and
10,000 (Characteristic = 4).
Logarithm is 3.322
10 to the 3.322 power is 2100.
Find: Log 2.1

Mantissa is still .322
Characteristic is now 0
Logarithm is 0.322
Find: Log 0.21

To determine this logarithm, we must subtract 1 from Log 2.1. Subtracting
1 from the logarithm is the same as moving the decimal point one place to the
left ... or the same as dividing by 10.
Log 0.21 = 0.322 1.000 = 0.678
Find: Log 0.00021

We now have a decimal point 4 places to the left of 2.1.
Thus, we subtract 4 from Log 2.1
0.322 4.000 = 3.678
General procedure for determining logarithms of numbers less than 1:

Determine the mantissa of the number as if it were between 1 and 10, using
your L scale. Then subtract the characteristic for the number of places the
decimal point of your actual number is to the left of the whole single digit
number.
In the example above, the decimal point for 0.00021 is 4 places to the left
of the whole single digit number 2.1. So we subtract 4.
You may note that the L scale is linear, from 0 to 10, with even divisions
just like a ruler. In some 10 scale designs, it can actually be used as a ruler, but
its purpose is to convert the logarithmic distances of the C and D scales to their
linear equivalent, which we then read as the logarithms mantissa.
We multiply and divide by adding and subtracting logarithmic distances on
the A, B, C, D, CI, DI, CIF, CF and DF scales. In fact, we could also add and
subtract using two L scales if they were present on the rule. The problem with
this technique would be very limited dynamic range (perhaps 3 decades), but it
is possible. Some childrens math aids are in fact made exactly this way, with
two sliding linear scales (which to us are L scales) to add and subtract.
Exponentiation
(Fractional Powers, Roots and Other Calculations)
The LL Scales
Nestler 0130, 12.5 cm

scales, plastic,
duplex, Germany
The LL scales may be used to raise any number to any power ... or to
extract any root from any number. Other uses are calculation of hyperbolic
functions, exponential equations, compound interest and time credit payments.
These are obviously very versatile scales.
The LL scales are used with the D scale.
On large slide rules, there are 8 Log Log scales, covering numbers from
0.0005 to about 20,000. Only 3 scales appear on some smaller rules. Others
have 6. Some have only one.
The numbers on the Log Log scales of most slide rules are based on natural
logarithms. They represent powers of e, the base of natural logarithms, as
related to the D scale.
e = 2.718281828...
Why such a strange number? e is a fundamental constant, like pi (). It is
defined as the area under a hyperbolic curve with certain boundaries.
The natural logarithm (designated by the abbreviation ln), with e as its
base, is especially useful in calculus because its derivative is given by the simple
equation d/dx ln x = 1/x. Also, e has the following unusual properties in calculus
d/dx ex = ex = integral of ex dx. So, most of our slide rules have LL scales with
the Base e because of calculus! Numbers on the D scale are logarithms, or
powers, of numbers on the LL scales. Example: Cursor to x on LL, read natural
logarithm of x (ln x) on D at cursor.
A few slide rules use common logarithms (Base 10) on their Log Log scales.
On the well-known Pickett N4 (Image) you will read the common logarithm
on D. Cursor to x on LL, read common logarithm of x [abbreviated as log x]
on D.
Scales LL0, LL1, LL2 and LL3 are called the log log scales. They represent
positive powers of e. Scales LL/0, LL/1, LL/2 and LL/3 (or on some rules LL00,
LL01, LL02, LL03) represent negative powers of e and are thus called reciprocal
log log scales.
The relationship of successive adjacent log log scales is that of one-tenth
powers of e. For example, if we set the cursor to 2 on D, we read e2 = 7.4 on
LL3, e0.2 = 1.2215 on LL2, e0.02 = 1.0202 on LL1, e-2 = 0.135 on LL/3, e-0.2 =
0.8187 on LL/2, etc.
Since e-x is the reciprocal of ex, any number on an LL scale has its reciprocal
directly opposite on the corresponding reciprocal log log scale. In the example
above, the reciprocal of 7.4 on LL3 is therefore 0.135 on LL/3 and the recipro-
cal of 1.2215 on LL2 is 0.8187 on LL/2, etc.
Powers and Roots of Numbers
Try: 8.87 to the 3.48 power

Cursor to 8.87 on LL3
Left index of C to cursor
Answer: 1990 on LL3 at Cursor to 3.48 on C
cursor
Note that 8.87 to the 0.348 power can also be read ... as 2.135 on LL2.
8.87 to the 0.0348 power is 1.0788 on LL1. 8.87 to the 0.00348 power is
1.00762 on LL0.
Find: The 2.5th root of 148

Cursor to 148 on LL3
2.5 on C to cursor
Answer: 7.38 on LL3 at Cursor to left index of C
cursor
Try: The 7th root of 148
Cursor to 148 on LL3
7 on C to cursor
Answer: 2.042 on LL2 at Cursor to right index of C
cursor
Find : 64 to the 0.027 power
Cursor to 64 on LL3
Right index of C to cursor
Answer: 1.1188 on LL2 Cursor to 27 on C
at cursor
Chapter Nine - Tricks and Time Savers 57
Tricks and Time Savers
Area of circle with A and B scales
Example: Diameter of circle =3 (See photo below)

Cursor to diameter 3 on D
Slide to 1.128 on C at cursor (1.128 is the gauge point c marked on the C
scale on some slide rules to facilitate circle calculations, and is the square root
of 4/).
Answer 7.07 on A at any index of B
(This uses the formula : Area = d2/4. When dividing by the constant square
root of 4/ in the example above, we are multiplying by square root of /4.
When we use the B scale for our answer, we are squaring this value and thus
obtain the value /4 and the square of the diameter, completing the formula.)
Ricoh 551, 12.5 cm

Japan
Another method:
Slide left index of C to 1.128 on D
Cursor to diameter on D (diameter = 3 on rule above)
Area on B at cursor
Another method:
Slide left index of C to 1.772 on D (1.772 is the square root of )
Cursor to radius on C
Area on A at cursor
Another method ... directly using the formula r2

Move any index of B under on A.
Cursor to radius on C
Area on A at cursor
Once the first step is done in the last 3 methods above, you can find the
area of any circle with only a cusor movement.
Another method:
Cursor to on A
Slide to radius on CI
Area on A at index of B
Quick area of circle with folded square root scales RI & R2 or WI &
W2
With a Post Versalog or Versatrig ... or a Faber-Castell 2/83N or any rule

with folded square root scales ... to get the area of a circle (good old r2), just
place your cursor on the radius on R1 or R2 ... or W1 or W2 ... and the area is
at the cursor on DF. No slide movement needed.
Decimal Point location
We recommend the rough estimate method of determining the location of

the decimal point. For example, if you are multiplying 402 X 0.071, the digits
for the answer on your slide rule are 285. Rough estimate is 400 X 0.1 = 40.
Answer is thus 28.5, not 2.85 or 285.
The following methods can also be used to locate the decimal point:
Position of slide relative to body of rule
Position of answer
Scientific notation
Decimal tracking scales and cursors
See Ron Manleys excellent website for explanations of these methods:
http://www.sliderules.clara.net/a-to-z/decimal-point.htm
Squares and cubes
Find: Square root of 4.37 cubed

Answer: 9.14 at cursor Cursor to 4.37 on A
on K
Find: Cube root of 12.4 squared
Answer: 5.36 at cursor
on A Cursor to 12.4 on K
Inverse of squares and cubes
Find: Inverse (reciprocal) of 0.85 squared (same as the square of the inverse of
0.85)
Answer: 1.38 at cursor Cursor to 0.85 on CI
on B
Try: Inverse of the square root of 0.625 (same as square root of the inverse of
Answer: 1.265 at cursor 0.625)
on CI Cursor to 0.625 on B
Find: Inverse of the cube of 1.22 (same as cube of the inverse of 1.22)
Cursor to 1.22 on CI Answer: 0.55 at cursor
on K
Find: Inverse of the cube root of 0.444 (same as cube root of the inverse of
0.444)
Cursor to 0.444 on K Answer: 1.31 at cursor
on CI
4th and 5th powers using the A, B and K scales
Find: 3.7 to the 4th power

Right index of C to 3.7 on D
Cursor to 3.7 on C Answer: 187 at cursor
on A
Find: 2.75 to the 5th power
Cursor to 2.75 on D
Slide to 2.75 on CI at cursor
Cursor to 2.75 on B Answer: 157 at cursor
on A
Reciprocals using the LL scales
Find: Reciprocal (inverse) of 1.2215

Cursor to 1.2215 on LL2
Answer 0.8187 at cursor on LL/2. No slide movement needed.
Any number on an LL scale has its reciprocal directly opposite on the
corresponding reciprocal Log Log scale, because e to the x power is the recipro-
cal of e to the minus x power. Numbers on LL2 are reciprocals of numbers on
LL/2. LL3 and LL/3, LL1 and LL/1, LL0 and LL/0 have the same relationship.
Note: On some silde rules, the reciprocal Log Log scales are called LL00,
LL01, LL02, LL03.
Inverse of Product
Find: ____1____
4 X 0.07
Cursor to 4 on D
Slide to 7 on CI Answer: 3.57 on C at
right index of D
Inverse of Number
Find: Inverse of 0.144

Left index of C to l44 on D Answer: 6.94 on C at
right index of D
Find: Inverse of 8
Right index of C to 8 on D Answer 0.125 on C at
left index of D
Use of 5-4-5
This is easy to remember and is good for practice. It also serves as a nice
test drive of a slide rule. Choose any number and multiply it by 5 X 4 X 5 as a
chain calculation. If you end up at your starting number, you did the problem
correctly and the slide rule is accurate in your hands.
Example: Choose 3. Compute 3 X 5 X 4 X 5

Cursor to 3 on D 5 on CI to cursor Cur-
sor to 4 on C 5 on CI to cursor
Answer: 3 on D at left Another method:

index of C. Note: Of Right index of C to 3 on D
course the real answer
is 300. Cursor to 5 on C
4 on CI to cursor
Cursor to 5 on C
Answer: 3 on D at cursor
Try this using the folded scales:
Cursor to 3 on D 5 on CI
to cursor Cursor to 4 on
CF 5 on CIF to cursor
Proportions
Answer: 3 on D at right
index of C Solve: If 2.5 tons of material costs $36, what will 4 tons cost? This is a direct
proportion problem.
It is written thus:
Cursor to 36 on D
Slide to 2.5 on C at cursor
Cursor to 4 on C
Answer: $57.60 on D at Note that you can now determine what any quantity of material costs by
cursor changing only the last cursor move to any other quantity, i.e., 2 tons would cost
$28.80... 7.5 tons would cost $108.00 (use the CF and DF scales).
Inverse Proportions
Solve: If 6 men can do a job in 4 days, how long will it take 9 men to do it? This
is an inverse proportion problem.
It is written thus:
A direct solution can be obtained on your slide rule by reversing the slide.
Remove it and switch ends, with the same side facing you. Your slide is now
upside down.
Cursor to 4 on D Answer: 2.67 on D at
Slide to 6 on C at cursor cursor
Cursor to 9 on C
Pendulum oscillations
Cursor to 375 on D
Slide to pendulum length in inches on B at cursor
Answer on D at index of C, in oscillations per minute
Try: How many oscillations per minute will a 39 long pendulum make? Answer: 60 oscillations
Cursor to 375 on D per minute on D at right
Slide to 39 on B at cursor (Note: 39 is the second section of the B scale) index of C ... one per
second.
What if you want your pendulum to oscillate only 30 times per minute? How
long would it need to be? Answer: 156 on B at
Cursor to 375 on D cursor.
Slide to 30 on D at left index of C
How about 120 times per minute?

Answer: 9.8 on B at
Cursor to 375 on D cursor.
Slide to 120 on D at left index of C
It is quite interesting to see the drastic length change required to double or

halve the oscillation rate.
Useful constants
Diameter of circle = = diagonal of square = square root of 2

Side of inscribed square side of square
Pounds per square inch =

Feet of water
Note: Once these ratios are set up on your slide rule, you can, of course,
use them to find any circle and its inscribed square ... or the pressure from a
column of water of any height by moving only the cursor. This is true of any
ratio because of the parallel nature of the slide rule as a calculating device.

Chapter Ten - List of Common Slide Rule Scales 63
List of Common Slide Rule Scales
Scales usually calculate in conjunction with the C or D scales
A Scale (value relative to C/D = X squared). Scale of Squares. Typically

found on the top stator. Used with the D scale on the bottom stator. The
square of a number on the D scale can be read on the A scale. Likewise,
square roots of numbers on the A scale can be read on the D scale.
B Scale (value relative to C/D = X squared). Scale of squares. Found on the

slide. Used with the C scale to read squares and square roots like the A
and D scales. Can also multiply with the A scale.
C Scale (value relative to C/D = X). Fundamental scale on the Slide. Most
calculations with other scales are done in conjunction with the C and D
scales.
CF Scale (value relative to C/D = x X). Folded Fundamental scale on the

slide. Usually begins at Pi (sometimes the square root of 10). Considered
to be folded at Pi. For multiplication and division without resetting the
index, or multiplication by Pi. Typically found on duplex type slide rules.
CI Scale (value relative to C/D = 1/X). Reciprocal scale on the slide. Gives
reciprocal of C. Is C scale running backward. Useful in chain calcula-
tions without resetting the slide.
CIF Scale (value relative to C/D = 1/ x X). Folded reciprocal scale on the
Slide. Usually begins at Pi. For multiplication/division by Pi and for
calculations without resetting the slide.
D Scale (value relative to C/D = X). Fundamental scale on the body. Most
calculations with other scales are done in conjunction with the C and D
scales.
DF Scale (value relative to C/D = x X). Folded Fundamental scale on the

Body. Usually begins at Pi. For multiplication and division by Pi and for
calculations without resetting the slide.
DI Scale (value relative to C/D = 1/X). Reciprocal scale on the Body. Gives
reciprocal of D. Is D scale running backward. Useful in chain calcula-
tions without resetting the slide.
K Scale (value relative to C/D = X cubed). Scale of cubes on the body.

Used with D scale to determine cubes and cube roots. Commonly found
on many types of rules.
L Scale (value relative to C/D = log X). Mantissa scale. Logarithms to base
10. Linear scale used to determine the log values (mantissa only) of other
scales. Commonly used on many types of rules in conjunction with the C
& D scales to determine the mantissa of logarithms.
R1 / R2 or Sq1 / Sq2 or W1 / W2 Scale (value relative to C/D = square root

X). This scale is basically a D scale that has been stretched to twice its
former length. A number that is set on the D scale will have its square
root on the SQ or R or W scale. If the number has an odd number of
digits (or leading decimal zeroes), then the odd numbered scale (Sq1 or
R1 or W1) is used. If the number has on even number of digits (or
leading decimal zeroes), then the even numbered scale (Sq2 or R2 or
W2) is used. If a number is set on the Sq or R or W scale, then its square
can be read on the D scale.
S Scale (value relative to C/D = sin X). Scale of sines. Used to determine
sines/cosines of angles, usually between 5.7 and 90 degrees. This is a
single line double use scale, with the increasing numbers (black/
blue)being used for sines and the decreasing numbers (red/green) being
used for cosines. Post and K&E reverse which appears on the left and
right of the scale marks, but in all cases, the numbers given in the
default scale color are the sines. K&E rules also tilt the numbers to show
which direction to read the scale. Read this value (from 0.1 to 1.0)
against the C or D scale.
ST or SRT Scale (value relative to C/D = sin/tan X or sin/radian/tan X).

Scale of sines / tangents on the slide or body. (The R refers to radians.)
Used to determine sines and tangents of angles between 0.57 and 5.7
degrees. This is really just an extension of the S scale, which precedes
the S scale values. The sines and tangents of small angles are nearly
equal; thus a single scale can be used for both. The cotangents of angles
between 84.3 and 89.43 can be read on this scale if the complement of
the angle (90 - angle) is set on this scale. Read this value, (from 0.01 to
0.1) against the C or D scale.
T Scale (value relative to C/D = tan/cot X). Scale of tangents and cotan-
gents on the slide or body. Used to determine tangents and cotangents of
angles between 5.7 and 84.3 degrees. There are 2 variations of this scale.
The first is a single scale where the angles from 5.7 to 45 degrees are
printed in increasing order (in black or blue), and angles between 84.3
and 45 degrees being printed in decreasing order (usually in red). When
this arrangement is used, then tan(5. 7) to tan(45) is read on the C or D
scale (0.1 to 1.0), and tan(45) to tan(84.3) is read on the CI scale (1.0 to
10). Conversely, cot(5.7) to cot(45) is read on the CI scale, and cot(45)
Chapter Ten - List of Common Slide Rule Scales 65
to cot(84.3) is read on the C scale. You may need to flip your rule over to
read the CI scale.
The second arrangement is known as a double scale whereby the angle

is set above the line if it is between 5.7 and 45 degrees, and below the
line if it is between 45 and 84.3 degrees. Tangents are then read on the
C or D scale, and cotangents read on the CI scale.
LL0, LL1, LL2, LL3 Scale (value relative to C/D = ex). Log Log scales.
Exponential power scales used for raising a number to any power or
extracting any root that is greater than one.
LL00, LL01, LL02, LL03 or LL/0, LL/1, LL/2, LL/3 Scale (value relative to C/
D = e-x). Reciprocal Log Log scales. Exponential power scales used for
raising a number to any power or extracting any root that is less than
one.
66 The Oughtred Socighgh Slide Rule Reference Manual

Chapter Eleven - Advanced Slide Rule Features 67
Advanced Slide Rule Features
Gauge Marks
Various gauge marks appear on many models of slide rules. These marks
identify the location of an often used constant number... like .
Faber-Castell 67/87
Rietz, 12.5 cm scales,
plastic, simplex, Ger-
many. Note various gauge
marks on C and D scales.
Gauge Meaning Value Use

Mark
c Square root of (4/) 1.128 Circles and cylinders
g Gravitational constant 32.2 Gravitational acceleration, ft/sec2
g Gravitational constant 9.81 Gravitational acceleration, m/sec 2
L Natural log of 10 2.3026 Logarithm of 10 to the base e
M 1/ 0.3183 1/Pi
p or r 180/ 57.3 Degrees in a radian
p 60 (l80/) 3438 Minutes in a radian
p 3600 (180/) 206265 Seconds in a radian
3.1416 3.1416 Circles and cylinders
Q /180 0.01745 Radians in a degree
Multi-Line Cursors
Many European slide rules have more than one hairline on their cursor.
These extra lines permit direct reading of the area of a circle or conversion from
kilowatts to horsepower, etc.
Value Associated Scales Uses

0.7854 A, B /4
0.8862 C, D Square root of (/4) Nestler Elemath Log
Log, 25 cm scales,
746 A, B Watts per British horsepower plastic, duplex,
736 A, B Watts per French horsepower Germany
1.128 C, D, A, B Same as gauge point c
Example: Find area of circle with diameter = 4 (See photo above)

Answer 12.56 on A at Cursor to 4 on D
short red hairline in
upper left part of
Color Coding
cursor
Scales and their labels are sometimes color coded. A scale may be high-
lighted along its length with a soft color. Faber-Castell is noted for its lime green
and pale blue scale highlights; Aristo for its yellow; Nestler for its blue-green.
Hemmi used blue on some of its later plastic models. Pickett is noted for its
eye-saver yellow rules, where the entire rule was yellow.
Scale labels and markings basically are black, with some scales labeled in
red or green to facilitate following them during calculations.
Faber-Castell Rulers
2/83N, 25 cm scales,
plastic, duplex, Germany.
Many slide rules have measuring scales (rulers) on their edges ... sometimes
Considered by many to be
the overall best slide one edge ... sometimes both. Often the top edge is beveled. The bottom edge is
rule ever made. front usually square. Scales are in centimeters and/or inches. Some Faber-Castell
and back views. wood body slide rules have an additional centimeter measuring scale in the
gutter, which enables the rule to measure distances greater than its body length.
Chapter Eleven - Advanced Slide Rule Features 69
Addiators Post 1452W, 25 cm

bamboo core,
simplex, USA
Faber-Castell made several models of simplex (one-sided) slide rules with
an addiator on the back, in both 6 and 10 models. This enabled the slide rule
to add and subtract numbers up to 6 digits. Some of these Faber-Castell models
are 1/22A, 111/22A, 1/54A, 111/54A, 1/87A, 111/87A, 63/22R, 63/39R, 63/
98R, 67/22R, 67/22Rb, 67/54R, 67/54Rb, 67/87R, 67/87Rb, 67/98R, 67/98Rb.
The 1 prefixes are 25 cm rules; the 6 prefixes are 12.5 cm rules.
Faber-Castell 67/54R,
12. 5 cm scales, plastic,
with Addiator on back,
views.
Electronic Calculators
Faber-Castell made slide rules in the 1970s with an electronic calculator on

the back. These are quite rare. Model numbers are TR1, TR2 and TR3.
Faber-Castell TR3, 12.5

cm scales, plastic with
electronic calculator
on back, Germany. Front
view.
Faber-Castell TR3, 12.5

cm scales, plastic with
electronic calculator
on back, Germany. Back
view.
Chapter Twelve - Slide Rules for Special Applications 71
Slide Rules for

Special Applications
Chemistry
Hemmi 257, 25 cm scales,

celluloid on bamboo
core,
duplex, Japan. Front and
Surveying back views
Aristo 0958 Geodat, 25

cm scales, plastic,
duplex. Germany
Electricity
Nestler 0370 Electro,

25 cm scales, celluloid
on wood core, simplex,
Germany Radio
K&E 4139 Cooke Radio,

25 cm scales, celluloid
on mahogany core,
duplex, USA
Electronics
Hemmi 266, 25 cm scales,

celluloid on bamboo
core, duplex, Japan.
Chapter Twelve - Slide Rules for Special Applications 73
Business and Finance
Faber-Castell 1/22
Disponent, 25 cm scales,
celluloid on wood core,
simplex, Germany
Navigation
Aristo 617 Aviat, metal

and plastic, Germany,
Front view.
Aristo 617 Aviat, metal

and plastic, Germany,
Opposite view. Metric Conversion
Sterling Metric Con-

verter, 25 cm scales,
plastic, simplex, USA
Chapter Thirteen - Major Slide Rule Companies 75
Major Slide Rule Companies and some

of their Common Models
United States
Eugene Dietzgen Co.
Model N1725 Microglide (10) Celluloid on mahogany. Image
Model 1732 Maniphase Multiplex (10) Celluloid on mahogany. Image
Model 1765 Basik (10) Plastic. Image
Model 1771 Redi rule (5) Plastic. Image
Gilson
Binary (8 diameter circular) Metal. Image
Midget (4 diameter circular) Metal. Image
Keuffel & Esser (K&E)

Model 4053-3F Polyphase (10) Celluloid on mahogany. Image
Model 4081-3 Log Log Duplex Decitrig (10) Celluloid on mahogany. Image
Model 4181-1 Jetlog (5) Plastic. Image
Model 68 1100 Deci-Lon (10) Plastic. Image
Model 68 1130 Deci-Lon (5) Plastic. Image
Lawrence Engineering Service (also Engineering Instruments Co.)

Model 10B (10) Wood. Click here.
Pickett
Model N4-ES (10) Aluminum. Image
Model N1010-ES (10) Aluminum. Image
Model N600-T (5) Aluminum. Image.
Model 160 (5) Plastic. Image
Frederick Post Co. (all models shown by Hemmi of Japan for Post)
Model 1460 Versalog (10) Celluloid on bamboo. Image
Model 1461 Versalog (5) Celluloid on bamboo. Image
Model 1447 Student Mannheim (10) Celluloid on bamboo. Image
Model 1452 Universal (10) Celluloid on bamboo Image
Model 1444K Pocket Mannheim (5) Celluloid on bamboo. Image
Model 1441 Vest Pocket (4) Celluloid on bamboo. Image
Sterling Plastics (also Acu-Math)

Sterling Model Precision (10) Plastic. Image
Sterling Model 587 (5) Plastic. Image
Sterling Metric Converter. Image
Acu-Math model 400B Plastic. (10) Image
Japan
Concise
Model 28(3.5 circular) Plastic. Image
Relay - Ricoh (sold under many brand names such as Alvin, Compass, Eagle,
Engineers, Jason, Lafayette, Lietz, Lutz, Micronta, Omega, Palco, Relay, Ricoh, Sans & Streiffe,
SIC, Skyline, Wallace & Wallace)
Ricoh Model 551 (5) Celluloid on bamboo. Image
Lafayette 686(10) Celluloid on bamboo. Image
Sun Hemmi
Model 259D duplex (10) Celluloid on bamboo. Image
Model 34RK (5) Celluloid on bamboo. Image
Model 149A Duplex (5) Celluloid on bamboo. Image
Model 32 (4) Celluloid on bamboo. Image
Germany
Aristo
Model 0969 Studio Log (10) Plastic. Image
Model 0968 Studio (10) Plastic. Image
Model 0906 BiScholar (10) Plastic. Image
Model 867U Darmstadt (5) Plastic. Image
Model 89 Rietz (5) Plastic. Image
Faber-Castell
Model 2/83N Novo-Duplex (10) Plastic. Image
Model 1/54 Darmstadt (10) Celluloid on wood. Image
Model 1/87 Rietz (10) Celluloid on wood. Image
Model 52/82 Duplex (10) Plastic. Image
Model 67/87 Rietz (5) Plastic. Image
Nestler
Model 0292 Multi Math Duplex. (10) Celluloid on wood. Image
Model 0210 Darmstadt (10) Celluloid on wood. Image
Model 23R Rietz (10) Celluloid on wood. Image
Model 0130 Multi Math Duplex (5) Plastic. Image
Reiss
3223 Progress Duplex (10) Aluminum. Image
3214 Darmstadt Record Duplex (10) Plastic. Image
England
Thornton
ADl50 (10) Plastic. Image
P271 (10) Plastic. Image
Unique
Universal (10) Plastic on wood. Image
5/10 (5) Plastic on wood. Image
France
Graphoplex
Denmark
Diwa
Aristo 0969, 25 cm
scales, plastic,
duplex, Germany
Post 1447, 25 cm scales,

celluloid on bamboo
core, simplex, USA
Dietzgen 1732, 25 cm
wood core,
duplex, USA
Lawrence 10B, 25 cm
scales, wood,
simplex, USA
Sterling Precision, 25
cm scales, plastic,
simplex, USA
AcuMath 400B, 25 cm
scales, plastic,
duplex, USA
Unique 5/10, 12.5cm

scales, plastic on wood
core,
simplex, England
Thornton P271, 25 cm
scales, plastic,
simplex, England
Lafayette 686, 25 cm
Japan
Concise 28N, 84 mm (3 3/
8) diameter,
plastic, Japan
Faber-Castell 1/54
Darmstadt, 25 cm scales,
celluloid on wood core,
simplex, Germany
Aristo 968 Studio, 25 cm

scales, plastic, duplex,
views
Aristo 0906 BiScholar,

25 cm scales, plastic,
duplex, Germany
Nestler 0292 Multimath

Duplex, 25 cm scales,
plastic, duplex, Germany
Nestler 23R Rietz, 25 cm

wood core, simplex,
Germany
Reiss 3214 Darmstadt

Record Duplex, 25 cm
scales, plastic,
duplex, Germany
Unique Universal, 25 cm
scales, plastic on wood
core, duplex, England
Thornton AD 150, 25 cm
scales, plastic, simplex,
England
Chapter Fourteen - Books, Manuals and Articles 83
Books, Manuals and Articles

If you would like to have a book containing information similar to the 17 chapters
presented in All About Slide Rules please consider the purchase of The Oughtred Society
Slide Rule Reference Manual, Second Edition available at www.oughtred.org
Books About Slide Rules

Prologue
Altough many of the listed books are out of print, some may be found on the Internet, at
antiquarian book stores, or in antique stores. Other books are still in print or reprints are
available at bookstores or on the Internet. Many books and manuals in electronic format
(typically PDF) may be downloaded from various websites.
Journal of The Oughtred Society

The Journal of the Oughtred Society is the primary source of information regarding slide rules
and many other calculating instruments and methods. The index of past articles may be found at
http://www.oughtred.org/jos-index.shtml. All past issues of JOS are available for purchase from The
Oughtred soociety. There are links on the Oughtred Society website
(www.oughtred.org/srlinks.shtml) to other websites with reference materials (e.g., UKSRC
Gazette). The Proceedings of the International Meetings for Collectors of Historical Calculating
Instruments (1995-2011) contain relevant papers (some Proceedings are still available on
CDROM).
A thorough list of technical references (many are much harder to obtain than those listed
herein) is available within: Hopp, Peter M., A Slide Rule Bibliography, The Oughtred Society, 1994.
General History Books about slide rules, the associated mathematics, discoverers, and inventors;
and other related calculating instruments:
Asimov, Isaac, Biographical Encyclopedia of Science & Technology, Avon Books, New York, 1976.
Asimov, Isaac, Chronology of Science & Discovery, Harper & Row, New York, 1989.
Baxandall, D., Pugh, J., Calculating Machines and Instruments, Catalogue of the Collections in the
Science Museum (1926), London, Science Museum, London, 1975.
Berger, C.L., Hand-Book and Illustrated Catalogue of the Engineers and Surveyors Instruments of
Precision (1900), Astragal Press, Mendham, NJ, 1993.
Bion, N., The Construction and Principal Uses of Mathematical Instruments (1758), Astragal Press,
Mendham, NJ, 1995.
Cajori, Florian, A History of the Logarithmic Slide Rule and Allied Instruments (1910), Astragal Press,
Mendham, NJ, 1994.
Clifton, Gloria, Directory of British Scientific Instrument Makers 1550-1851, London, Zwemmer (Philip
Wilson Publishers, Ltd.) and The National Maritime Museum, 1995.
Cragon, Harvey G., The Fleet Submarine Torpedo Data Computer, Cragon Books, Dallas, TX, 2007.
De Brabandere, Luc, Calculus: Non-Electric Calculating Machines, Pierre Mardaga, Belgium, 1994.
Donners, J.H., Mijnheer van Dalen Krijgt Antwoord, private publication, 2002.
Eves, Howard, An Introduction to the History of Mathematics, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York,
1961.
General History Books, contd.

Graham, Frank D., Audels Mathematics and Calculations for Mechanics A Ready Reference, Theo. Audel
& Co., New York, 1951.
Helfand, Jessica, Reinventing the Wheel, Princeton Architectural Press, New York, 2002.
Horsburgh, E.M., Modern Instruments and Methods of Calculation, a Handbook of the Napier
Tercentenary Celebration Exhibition, Edinburgh, 1914, 344 p., Reprint: Los Angeles, San
Francisco (Charles Babbage Institute), 1982.
Kentish, Thomas, A Treatise On A Box of Instruments And The Slide Rule For Use of Gaugers, Engineers,
Seamen And Students (1901), Merchant Books, 2007.
Knott, Cargill Gilston, Napier Tercentenary Memorial Volume, Longmans, Green and Company,
Edinburgh, 1915.
Khn, Klaus, and Shepherd, Rodger, Calculating with Tones: The Logarithmic Logic of Music, The
Oughtred Society, 2009.
Martin, Jean, Historie des Instruments et Machines Calculer, Hermann, France, 1994.
Rees, Jane and Rees, Mark, The Rule Book, Astragal Press, Mendham, NJ, 2010.
Riddell, Robert, The Slide Rule Simplified, Explained, and Illustrated for the Mechanical Trades(1881),
Astragal Press, Mendham, NJ, 2002.
Robertson, John, A Treatise of Mathematical Instruments (A Reprint of the 1775 Third Edition with Notes
by David Manthey), Flower-de-Luce Books, The Invisible College Press, Arlington, VA, 2002.
Russo, Thomas A., Antique Office Machines 600 Years of Calculating Devices, Schiffer Publishing Ltd.,
Atglen, PA, 2001.
Schuitema, I.J., van Herwijnen, H., Calculating on Slide Rule and Disc, Astragal Press, Mendham, NJ,
2003.
Thacher, Edwin, The Slide Rule (1880), The Oughtred Society, 1995.
Books about Slide Rules and Manufacturers

Barnes, Colin, John Davis & Son (Derby) Ltd. A Chronology of Slide Rule Production, private
publication, 1997.
Barnes, Colin and White, Tedford K., OTIS KING Calculators A History of Production 1919-1977,
private publication, 2012.
Craenen, Guus, Albert Nestler Innovation und Qualitt Die Rechenstabe von Nestler in ihrem
internationalen Umfeld, private publication, 2001.
Craenen, Guus, Albert Nestler Innovation und Qualitt Zusammenarbeit mit anderen Herstellen und
mit Erfindern, private publication, 2004.
Craenen, Guus, Rechenscheiber im Wandel der Zeit 1787-1905, privat publication, 2009.
Hopp, Peter M., Slide Rules Their History, Models, and Makers, Astragal Press, Mendham, NJ, 1999.
Hopp, Peter, Joint Slide Rules: Sectors, 2-foot 2-fold and Similar Slide Rules, Jeremy Mills Publishing,
2009.
Hopp, Peter, Pocket-Watch Slide Rules, Astragal Press, Mendham, NJ, 2011.
Holland, Peter, A.W. Faber A. W. Faber-Castell Slide Rules, 5th Edition, Brhl, Deutschland, 2011.
Khn, Klaus, and Kleine, Karl, Dennert & Pape - Aristo - 1872-1978, Rechenschieber und Mathematisch
-Geodtische Instrumente, Zuckschwerdt Publishing, Munich, Vienna, New York, 2004.
85
ALL ABOUT SLIDE RULES
Books about Slide Rules and Manufacturers, contd.

Rudowski, Werner H., Scheffelt & Co. Frhe logarithmische Recheninstrumente im deutschen
Sprachraum, Bochum, 2012.
Schreiber, Georg, Koch, Huxhold & Hanneman Der Unbekannter Rechenstabhersteller aus Hamburg,
private publication, 2011.
Schuitema, IJzebrand, The Slide Rule Technical Cultural Heritage, Rijnja Repro, The Netherlands,
2003.
Smallenburg, Nico E., De LOGA Calculators, Dione Boekproducties, The Netherlands, 2004.
Soper, Joseph L., K&E Salisbury Products Division Slide Rules, The Oughtred Society, 2007.
van Herwijnen, Herman, Graphoplex Brevet S.G.D.G., private publication, 1999.
vanHerwijnen, H., Soole, Peter, Blundell Harling Limited, 1999.
Venetsianos, Panagitis, Pocketbook of the Gauge Marks, 2nd Edition, The Oughtred Society, 2011.
von Jezierski, Dieter (translated by Rodger Shepherd), Slide Rules A Journey Through Three Centuries,
Astragal Press, Mendham, NJ, 2000.
Books about How to Use a Slide Rule

Asimov, Isaac, An Easy Introduction to the Slide Rule, Fawcett Books, New York, 1965.
Bayley, William Henry, Hand-Book of the Slide-Rule, BiblioBazaar, 2009.
Bishop, Calvin C., Slide Rule How to Use It, 3rd Edition, Barnes & Noble, New York, 1955.
Cary, E.R., Solution of Railroad Problems by the Slide Rule (1913), Kessinger Publishing, 2009.
Dixon, Thomas, Treatise on the Arrangement, Application, and Use of Slide Rules, BiblioBazaar, 2008.
Frederick Post Company, Learn Basic Slide Rule on Your Own, Cybern-Education, Inc., Chicago, IL,
1967.
Hoare, Charles, The Slide-Rule, and How to Use It (1868), Nabu Public Domain Reprints.
Hume, Ted, and Koppany, Bob, The Oughtred Society Slide Rule Reference Manual, Second Edition,
Striking Impressions, Hawthorne, CA, 2010.
Johnson, Lee H., The Slide Rule, D. Van Nostrand Co., New York, 1949.
K&E, Elementary Instructions for Operating the Slide Rule, Keuffel & Esser Co., New York, 1928.
Marks, Robert W., Simplifying The Slide Rule, Bantam Unifact, New York, 1966.
Pickworth, Charles N., The Slide Rule: A Practical Manual, 15th Edition, The Riverside Press Ltd.,
Edinburgh, Scotland, 1917.
Snodgrass, Burns, Teach Yourself the Slide Rule, English Universities, 1958.
Stanley, W., Instruction for Using a Slide Rule, Fili-Quarian Classics, 2010.
Young, Neville W., Complete Slide Rule Manual, David & Charles, 1973.
Manufacturers Manuals -- How to Use a Specific Slide Rule

Breckenridge, William E., The Log Log Duplex Slide Rule, Keuffel & Esser Co., New York, 1932.
Dietzgen, Self-Teaching Instruction Manual No. 1771 Redi-Rule Pocket Slide Rule, Eugene Dietzgen
Co., Chicago, IL.
Fiesenheiser, E.I., Versalog Slide Rule Instruction Manual, Frederick Post Co., Chicago, IL 1963.
Hartung, Maurice L., How to Use the DeciLog Log Slide Rule, Pickett & Eckel Inc., Chicago, 1947.
Manufacturers Manuals -- How to Use a Specific Slide Rule, contd.

Hartung, Maurice L., How to Use Trig Slide Rules, Pickett, Inc., Santa Barbara, CA, 1960.
Hartung, Maurice L., How to Use Log Log Slide Rules, Pickett, Inc., Santa Barbara, CA, 1953.
Hartung, Maurice L., How to Use Dual Base Slide Rule Exponential Ln-L Scales, Pickett, Inc., Santa
Barbara, CA.
Hemmi, Instruction Manual for Hemmi 257 Slide Rule, Hemmi Slide Rule Co., Ltd., Tokyo.
Hemmi, Instruction Book for the Use of Hemmi Bamboo Slide Rules (Mannheim Type),
Hemmi Slide Rule Mfg. Co. Ltd., Tokyo.
K&E, Deci-Lon An Instruction Manual, Keuffel & Esser Co., New York, 1962.
Kells, Lyman M., Kern, Willis F., and Bland, James R., Log Log Duplex Decitrig Slide Rule No. N4081,
Keuffel & Esser Co., New York, 1947.
Thacher, Edwin, Directions for Using Thachers Calculating Instrument (1917), Keuffel & Esser Co.,
New York, Nabu Public Domain Reprints, 2010.
Slide Rule Articles

Kilderkins. Hogsheads & Dipping Rods : A Brief History of the Slide Rule,Tom Wyman, Journal of The
Oughtred Society, Vol. 10, No. 2, Fall 2001, page 2. Excellent concise article of slide rule history.
Many useful references listed in its bibliography notes.
The Beginning Collector, Herman van Herwijnen, Journal of The Oughtred Society, Vol. 9, No.2, Fall
2000, page 6. Fine advice for beginners and experienced collectors as well. Provides specific systems
for rating slide rule rarity and condition.
Thousands of Rules and Millions of Bytes Later - The Slide Rule Universe and Other Internet Stories,
Walter Shawlee 2, Journal of The Oughtred Society, Vol. 9, No. 2, Fall 2000, Page 13. Fascinating
account of Walters experiences in collecting and dealing in slide rules. Interesting discussion of how
his extensive website, Slide Rule Universe, came into being.
For additional articles, see http://sliderules.lovett.com/extendedlitsearch.html
Additional Lists of Slide Rule Books

The United Kingdom Slide Rule Circle (UKSRC) has more than 200 reprints available at low cost. See the
List of Reprints. To order, Contact the UKSRC by e-mail [email protected]. Or visit the
UKSRCs Web site.
The German Slide Rule Group (Rechenschieber-Sammler-Treffen) maintains a recommended book list on
their RST Web site
The Dutch Circle of Slide Rule Collectors maintains a recommended book list on their Circle Web site
Rod Lovett maintains a searchable database of slide rule literature published in:
- The Journal of the Oughtred Society.
- The United Kingdom Slide Rule Circles Skid Stick and Slide Rule Gazette
- Proceedings of the International Meetings of Slide Rule Collectors
Chapter Fifteen - Cleaning and caring for your Slide Rule 87
Cleaning and Caring for your Slide

Rule
General Comments
A very common problem is restoring a dirty slide rule to usable condition.

Because of the materials used in making slide rules, different techniques and
methods are needed with different rules in order to avoid damage to the scales
or action.
Not all dirt and damage can be repaired, and some collectors may prefer to
leave the rule as found, so keep that in mind as you read the following informa-
tion.
It is unwise to attempt to clean a slide rule that is extremely old, unless you
are quite comfortable with the process, as the rule may be quite fragile and the
cursor in particular may be easily damaged by careless work.
Every manufacturer makes a point of the importance of keeping the rule
clean. Considerable damage is done by not following these rules, as the cursor
and body will become badly streaked and often permanently damaged. The
cursor is the most vulnerable part of the rule, and it should not be allowed to
become dirty on any surface.
All of the techniques listed here work in real life and have been thoroughly
tested, but the risk is all yours once you start to work on the rule.
Some things to keep in mind
EXCESSIVE SUNLIGHT will fade colors and turn the body yellow on
virtually all rules.
PETROLEUM SOLVENTS can strip colors off the scales and can remove
the colors in the engraved lines and may damage the cursor material.
HEAT can warp any rule.
WATER will be absorbed by both wood and plastic rules and it may warp or
bind the rule.
DONT SIT ON A POCKET SLIDE RULE ... it will probably be badly
warped or broken.
TEST the cleaning technique on a non critical rule before applying it to a
valuable specimen.
Wood Body Slide Rules with Celluloid Surface
Wood body rules should be stored in a case, out of any severe temperature
or humidity changes. The bodies are made of mahogany or boxwood or
pearwood or other woods, which are relatively stable, but can be distorted by
prolonged exposure to water or sunlight and heat, especially if applied to only
an exposed portion of the rule. The scales are made of celluloid (not ivory as
many people think), and can delaminate if the rule is soaked or exposed to large
temperature changes.
Windex or Dishwashing Liquid
You can often successfully clean the surface of a rule with a rag dampened
with Windex or a weak solution of a mild dishwashing liquid. This will help to
clean ink stained and dirty surfaces, as well as the edges of the slide and body.
There should be no dirt in the sliding portion of the rule, and a rag with a bit of
Windex on it will help to remove accumulated dirt and abraded material.
Certain ballpoint ink stains which resist Windex will dissolve in rubbing
alcohol. But be careful ... some engraving inks are also alcohol soluble.
In either case, use a lightly dampened rag. Do not spray Windex directly
onto your ruIe or immerse your rule in liquid!
The ScotchBrite Scouring Pad ... and Steel Wool
For celluloid faced rules with engine divided (engraved) scales, cleaning is
often best accomplished with a dry fine grade ScotchBrite pad or steel wool
(K&E says steel wool, but we prefer the pad.) Gentle rubbing along the body
and slide will remove any surface grime, discoloring and ink marks. This will not
harm the engraved and filled scales. Many people are reluctant to do this, but
keep in mind, this is what K&E recommends, and it works very well if you are
careful and patient. Avoid spot rubbing by this method, as it will cause patches
of different body color. Once you start this method, you should rub down the
entire side of the rule to maintain a consistent appearance. Some celluloid will
be removed, and you will be able to smell its distinctive odor.
Sandpaper
A badly discolored rule can be restored to bright white with vigorous

rubbing with a ScotchBrite pad ... or even sandpaper. You can use fairly coarse
sandpaper if you need to remove a lot of discoloration or ink marks or names
scratched into the rule, graduating to finer paper and finishing with the Scotch
Brite pad. On severe cases we have used successfully No. 100 emery paper (the
black type), followed by No. 220, followed by No. 320 (the finest of the three),
followed by the ScotchBrite pad. This will remove some celluloid from the
surface, which you can smell.
On quality slide rules like Hemmi and K&E and others, the engravings are
deep enough to resist damage from this removal of some of the celluloid surface.
In fact, during the manufacturing process, the engravings were filled with color,
covering the entire surface of the rule in the process. After drying, the rule was
sanded clean as the finishing step, leaving the colors in the engravings.
Caution! Leave the slide in the rule to prevent uneven sanding pressure
from removing excess material and eating too far into the engravings at the
edges where slide or body meet. We learned this the hard way by damaging a
nice Versalog. Ouch!
Dont try ScotchBrite pads or sandpaper on a Pickett or other rules with
printed scales ... or any rule which does not have engraved scales... the mark-
ings will come right off!
Erasers
Another good method for cleaning is to use a white vinyl eraser ... the kind
that is rather soft and has no grit in it. This will remove many kinds of grime
and will not scratch a shiny surfaced slide rule. It is slower than a ScotchBrite
pad, but it eventually does an almost equal job.
This method was used recently to clean Michelangelos famous statue of
David in Florence.
If you are cleaning a Hemmi or K&E rule which has a semi-matte finish,
you can use a regular old Pink Pearl eraser. It contains some abrasive material,
but it will not seriously alter the semi-matte finish. You can touch it up after-
ward with a ScotchBrite pad.
Sunlight
Limited exposure to sunlight can help to return an aged yellow colored rule
to its original white/ivory color. Start with one hour exposure; then try another
hour, etc. Too much exposure, say more than 4 hours, can possibly affect the
inked colors in the engravings. Use this technique after cleaning your rule using
the preceding methods.
Wax
We do not recommend using wax on the rule edges or face (as it collects
and traps dirt, especially under the cursor). But you may wish to lightly rub the
faces and edges with a very small amount of hard wax or Pledge to give a
shiny appearance if the rule is mainly for display. Wax will often bring out the
wood highlights in a very attractive way on edges of exposed wood.
Anything in the sliding area of a wood rule generally increases friction and
binding, and the best possible technique is to have this area as clean as you can.
If this area is rough and sticks, and it has already been well cleaned and the gap
is correctly set, a very light rub with a hard wax may improve the action, but
often makes the rule stick after it has been unused for some time. If anything is
used, here, we prefer a light rub with a rag or piece of paper towel lightly
dampened with Pledge furniture polish, and nothing else. An almost impercep-
tible amount of Pledge can work wonders for a stubborn slide.
Plastic Body Slide Rules
These rules should be stored in a case and should not exposed to any severe
temperatures or extreme sunlight. Plastic rules can be distorted or discolored by
prolonged exposure to water or sunlight or heat. Unlike wood rules, plastic body
rules cannot delaminate and are made of a single solid material.
Except for the painted scales on some plastic rules, cleaning the engraved
scales on a plastic body rule can be done with a fine ScotchBrite pad or steel
wool as with a wood body rule. You can also generally use a rag dampened with
Windex, per above.
Some plastic body rules used a scale fill material that dissolves in Windex,
resulting in a smeared appearance when the rule is washed with Windex. Apply
Windex to a rule only by means of a rag dampened with it. Dont spray Windex
or other cleaners onto your rule. Erasers work equally well on plastic rules as on
celluloid covered wood body rules. Vaseline is recommended by many users to
lubricate the slide of plastic slide rules.
Bamboo Body Slide Rules
Hemmi and other bamboo core rules are very similar to wood body rules ...
and the same techniques work well on these rules. A gentle abrasive pad like
ScotchBrite will restore the face of most rules and remove many marks. The
entire surface or side usually has to be done at one time, to keep the appearance
uniform.
Bamboo is naturally self-lubricating, so nothing is really required to keep
motion uniform and smooth, BUT the surfaces can become rough after long
storage (ends of fibers become exposed), and rubbing the sliding surfaces with
that same ScotchBrite pad will restore the smooth surface and improve the
action. If the bamboo is severely dried out, a gentle rub with a cloth dampened
with a bit of Pledge will usually restore the action. You may need to adjust the
body frame if action is too loose or tight. This is done by slightly loosening the
two top body screws and bringing the scales into alignment ... and then adjust-
ing the width to produce the desired action.
Cleaning Cursors
Cleaning the cursor is much simpler if it can be removed easily and wiped
with a soft cloth or paper towel, dampened with warm water. If it is a duplex
rule, you may not wish to remove the cursor. Slide a piece of white paper under
the glass, and gently press on the glass, while moving the cursor along it. This
will generally rub any accumulated dirt off of the cursor and onto the paper. You
can help this with a drop of water or Windex on the paper in stubborn cases.
A word of caution: Windex will sometimes dissolve the ink used to mark
the cursor hairline, and can create more problems, so be careful with the
engraved line when cleaning the window of the cursor.
Repairing Cursors
A common problem with slide rules is that the cursor may get broken or the
hairline disappears. These problems can both be fixed with some care. If the
cursor has glass faces, the only workable solution for a broken lens is a new one,
and spare parts do exist for many rules. If a spare part cant be found, often an-
other rule in poor condition can be scrapped to salvage the required parts. In
some cases, a larger cursor glass can be sanded to make a smaller glass. Some
K&E cursor runner bars are notorious for deteriorating and salvage parts will be
needed, because new replacement parts are near non-existent.
See the chapter titled Slide Rules on the Internet for dealers who sell
slide rule parts. Click here
If the cursor hairline disappears, disassemble the cursor and clean it well.
You can refill the line with a grease pencil (like those used to mark china or
glass), or a soft colored pencil, or a fine tipped permanent marker like a
Staedtler-Mars Lumocolor ... and then rub off any excess outside the line or
wipe it clean with a soft cloth and some Windex. This can restore the hairline
to new condition. Be careful using a felt marker on plastic cursor windows, as it
may penetrate the plastic around the line and ruin the window.
Plastic cursors found on most Picketts and on rules from many makers are
more susceptible to scratching than glass cursors. Surface scratching can
sometimes be eliminated by hand polishing with Novus plastic polish
(available in 3 grades). Novus Inc. Item PC-20 is recommended. It is available
from Industrial Plastics and other plastic distributors. Call 1-800-548-6872 for
local dealers.
Careful use of a buffing wheel on a bench grinder, with a bit or rouge or fine
polishing compound on it, will also work wonders on scratched plastic cursors
and cases. Take care to buff lightly and slowly to prevent overheating and dam-
age therefrom.
Cleaning Metal End Braces
Cleaning metal end braces must be done carefully, as many are plated, with
brass as the typical underlay material, with typically nickel top plating
(sometimes with a copper flash underneath). If the cleaning or abrasion is too
aggressive, the brass will be exposed, ruining the appearance of the rule. Some
K&E models are lightly plated and easily damaged.
Metal end braces can often be cleaned with a rag dampened with Windex.
Gentle rubbing with a ScothBrite pad, or a toothbrush with a bit of water and
abrasive cleanser like Ajax or Comet, is a generally safe method, but do not
go too far.
If more cleaning power is needed, try a brush with fine brass bristles. These
can be found at the hardware store, about the size and appearance of a
toothbrush. Add Windex if needed. The vigor with which you brush can be
determined by the degree of polish on the surface of the end brace. If it has a
mirror-like finish it may be plated ... be careful and use only a plastic bristle
brush!
For Hemmi end braces with their striated finish, you can use a stainless
steel bristled brush, often found at the hardware store in a three pack with the
brass and plastic bristle brushes. Use it vigorously and your Hemmi end braces
will return to new appearance. Hemmi end braces usually are a stainless alloy
and are not plated. One benefit of using these brushes is that they clean the
areas immediately around the rivets and screws, which are very hard to clean
by other methods.
Pickett end braces are all aluminum and can be wire brushed to restore
their appearance. A Dremel tool works very well for this, and with a fine brush
and later polishing wheel, can restore the parts to like new condition.
Faber-Castell end braces are anodized aluminum (gold colored), and any
attempt at cleaning beyond a wipe with windex or a light scrub with a
toothbrush wetted with Windex will destroy the anodized finish.
Leather Cases
The case should be cleaned with a damp cloth and some Windex for stains
and marks, and once dry, rubbed with a good leather polish or hard wax, and
shined. Leather will dry and crack if not moisturized by some method, so dont
ignore the case. Lexol appears to produce good results with little change to case
color.
It is possible to remove some markings on the inside of the flap by using
coarse sandpaper to remove the top layer of the leather, but this is not for the
faint of heart. This is quite safe on a heavy leather case like the Versalog cases.
The thinner the leather, the more careful you must be! Sandpaper may also be
used on the exterior of the case, but it will change the appearance of the finish
and must be done over the entire case to maintain uniformity.
Do not attempt to remove markings with any solvent, or you will almost
certainly stain the case.
Leather cases often get collapsed and make inserting and removing the
rule almost impossible ... plus they usually crack when flexed.
In an experimental moment, we used a tea kettle with lots of steam coming
out the spout to send a clean jet of steam into the case and let it warm up. ln
about 10 seconds, the case becomes very pliable, and can be gently squeezed
back into shape. When it cools, the case is now fixed in the good position.
The steam helps to soften the case and restore some life to the material. This
can help make the case look literally like new. Use Windex to clean off any dirt
or grease, then rub Pledge or Lexol into the case to restore the shine, especially
on the flap.
NEVER FORGET ... all slide rule makers advise you to always keep your
slide rule clean and in good repair. If the rule gets dirty, it will mark up the
back of the cursor and the rule will be hard to read and operate.
Chapter Sixteen - Slide Rules on the Internet 93
Slide Rules on the Internet

If you would like to have a book containing information similar to the 17 Chapters presented
in All About Slide Rules, please consider the purchase of The Oughtred Society Slide Rule
Reference Manual, Second Edition, available at www.oughtred.org.
General Information on Slide Rules

Interested in Slide Rules? Join The Oughtred Society! International
organization dedicated to the preservation and history of slide rules and me-
chanical calculators. Wealth of information about slide rules. Large collection
of links to other slide rule websites. Publishes the renowned biannual Journal
of the Oughtred Society. New members are welcome. Cost is $35 annually in
the USA, $45 International. Members receive the biannual Journals and a
Membership Directory, and can attend the three annual meetings, West Coast,
East Coast, and Southwest where hundreds of slide rules are displayed and
auctioned.
http://www.oughtred.org
International Slide Rule Museum

The worlds largest free digital repository of all things concerning slide
rules. Vast photo archives of slide rules, over 7000 images. A not-for profit
commercial free museum dedicated to the students, educators, engineers and
scientists of the past and those still present, and to promote the lost art of
numeracy by providing resources and free loans of slide rules to schools and
other historic institutions. Extensive library of instruction manuals to
download. Maintained by Mike Konshak, ISRM curator, exhibitor and
preservationist.
www.sliderulemuseum.com
Slide Rule Universe

Very comprehensive website about slide rules. Contains detailed archives
of slide rule models from many manufacturers. Vast amounts of slide rule in-
formation of all kinds. The more time you spend here, the more you will learn.
Proprietor Walter Shawlee also sells many varieties of slide rules, both new
and used, also parts, manuals and books.
http://www.sphere.bc.ca/test/sruniverse.html
Ron Manleys Slide Rule Site

Volumes of basic slide rule information and photos.
http://www.sliderules.info
Rod Lovetts Slide Rules

Large site that contains three searchable databases, one for eBay prices,
one for published slide rule articles, and one for message archives of the
International Slide rule Group. Many photos of his extensive collection.
A favorite resource of slide rule collectors.
www.sliderules.lovett.com

Clark McCoys Keuffel & Esser Slide Rule Site

Extensive K&E catalog archives and thorough K&E information. Detailed
spreadsheet listing of all known K&E models, over 600 of them! The place to
go for K&E information. Many photos of slide rules.
www.mccoys-kecatalogs.com
Gregs Ozmanor
Best source for free download slide rule manuals -- 53 of them. Many
photos of Greg Scotts collection. Great resource.
http://sliderule.ozmanor.com
Erics Slide Rule Site

Great variety of both general and specific slide rule information by Eric
Marcotte. Many photos of his collection. Very interesting site.
http://www.sliderule.ca/index.shtml
Slide Rule Trading Co.

Paul Ross has on his website the Complete Hemmi Catalog, the most
comprehensive archive on Hemmi slide rules. See Dealers listing below for
additional information on this excellent website.
http://www.srtco.us
Slide Rule Organizations

Interested in Slide Rules? Join The Oughtred Society. See above.
http://www.oughtred.org
The International Slide Rule Group

Online discussion group hosted by Yahoo. Over 1600 members worldwide
exchange slide rule information by Email. Average of about 15 messages per day.
Members may opt to receive individual Email messages, or a once daily digest of
messages, or no messages (they can read messages on the Groups website).
Open membership. Messages are moderated. This is the slide rule discussion
site.
http://www.groups.yahoo.com/group/sliderule
The Slide Rule Trading Group

Sister group for members of The International Slide Rule Group above.
For posting messages about slide rules for sale, for trade or wanted. 575
members.
http://www.groups.yahoo.com/group/sliderule-trade
Dutch Circle of Slide Rule Collectors

Here you can see a range of rules which were common in the Netherlands
as well as other areas of Europe. In addition to the pictures of special samples
there is also a history as well as a calendar of events of the group. The site is in
Dutch, German, French and English. Has about 40 members. Hosts Interna-
tional Meetings of slide rule and instrument collectors.
http://www.rekenlinialen.org
United Kingdom Slide Rule Circle

Goal is to promote interest in slide rules. About 50 members. Publishes
triannual newsletter. Interesting links to other slide rule websites. Hosts
International Meetings of slide rule and instrument collectors.
http://www.uksrc.org.uk/
German Rechenschieber Sammler Treffen
Active German slide rule group. Literature recommendations, links, various
slide rule information, meeting schedules, etc. Hosts International Meetings
of slide rule and instrument collectors.
www.rechenschieber.org
ARC: Amigos de las Reglas de Calculo

ARC is the only Spanish speaking association of slide rule collectors. It
includes Spain and many other countries and is open to any Spanish speak-
ing collector.
http//:www.reglasdecalculo.org
Dealers Places to Buy Slide Rules

Slide Rule Universe
Very large website about slide rules. Large inventory of new and used slide
rules for sale. Also sells slide rule parts, manuals and books.
http://www.sphere.bc.ca/test/sruniverse.html
Vintage Instruments
Dick Rose has thousands of slide rules for sale. Also drafting tools,
planimeters, mechanical calculators, books, manuals. Great resource.
http://www.rose-vintage-instruments.com/newlook/links.php
Slide Rule Trading Co.

Paul Ross has a large selection of slide rule parts. Also a nice selection of
new slide rules ... Hemmi and other brands... and used slide rules. His site is the
home of the Complete Hemmi Catalog, the most comprehensive listing of
Hemmi slide rules anywhere. Paul has the most complete collection of Post slide
rule models and probably the most complete Hemmi collection.
http://www.srtco.us
The Gemmary
Rick Blankenhorns site offers a wide selection of antique scientific
instruments of all kinds, books and slide rules.
http://www.gemmary.com
David Crates Quality Slide Rules

Nice selection and an interesting website.
http://www.davidcrate.com/
Gilai Collectibles
A fine selection of scientific instruments, collectibles and slide rules.
http://www.gilai.com
Antiques of a Mechanical Nature

Larry Meeker has many nice antiques and slide rules.
http://www.patented-antiques.com
eBay
Approximately 2000 slide rules and realted items are listed for sale by auc-
tion at any given time. Most auctions are 7 days duration, meaning that almost
300 slide rules and related items per day are sold on eBay. Buying on eBay can
be, of course, a bit more risky than buying from a reputable dealer.
http://www.ebay.com
Private Slide Rule Collections

Several collectors websites appear in the General Information list above.
Additional collectors websites are :
The Slide Rule Guy (Jay Francis) http://www.slideruleguy.com

Chris Gillings http://chris.gillings.com/collect/slide/index.html
Peter Holland (Collector in Germany) http://www.peterholland.de
Giovanni Pastore (Collector in Italy)
http://www.giovannipastore.it/index_english.htm
Atsushi Tomozawa (Collector in Japan)
http://www5b.biglobe.ne.jp/~tomozawa/en/sliderule/sliderule.htm
Slide Rule Museums

www.sliderulemuseum.com
Hewlett-Packard Museum of Calculators

www.hpmuseum.org
Computer Museum
http://www.syssrc.com/html/museum/html/slide.html
The Collection of Dr. Joern Luetjens

http://www.joernluetjens.de/sammlungen/rechenschieber/rechenschieber-eng.htm
Museum of Pocket Calculating Devices

http://www.calculators.de
Macleay Museum
http://sydney.edu.au/museums/collections/macleay_scientific.shtml
Slide Rule Manufacturer

Concise Co. Ltd.
Tokyo, Japan
http://www.concise.co.jp/eng0731/slide.html
This company, established in 1954, continues to make and sell several

models of its high quality circular slide rules. No linear rules made. You can
purchase via their website with a credit card. Service and delivery are fast and
excellent.
9 AA6

Chapter Seventeen - Collecting Slide Rules 99
Collecting Slide Rules
Why collect slide rules?
People collect slide rules for many reasons. Perhaps they used a slide rule in
the past. Perhaps they like old instruments. Perhaps a friend stirred their
interest. Perhaps they want to learn more about this fascinating instrument.
What slide rules to collect?
There are as many types of collections as there are collectors. You can
expect that your focus will change as you gain experience and as your interests
change over time. Known collections range from a few rules to more than
5,000.
Some of the more often seen types of collections are:
1. General, consisting of whatever pleases you at the time.
2. As many different models as possible from one maker. This objective
becomes increasingly difficult and expensive as one obtains the more common
models and seeks the scarcer ones. Some collectors have the objective to obtain
one of every model from a certain manufacturer. It is unlikely that anyone has
yet succeeded with this objective or possibly ever will! For example, more than
600 different models of Keuffel & Esser slide rules exist. In addition, many
makers produced special rules on special order for a variety of companies and
uses. These rules did not appear in the makers catalogs and many such rules
are unknown.
3. One rule from as many different makers and brands as possible. This is an
ambitious objective, for almost 400 different makers have been identified.
4. One type of slide rule. There are collectors who specialize in electricity or
electronics rules... surveying rules ... chemistry ... rules with hyperbolic trigo-
nometry scales, etc.
5. New in box rules. Often abbreviated as NIB. These rules can be
expected to include all extras such as original case, instructions, and any
other related packaging or materials. New in box slide rules are avallable in
many brands and models. Some dealers sell such rules. (See list of dealers in the
chapter Slide Rules on the Internet, page 93). Also, new slide rules appear on
eBay from time to time.
6. Pocket rules ... those with 12.5 cm (5 inch) scales.
7. 19th century rules.
8. Most complex model from many makers ... top of the line rules, so to
speak.
When collectors decide the basis of their collecting, they can then deter-
mine the importance of quality of the slide rules they buy. One person may
want only mint or new specimens. Another may want normal used slide rules,
which are, of course, much less costly.
What makes a slide rule valuable?
There are many factors which can increase (or decrease) a slide rules
value. Here are some key concepts to consider:
Rarity. Some slide rules were manufactured by the millions, while others
were only made in short runs or for a short period of time. Some had such
peculiar and limited applications that only a few were ever manufactured or
sold. Rarer rules are generally considered to have a higher value than more
commonplace ones.
Quality. Some slide rule manufacturers made beautiful high quality instru-
ments designed to last more than a lifetime, while others made inexpensive low-
quality throw-aways. Like other types of ephemera, some of the throw-aways
have gained value over time because though once common, they are now rare.
However, generally speaking, lower quality rules have less value than higher
quality ones. High quality rules have accurate legible scales and are made from
durable materials such as mahogany, boxwood, ivory and bamboo. They are
designed to withstand temperature variations and hard use.
Historical Significance. The development of slide rules paralleled other
technological advances. Slide rules that reflect significant changes in calcu-
lating methodologies, or ones made or used by historically significant figures
generally find greater popularity with collectors.
Condition. As with any antique, condition of the rule and its case really
counts. Significant condition issues include broken cursors, scratches, blem-
ishes, cracks, sticky slides and extraneous writing.
Complexity. In general, more the complex a slide rule is, the more scales it
will have and the higher its value will be.
Visual lnterest. Some slide rules have great aesthetic appeal while others
appear clunky and odd.
Size. Many collectors and users prefer rules small enough to fit in a pocket.
These rules are commonly called 5 inch rules (although their scales are almost
always 12.5 centimeters long ... not exactly the same as 5 inches). The standard
slide rule size is generally referred to as 10 inch, which represents the length of a
single scale from end to end (although the actual length is almost always 25
centimeters).
Personal Significance. Many users and collectors seek to replace their slide
rule from high school or college. Others seek rules that were used in their
specialized field of endeavor.
What to Do With My Slide Rule Collection
See article What to Do with My Slide Rule Collection -- Suggestions and

Aternatives by W. Richard Davis in the Joural of the Oughtred Society, Vol.
21, No. 1, Spring 2012, p. 2.
Chapter
Chapter Seventeen - Collecting Slide Rules 101
The Oughtred Society was founded in 1991 by a group of slide rule collectors
and is dedicated to the preservation and history of slide rules and mechanical
calculators. In the past 21 years, it has evolved to an international organization of
some 400 members in 23 countries. lt is noted for its highly acclaimed Journal of
The Oughtred Society, published twice annually. The Societys activities are carried
out by members who volunteer to do various jobs and projects. Membership is
open to anyone.
Objectives of the Society include the dissemination and sharing of information
about slide rules and mechanical calculators, and encouragement for collectors and
researchers. The Society is a non-profit educational organization and is affiliated
with similar organizations in Great Britain, Germany and The Netherlands.
Benefits of membership include:
Subscription to the Journal of The Oughtred Society, published twice annually.
This internationally acclaimed journal is the most authoritative source
on slide rules and mechanical calculators, with each issue containing a wealth of
information about makes and makers, models, uses, history and more. Members
are encouraged to submit articles.
Members can acquire back issues of the Journal from its inception in
1991.
Annual Members Directory, a great resource for locating and communicat-
ing with other collectors, aficionados and dealers.
Annual meetings and auctions for members occur on the West Coast in
June, the East Coast in November, and the Southwest in February. Southwest
meetings have been held in Las Vegas, Los Angeles, and Tucson. At meetings,
members exchange information, display items from their collections, and have the
opportunity to participate in an auction in which many kinds of slide rules and
calculators are sold, from the ordinary and inexpensive to the rare.
Are you interested in slide rules or in mechanical calculators?

Join The Oughtred Society!
Membership cost is $35 annually in the USA and $45 internationally. You
may join using your credit card via PayPal on the Oughtred Society
website. Click Here. Or mail your check to The Oughtred Society, 9
Stephens Court, Roseville, CA 95678
Please include your Email address if you have one.
For more information, contact us by Email at: [email protected]
If you would like to have a book containing information similar to the

17 chapters presented in All About Slide Rules please consider the purchase
of The Oughtred Society Slide Rule Reference Manual, Second Edition,
available HERE for the price of $35 plus shipping.
Index 103
Index
A Dealers 95 Hemmi; Sun Hemmi 18, 19, 29, 41,

Acu-Math 78 Deci-Lon, Keuffel & Esser 23, 51 48, 71, 72, 76
Addiator 69 Decimal point, location of 40, 54, 58 Hewlett Packard Museum of Calcu-
Advanced features 67 Denmark 77 lators 97
Aluminum, slide rules made of 25 Dennert & Pape 15 History, chronology 11
Analon, Keuffel & Esser 32 Dietzgen, Eugene Co. 20, 23, 24, 26, History, epilogue 19
Anatomy, slide rule 35 46, 75 History, its last century 16
Aristo 15, 30, 31, 36, 37, 71, 73, 76, Division 41 History, prologue 11
77, 80 Diwa 53, 77 Hopp, Peter 83
Dutch Circle of Slide Rule Collectors Hyperlog 0972, Aristo 31
Articles on slide rules 86
95
B I
Bamboo 24, 90
E Index, on slide rule scale 35
e, base of natural logarithms 55 International Slide Rule Group 94
Basic types 23
eBay 96 Internet, general information 93
Belcher Brothers 15
Einstein, Albert 6, 19
Body 35
Books on slide rules 83
Electricity 72 J
Electronic calculators 70 Elec- Japan 76
Boulton, James 14
tronics 72 Jefferson, Thomas 15
Business & finance 71 End brace, cleaning 91
End brace, end bracket 35
C Engine divided scales 15
K
England 77 Keuffel & Esser (K&E) 1, 17, 18, 23,
Cajori, Florian 83
Erasers 89 32, 34, 41, 51, 72, 75
Caring for your slide rule 87
Cases, leather 92 Everard, Thomas 13
Celluloid 24, 87 Exponentiation 55 L
Chain calculations 43 Lawrence Engineering Service 75, 78
Charpentier slide rule 33 F Less common types 29
Chemistry 34, 71 Faber-Castell 15, 25, 27, 32, 67, 68, Log log duplex 27
Circle, area of 48, 57 69, 70, 73, 80 Log Log Duplex Decitrig, Keuffel &
Classroom demonstration slide rule Fowlers calculator 35 Esser 18, 27
30 France 29, 77 Log log scales 55
Cleaning your slide rule 87 Fuller calculator 31 Logarithms, are simple 7
Coggeshall, Henry 12 Fuller, George 15 Logarithms, characteristic 8
Collecting 99 Logarithms, common 7, 53
Color coding 68 Logarithms, mantissa 8
Companies, major slide rule 75
G Logarithms, natural 55
Galilei, Galileo 11 Logarithms, on the slide rule 53
Concise Co., Ltd. 76, 79 Cosine 51
Gauge marks 67
Cotangent 52
Germany 77
Cox, William 16
Gilson 3, 23, 75
M
Cubes and cube roots 46 Macleay Museum 97
Gilson binary 23
Cursor 35 Mannheim scales 26
Graphoplex 29, 77
Cursor, cleaning 90 Mannheim, Amadee 14
Gunter scale 12
Cursor, multi-line 67 Manuals 83
Gunter, Edmund 12
Cursor, repairing 91 Manufacturer, current 97
Materials 24
H Mathema, Faber-Castell 32
D Hairline 91 Metric conversion 74
Darmstadt 27, 37, 80, 81 Hemmi, Jiro 18 Models 75
Multiplication 39 Scales, list of common 63 V

Museums 97 Scales, reading 36 van Herwijnen, Herman 83
Schuitema, IJzebrand 83 Versalog, Frederick Post Co. 27, 35
N ScotchBrite pads 88 von Braun, Wernher 6, 19
Sector 11 von Jezierski, Dieter 83
Napier, John 11
Shawlee, Walter 93
Napiers bones 12
Sine 51
Navigation 73
Slide 35 W
Nestler 27, 55, 67, 72, 76, 81 Warner, John 14
Slide charts 28
Newton, Sir Isaac 12 Watt, James 14
Slide Rule Trading Group 94
Novo-Duplex 2/83N, Faber-Castell Wax 89
Slide Rule Universe 93, 95
68 Slide rule, definition 1 Websites about slide rules 93
Slide rule, how they are made 2 Windex 88
O Slide rule, how they work 7 Wood, slide rules made of 24, 87
Organizations 94, 95 Slide rule, terminology 35
Oughtred Society, The 75, 82, 101 Slide rule, unique characteristics 2
Slide rule, value 100
Oughtred, William 12
Slide rule, what they do 4
Slide rule, what they have done 5
P Soho slide rule 14
Private collections 96 Solvents 87, 90, 92
Palmers calculator 15 Squares and square roots 44, 58
Pi, calculations with 48 Stanley Rule & Level Co. 15
Pickett 2, 4, 9, 25, 30, 39, 75 Stator 35
Pickett N4-ES Dual Base Vector Log Stearns, E. A. & Co. 15
Log 25 Steel, slide rules made of 26
Plastic, slide rules made of 24, 90 Steel wool 86
Post, Frederick Co. 4, 27, 29, 35, 42, Sterling Plastics 44, 74, 75, 78
75, 77 Stock 35
Priestly,Joseph15 StudioLog 0969, Aristo 77
Proportions 60 Sunlight 87, 89
Surveying 71
R
Radio 72 T
Reciprocals 44, 56 Tangent 52
Reiss 25, 76, 81 Tavernier & Gravet 14
Relay/Ricoh 57, 76, 79 Terminology, slide rule 35
Richardson slide rule 15 Thacher calculator 16
Rietz 27 Thacher, Edwin 15
Roget, Peter 14 Thornton 77, 79, 82
Rulers 68 Time savers 57
Tricks 57
S Trigonometry 51
Sandpaper 88
Scale arrangements 26 U
Scale letters, meaning 35 Unique 77, 79, 81
Scale names 36 United Kingdom Slide Rule Circle 95
Scales, folded 41, 48, 63 United States 75

All About Slide Rules 2012 PDF

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ALL

A publication of The Oughtred Society

Benefits of membership include:

The Oughtred Society

I What Is a Slide Rule

The following instructions are for Adobe Reader.

What is a Slide Rule?

Definition of a Slide Rule ... and What It Can and Cant Do

A slide rule is a simple looking mechanical device based on logarithms that

Unique Characteristics of the Slide Rule

How Slide Rules are Made

Pickett N1010ES, 25cm

Gilson Midget, 4" diam-

Some scarce types are cylindrical.

Post 1444K, 12.5 cm

What Slide Rules Do

What Slide Rules Have Done

It is interesting to consider that virtually all bridges, buildings and other

Pickett N600ES Apollo,

How a Slide Rule Works

A slide rule multiplies by adding logarithms of numbers.

Thus 22 = 4. 23 = 8. 22 x 23 = 25 = 32. And 25 _: 22 =23. 32 _: 4 = 8

A slide rule does this by sliding logarithmic scales of numbers alongside

Post 1444K, 12.5 cm

Using 10 as the base (common logarithms), note the following:

A Couple of Strange Terms... Characteristic and Mantissa

The Starting Point in Slide Rule Operation Multiplication

2 (logarithm is 0.301) times 375 (logarithm is 2.574) = 750 (logarithm is

Pickett 160, 12.5 cm

But ... what about numbers less than 1?

They are represented by a logarithm with a negative characteristic.

History of the Slide Rule

The pre-eminent figures in science both contributed to the creation of

Just Before the Slide Rule

Sector, Ivory, with brass

Chronological History of the Slide Rule

John Napier dramatically advances the understanding of number rela-

Napiers Bones, plate,

Calculating instruments now begin to appear in rapid succession ...

Napier himself contributes Napiers Bones in 1617, calculating sticks

slide rules accuracy, precision, and mass production.

Tavernier & Gravet slide

A revolutionary linear slide rule construction with scales on both front

Coxs duplex slide rule,

The evidence of the slide rules portable, immediate power stands

In the United States, this indispensability is seized upon most success-

Apollo lander Eagle,

Golden Gate Bridge,

Empire State Building,

Buzz Aldrin walks on

Common Types of Slide Rules

Dietzgen 1771, 12.5 cm

Open Body (Duplex) Linear

Circular Keuffel & Esser 68 1000

Gilson Binary, 8"

The Materials Used to Make Slide Rules

Keuffel & Esser 4058C, Celluloid on Wood or Bamboo Core

Dietzgen N1725 Plastic

Reiss 3223 Progress