REAL TIME BUILDING ZONE OCCUPANCY DETECTION AND ACTIVITY

VISUALIZATION UTILIZING A VISITOR COUNTING SENSOR

NETWORK

INDEX

1 Abbreviations
2 Figures locations
3 Introduction
4 Block Diagram
5 Block Diagram Description
6 Schematic
7 Schematic Description
8 Hardware Components
9 Circuit Description
10 Software components
a About Kiel
b Embedded C
11 KEIL procedure description
12 Conclusion (or) Synopsis
13 Future Aspects
14 Bibliography
ABBREVATIONS
Symbol Name

MAM Memory accelerometer module

VIC Vectored interrupt controller

FIQ Fast interrupt request

PWM Pulse width modulation

GPIO General purpose input/output

UART Universal asynchronous receiver/transmitter

DLAB Data latch access bit

LCR Line control register

LSR Line status register

RDR Receiver data ready

SPI Serial peripheral interface

ADC Analog to digital converter

DAC Digital to analog converter

SSP Synchronous serial port

MOSI Master out slave in

RTC Real time clock

EINT External interrupt

DTR Data terminal ready

AHB Advanced high performance

ATLE Auto transfer length extraction

CTS Clear to send

RTS Request to send

DSR Data set ready

RI Ring indicator
 INTRODUCTION
An embedded system is a special-purpose system in which the computer is completely
encapsulated by or dedicated to the device or system it controls. Unlike a general-purpose
computer, such as a personal computer, an embedded system performs one or a few
predefined tasks, usually with very specific requirements. Since the system is dedicated to
specific tasks, design engineers can optimize it, reducing the size and cost of the product.
Embedded systems are often mass-produced, benefiting from economies of scale.
Personal digital assistants (PDAs) or handheld computers
are generally considered embedded devices because of the nature of
their hardware design, even though they are more expandable in
software terms. This line of definition continues to blur as devices
expand. With the introduction of the OQO Model 2 with the
Windows XP operating system and ports such as a USB port
both features usually belong to "general purpose computers", the
line of nomenclature blurs even more.
Embedded systems plays major role in electronics varies from portable devices to
large stationary installations like digital watches and MP3 players, traffic lights, factory
controllers, or the systems controlling nuclear power plants.
In terms of complexity embedded systems can range from very simple with a single
microcontroller chip, to very complex with multiple units, peripherals and networks mounted
inside a large chassis or enclosure.
Examples of Embedded Systems:

Avionics, such as inertial guidance systems, flight control hardware/software and

other integrated systems in aircraft and missiles

Cellular telephones and telephone switches

Engine controllers and antilock brake controllers for automobiles

Home automation products, such as thermostats, air conditioners, sprinklers, and

security monitoring systems

Handheld calculators
 Handheld computers

Household appliances, including microwave ovens, washing machines, television sets,

DVD players and recorders

Medical equipment

Personal digital assistant

Videogame consoles

Computer peripherals such as routers and printers.

Industrial controllers for remote machine operation.

TRANSMITER SECTION:

IR SENSORS LCD DISPLAY

(16*2 LINES)

ON/OFF
TEMPARATUR MICRO
DEVICES
ESENSORS CONTROLLER BASED ON
COUNT

RELAY
CO2
SENSORS

PUMP MOTOR
 BLOCK DIAGRAM DESCRIPTION

Power Supply: This section is meant for supplying Power to all the sections mentioned
above. It basically consists of a Transformer to step down the 230V ac to 9V ac followed by
diodes. Here diodes are used to rectify the ac to dc. After rectification the obtained rippled dc
is filtered using a capacitor Filter. A positive voltage regulator is used to regulate the obtained
dc voltage.
Microcontroller: This section forms the control unit of the whole project. This section
basically consists of a Microcontroller with its associated circuitry like Crystal with
capacitors, Reset circuitry, Pull up resistors (if needed) and so on. The Microcontroller forms
the heart of the project because it controls the devices being interfaced and communicates
with the devices according to the program being written.
LCD Display: This section is basically meant to show up the status of the project. This
project makes use of Liquid Crystal Display to display / prompt for necessary information.
Temperature sensor: Thermistors are a temperature sensing devise. It is used to sense the
temperature. In this project by depends on the value of temperature the exhaust fan will run.
IR Sensor: The IR LED is used as the IR transmitter, which is connected by using the
resistor logic as shown in the schematic. The IR receiver is connected by using the transistor
logic whose collector is connected to the base of the transistor. The base of the transistor is
connected to the photo diode through the resistor.

Smoke sensor: Smoke sensor is used to detect any leakage of smoke and any hazardous
gases such that an alarm can be initiated to avoid any damages in the industries. These
sensors are also used in many applications like corporate and in any office work areas these
are linked to fire alarms
DC Motor: DC motor is an output for this project. And DC motor is connected to
microcontroller. And this motor controlled by the microcontroller with the respective inputs
given by us. Its speed will be varied according to the speed set by the switches.

DC Fan: Dc fan is the output section. Dc fan needs dc supply. So we can directly add the dc
motor to micro controller with transistor logic.

HARDWARE COMPONENTS

Microcontroller (LPC 2148):

ARM stands for Advanced RISC Machines. It is a 32 bit processor core, used for high
end application. It is widely used in Advanced Robotic Applications.

History and Development:

ARM was developed at Acron Computers ltd of Cambridge, England between 1983
and 1985.
RISC concept was introduced in 1980 at Stanford and Berkley.

ARM ltd was found in 1990.

ARM cores are licensed to partners so as to develop and fabricate new

microcontrollers around same processor cores.
Key features:
16-bit/32-bit ARM7TDMI-S microcontroller in a tiny LQFP64 package.
8 kB to 40 kB of on-chip static RAM and 32 kB to 512 kB of on-chip flash memory.
128-bit wide interface/accelerator enables high-speed 60 MHz operation.
In-System Programming/In-Application Programming (ISP/IAP) via on-chip boot
loader software. Single flash sector or full chip erase in 400 ms and programming of
256 bytes in 1 ms.
Embedded ICE RT and Embedded Trace interfaces offer real-time debugging with the
on-chip Real Monitor software and high-speed tracing of instruction execution.
USB 2.0 Full-speed compliant device controller with 2 kB of endpoint RAM.
 In addition, the LPC2146/48 provides 8 kB of on-chip RAM accessible to USB by
DMA.
One or two (LPC2141/42 vs. LPC2144/46/48) 10-bit ADCs provide a total of 6/14
analog inputs, with conversion times as low as 2.44 s per channel.
Single 10-bit DAC provides variable analog output (LPC2142/44/46/48 only).
Two 32-bit timers/external event counters (with four capture and four compare
channels each), PWM unit (six outputs) and watchdog.
Low power Real-Time Clock (RTC) with independent power and 32 kHz clock input.
Multiple serial interfaces including two UARTs (16C550), two Fast I2C-bus (400
kbit/s),
SPI and SSP with buffering and variable data length capabilities.
Vectored Interrupt Controller (VIC) with configurable priorities and vector addresses.
Up to 45 of 5 V tolerant fast general purpose I/O pins in a tiny LQFP64 package.
Up to 21 external interrupt pins available.
60 MHz maximum CPU clock available from programmable on-chip PLL with
settling time of 100 s.
On-chip integrated oscillator operates with an external crystal from 1 MHz to 25
MHz.
Power saving modes include Idle and Power-down.
 Individual enable/disable of peripheral functions as well as peripheral clock scaling
for additional power optimization.
Processor wake-up from Power-down mode via external interrupt or BOD.
Single power supply chip with POR and BOD circuits:
CPU operating voltage range of 3.0 V to 3.6 V (3.3 V 10 %) with 5 V tolerant I/O
pads.

Block diagram:

Pin description
Core Data path:
Architecture is characterized by Data path and control path.
 Data path is organized in such a way that, operands are not fetched directly from
memory locations. Data items are placed in register files. No data processing takes
place in memory locations.
Instructions typically use 3 registers. 2 source registers and 1 destination register.

Barrel Shifter preprocesses data, before it enters ALU.

- Barrel Shifter is basically a combinational logic circuit, which can shift data to
left or right by arbitrary number of position in same cycle.
Increment or Decrement logic can update register content for sequential access.

Pipeline:
In ARM 7, a 3 stage pipeline is used. A 3 stage pipeline is the simplest form of
pipeline that does not suffer from the problems such as read before write.
In a pipeline, when one instruction is executed, second instruction is decoded and
third instruction will be fetched.
This is executed in a single cycle.

Register Bank:
ARM 7 uses load and store Architecture.

Data has to be moved from memory location to a central set of registers.

Data processing is done and is stored back into memory.

Register bank contains, general purpose registers to hold either data or address.

It is a bank of 16 user registers R0-R15 and 2 status registers.

Each of these registers is 32 bit wide.

Data Registers- R0-R15:

R0-R12 - General Purpose Registers

R13-R15 - Special function registers of which,

R13 - Stack Pointer, refers to entry pointer of Stack.
R14 - Link Register, Return address is put to this when ever a subroutine is called.
R15 - Program Counter
 Depending upon application R13 and R14 can also be used as GPR. But not
commonly used.

In addition there are 2 status registers

CPSR - Current program status register, status of current execution is stored.

SPSR - Saved program Status register, includes status of program as well as

processor.
CPSR

CPSR contains a number of flags which report and control the operation of ARM7 CPU.

Conditional Code Flags

N - Negative Result from ALU
Z - Zero result from ALU
C - ALU operation carried out
V - ALU operation overflowed
Interrupt Enable Bits
I - IRQ, Interrupt Disable
F - FIQ, Disable Fast Interrupt

T- Bit
If
T=0, Processor in ARM Mode.
T=1, Processor in THUMB Mode

Mode Bits
Specifies the processor Modes. Processor Modes will be discussed in the next part of this
tutorial.

VECTORED INTERRUPT CONTROLLER:

FEATURES:
1. ARM Prime Cell Vectored Interrupt Controller
2. 32 interrupt request inputs
3. 16 vectored IRQ interrupts
4. 16 priority levels dynamically assigned to interrupt requests
5. Software interrupt generation.

DESCRIPTION:
The Vectored Interrupt Controller (VIC) takes 32 interrupt request inputs and
programmably assigns them into 3 categories, FIQ, vectored IRQ, and non-vectored
IRQ.
The programmable assignment scheme means that priorities of interrupts from the
various peripherals can be dynamically assigned and adjusted.
Fast Interrupt reQuest (FIQ) requests have the highest priority. If more than one
request is assigned to FIQ, the VIC ORs the requests to produce the FIQ signal to the
ARM processor.
The fastest possible FIQ latency is achieved when only one request is classified as
FIQ, because then the FIQ service routine can simply start dealing with that device.
 But if more than one request is assigned to the FIQ class, the FIQ service routine can
read a word from the VIC that identifies which FIQ source(s) is (are) requesting an
interrupt.
Vectored IRQs have the middle priority, but only 16 of the 32 requests can be
assigned to this category.
Any of the 32 requests can be assigned to any of the 16 vectored IRQ slots, among
which slot 0 has the highest priority and slot 15 has the lowest.
Non-vectored IRQs have the lowest priority.
The VIC ORs the requests from all the vectored and non-vectored IRQs to produce
the
IRQ signal to the ARM processor. The IRQ service routine can start by reading a
register from the VIC and jumping there. If any of the vectored IRQs are requesting,
the VIC provides the address of the highest-priority requesting IRQs service routine,
otherwise it
provides the address of a default routine that is shared by all the non-vectored IRQs.
The default routine can read another VIC register to see what IRQs are active.
All registers in the VIC are word registers. Byte and halfword reads and write are not
supported.
Additional information on the Vectored Interrupt Controller is available in the ARM

Register description:
UNIVERSAL ASYNCHRONOUS RECEIVER/TRANSMITTER 0:

Features:
16 byte Receive and Transmit FIFOs
Register locations conform to 550 industry standard
Receiver FIFO trigger points at 1, 4, 8, and 14 bytes
Built-in fractional baud rate generator with autobauding capabilities.
Mechanism that enables software and hardware flow control implementation

Pin description:

Register description:
Architecture:
The VPB interface provides a communications link between the CPU or host and the
UART0.
The UART0 receiver block, U0RX, monitors the serial input line, RXD0, for valid
input. The
UART0 RX Shift Register (U0RSR) accepts valid characters via RXD0. After a valid
character
is assembled in the U0RSR, it is passed to the UART0 RX Buffer Register FIFO to
await access by the CPU or host via the generic host interface.

The UART0 transmitter block, U0TX, accepts data written by the CPU or host and buffers
the data in the UART0 TX Holding Register FIFO (U0THR). The UART0 TX Shift Register
(U0TSR) reads the data stored in the U0THR and assembles the data to transmit via the serial
output pin, TXD0
The UART0 Baud Rate Generator block, U0BRG, generates the timing enables used by the
UART0 TX block. The U0BRG clock input source is the VPB clock (PCLK). The main clock
is divided down per the divisor specified in the U0DLL and U0DLM registers. This divided
down clock is a 16x oversample clock, NBAUDOUT. The interrupt interface contains
registers U0IER and U0IIR. The interrupt interface receives several one clock wide enables
from the U0TX and U0RX blocks. Status information from the U0TX and U0RX is stored in
the U0LSR. Control information for the U0TX and U0RX is stored in the U0LCR

UNIVERSAL ASYNCHRONOUS RECEIVER/TRANSMITTER 1:

Features:
UART1 is identical to UART0, with the addition of a modem interface.
16 byte Receive and Transmit FIFOs
Register locations conform to 550 industry standard
 Receiver FIFO trigger points at 1, 4, 8, and 14 bytes
Built-in fractional baud rate generator with autobauding capabilities.
Mechanism that enables software and hardware flow control implementation
Standard modem interface signals included with flow control (auto-CTS/RTS) fully
supported in hardware (LPC2144/6/8 only).

Pin description:

Register description:
Architecture:
The VPB interface provides a communications link between the CPU or host and the UART1.
The UART1 receiver block, U1RX, monitors the serial input line, RXD1, for valid input. The
UART1 RX Shift Register (U1RSR) accepts valid characters via RXD1. After a valid
character is assembled in the U1RSR, it is passed to the UART1 RX Buffer Register FIFO to
await access by the CPU or host via the generic host interface The UART1 transmitter block,
U1TX, accepts data written by the CPU or host and buffers the data in the UART1 TX
Holding Register FIFO (U1THR). The UART1 TX Shift Register
U1TSR) reads the data stored in the U1THR and assembles the data to transmit via the serial
output pin, TXD1. The UART1 Baud Rate Generator block, U1BRG, generates the timing
enables used by the UART1 TX block. The U1BRG clock input source is the VPB clock
(PCLK). The main clock is divided down per the divisor specified in the U1DLL and
U1DLM registers. This divided down clock is a 16x oversample clock, NBAUDOUT The
modem interface contains registers U1MCR and U1MSR. This interface is responsible for
handshaking between a modem peripheral and the UART1

The interrupt interface contains registers U1IER and U1IIR. The interrupt interface receives
several one clock wide enables from the U1TX and U1RX blocks.Status information from the
U1TX and U1RX is stored in the U1LSR. Control information for the U1TX and U1RX is
stored in the U1LCR.

ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERTER (ADC):

Features:
10 bit successive approximation analog to digital converter (one in LPC2141/2 and
two in LPC2144/6/8).
 Input multiplexing among 6 or 8 pins (ADC0 and ADC1).
Power-down mode.
Burst conversion mode for single or multiple inputs.
Optional conversion on transition on input pin or Timer Match signal.
Global Start command for both converters (LPC2144/6/8 only).
Description:

Basic clocking for the A/D converters is provided by the VPB clock. A programmable
divider is included in each converter, to scale this clock to the 4.5 MHz (max) clock
needed by the successive approximation process. A fully accurate conversion requires 11
of these clocks.

Pin description:

Register description:
Operation:
Hardware-triggered conversion:
If the BURST bit in the ADCR is 0 and the START field contains 010-111, the ADC will start
a conversion when a transition occurs on a selected pin or Timer Match signal. Th choices
include conversion on a specified edge of any of 4 Match signals, or conversion on a
specified edge of either of 2 Capture/Match pins. The pin state from the selected pad or the
selected Match signal, XORed with ADCR bit 27, is used in the edge detection logic

Interrupts:
An interrupt request is asserted to the Vectored Interrupt Controller (VIC) when the DONE
bit is 1. Software can use the Interrupt Enable bit for the A/D Converter in the VIC to control
whether this assertion results in an interrupt. DONE is negated when the ADDR is read.
REAL TIME CLOCK:
Features:
Measures the passage of time to maintain a calendar and clock.
Ultra Low Power design to support battery powered systems
Provides Seconds, Minutes, Hours, Day of Month, Month, Year, Day of Week, and
Day of Year
Dedicated 32 kHz oscillator or programmable prescaler from VPB clock.
Dedicated power supply pin can be connected to a battery or to the main 3.3 V
Description:
On, and optionally when it is off. It uses little power in Power-down mode. On the
LPC2141/2/4/6/8, the RTC can be clocked by a separate 32.768 KHz oscillator, or by a
programmable prescale divider based on the VPB clock. Also, the RTC is powered by its,
which can be connected to a battery or to the same 3.3 V supply used by the rest of the device.
Architecture:

Register description:

The RTC includes a number of registers. The address space is split into four sections by
functionality.The first eight addresses are the Miscellaneous Register Group(Section 19.4.2).
The second set of eight locations are the Time Counter Group(Section 19.4.12). The third set
of eight locations contain the Alarm Register Group(Section 19.4.14). The remaining
registers control the Reference Clock Divider. The Real Time Clock includes the register
shown in Table 263. Detailed descriptions of the registers follow.
RTC interrupts:
Interrupt generation is controlled through the Interrupt Location Register (ILR), Counter
Increment Interrupt Register (CIIR), the alarm registers, and the Alarm Mask Register
(AMR). Interrupts are generated only by the transition into the interrupt state. The ILR
separately enables CIIR and AMR interrupts. Each bit in CIIR corresponds to one of the time
counters. If CIIR is enabled for a particular counter, then every time the counter is
Incremented an interrupt is generated. The alarm registers allow the user to specify a date and
time for an interrupt to be generated. The AMR provides a mechanism to mask alarm
Compares. If all nonmasked alarm registers match the value in their corresponding time
counter, then an interrupt is generated. The RTC interrupt can bring the microcontroller out of
power-down mode if the RTC is operating from its own oscillator on the RTCX1-2 pins.
When the RTC interrupt is enabled for wakeup and its selected event occurs, XTAL1/2 pins
associated oscillator wakeup cycle is started
Miscellaneous register group:

Clock Tick Counter Register (CTCR - 0xE002 4004):

The Clock Tick Counter is read only. It can be reset to zero through the Clock Control
Register (CCR). The CTC consists of the bits of the clock divider counter

Power Supply:
The power supply is designed to convert high voltage AC mains electricity to a
suitable low voltage supply for electronic circuits and other devices. A power supply can by
broken down into a series of blocks, each of which performs a particular function. A D.C.
power supply which maintains the output voltage constant irrespective of a.c mains
fluctuations or load variations is known as Regulated D.C Power Supply

For example a 5V regulated power supply system as shown below:

Fig : Functional Block Diagram of Power supply

Transformer:
A transformer is an electrical device which is used to convert electrical power from
one electrical circuit to another without change in frequency.
Transformers convert AC electricity from one voltage to another with little loss of
power. Transformers work only with AC and this is one of the reasons why mains electricity
is AC. Step-up transformers increase in output voltage, step-down transformers decrease in
output voltage. Most power supplies use a step-down transformer to reduce the dangerously
high mains voltage to a safer low voltage. The input coil is called the primary and the output
coil is called the secondary. There is no electrical connection between the two coils; instead
they are linked by an alternating magnetic field created in the soft-iron core of the
transformer. The two lines in the middle of the circuit symbol represent the core.
Transformers waste very little power so the power out is (almost) equal to the power in. Note
that as voltage is stepped down current is stepped up. The ratio of the number of turns on
each coil, called the turns ratio, determines the ratio of the voltages. A step-down transformer
has a large number of turns on its primary (input) coil which is connected to the high voltage
mains supply, and a small number of turns on its secondary (output) coil to give a low output
voltage.

Fig : An Electrical Transformer

Turns ratio = Vp/ VS = Np/NS

Power Out= Power In
VS X IS=VP X IP
Vp = primary (input) voltage
Np = number of turns on primary coil
Ip = primary (input) current

Rectifier:
A circuit, which is used to convert a.c to dc, is known as RECTIFIER. The process of
conversion a.c to d.c is called rectification
Types of Rectifiers:
Half wave Rectifier
Full wave rectifier
1. Center tap full wave rectifier.
2. Bridge type full bridge rectifier.

Full-wave Rectifier:
 From the above comparisons we came to know that full wave bridge rectifier as more
advantages than the other two rectifiers. So, in our project we are using full wave bridge
rectifier circuit.
Bridge Rectifier:
A bridge rectifier makes use of four diodes in a bridge arrangement to achieve full-
wave rectification. This is a widely used configuration, both with individual diodes wired as
shown and with single component bridges where the diode bridge is wired internally.
A bridge rectifier makes use of four diodes in a bridge arrangement as shown in

fig(a) to achieve full-wave rectification. This is a widely used configuration, both with
individual diodes wired as shown and with single component bridges where the diode bridge
is wired internally.

Fig(24.A):

Operation:
During positive half cycle of secondary, the diodes D2 and D3 are in forward biased
while D1 and D4 are in reverse biased as shown in the fig(b). The current flow direction is
shown in the fig (b) with dotted arrows.

Fig(24.B)
 During negative half cycle of secondary voltage, the diodes D1 and D4 are in forward
biased while D2 and D3 are in reverse biased as shown in the fig(c). The current flow
direction is shown in the fig (c) with dotted arrows.

Fig(24.C)

Filter:
A Filter is a device, which removes the a.c component of rectifier output but allows the
d.c component to reach the load.
Capacitor Filter:
We have seen that the ripple content in the rectified output of half wave rectifier is
121% or that of full-wave or bridge rectifier or bridge rectifier is 48% such high percentages
of ripples is not acceptable for most of the applications. Ripples can be removed by one of the
following methods of filtering:
(a) A capacitor, in parallel to the load, provides an easier by pass for the ripples voltage
though it due to low impedance. At ripple frequency and leave the d.c.to appears the load.
(b) An inductor, in series with the load, prevents the passage of the ripple current (due to high
impedance at ripple frequency) while allowing the d.c (due to low resistance to d.c)
(c) various combinations of capacitor and inductor, such as L-section filter section filter,
multiple section filter etc. which make use of both the properties mentioned in (a) and (b)
above. Two cases of capacitor filter, one applied on half wave rectifier and another with full
wave rectifier.
Filtering is performed by a large value electrolytic capacitor connected across the DC
supply to act as a reservoir, supplying current to the output when the varying DC voltage
from the rectifier is falling. The capacitor charges quickly near the peak of the varying DC,
and then discharges as it supplies current to the output. Filtering significantly increases the
average DC voltage to almost the peak value (1.4 RMS value).
 To calculate the value of capacitor(C),
C = *3*f*r*Rl
Where,
f = supply frequency,
r = ripple factor,
Rl = load resistance
Note: In our circuit we are using 1000microfarads.

Type of Rectifier
Parameter Half wave Full wave Bridge
Number of diodes
1 2 3
PIV of diodes
Vm 2Vm Vm

D.C output voltage

Vm/ 2Vm/ 2Vm/

Vdc, at 0.318Vm 0.636Vm 0.636Vm

no-load

Ripple factor 1.21 0.482 0.482

Ripple
frequency f 2f 2f
Rectification
efficiency 0.406 0.812 0.812
Transformer
Utilization 0.287 0.693 0.812
Factor(TUF)
RMS voltage Vrms Vm/2 Vm/2 Vm/2

Table: Comparison of rectifier circuits:

Regulator:
Voltage regulator ICs is available with fixed (typically 5, 12 and 15V) or variable
output voltages. The maximum current they can pass also rates them. Negative voltage
regulators are available, mainly for use in dual supplies. Most regulators include some
automatic protection from excessive current ('overload protection') and overheating ('thermal
protection'). Many of the fixed voltage regulator ICs have 3 leads and look like power
transistors, such as the 7805 +5V 1A regulator shown on the right. The LM7805 is simple to
use. You simply connect the positive lead of your unregulated DC power supply (anything
from 9VDC to 24VDC) to the Input pin, connect the negative lead to the Common pin and
then when you turn on the power, you get a 5 volt supply from the output pin.

Fig 25: A Three Terminal Voltage Regulator

78XX:
The Bay Linear LM78XX is integrated linear positive regulator with three terminals.
The LM78XX offer several fixed output voltages making them useful in wide range of
applications. When used as a zener diode/resistor combination replacement, the LM78XX
usually results in an effective output impedance improvement of two orders of magnitude,
lower quiescent current. The LM78XX is available in the TO-252, TO-220 & TO-
263packages,
Features:
Output Current of 1.5A
Output Voltage Tolerance of 5%
Internal thermal overload protection
Internal Short-Circuit Limited
No External Component
Output Voltage 5.0V, 6V, 8V, 9V, 10V, 12V, 15V, 18V, 24V
Offer in plastic TO-252, TO-220 & TO-263
Direct Replacement for LM78XX

Liquid crystal display

Liquid crystal displays (LCDs) have materials, which combine the properties of both
liquids and crystals. Rather than having a melting point, they have a temperature range within
which the molecules are almost as mobile as they would be in a liquid, but are grouped
together in an ordered form similar to a crystal.
An LCD consists of two glass panels, with the liquid crystal material sand witched in
between them. The inner surface of the glass plates are coated with transparent electrodes
which define the character, symbols or patterns to be displayed polymeric layers are present
in between the electrodes and the liquid crystal, which makes the liquid crystal molecules to
maintain a defined orientation angle.
One each polarisers are pasted outside the two glass panels. These polarisers would
rotate the light rays passing through them to a definite angle, in a particular direction.
When the LCD is in the off state, light rays are rotated by the two polarisers and the
liquid crystal, such that the light rays come out of the LCD without any orientation, and
hence the LCD appears transparent.
When sufficient voltage is applied to the electrodes, the liquid crystal molecules
would be aligned in a specific direction. The light rays passing through the LCD would be
rotated by the polarisers, which would result in activating/ highlighting the desired characters.
The LCDs are lightweight with only a few millimeters thickness. Since the LCDs
consume less power, they are compatible with low power electronic circuits, and can be
powered for long durations.
The LCDs dont generate light and so light is needed to read the display. By using
backlighting, reading is possible in the dark. The LCDs have long life and a wide operating
temperature range.
Changing the display size or the layout size is relatively simple which makes the
LCDs more customers friendly.
The LCDs used exclusively in watches, calculators and measuring instruments are the
simple seven-segment displays, having a limited amount of numeric data. The recent
advances in technology have resulted in better legibility, more information displaying
capability and a wider temperature range. These have resulted in the LCDs being extensively
used in telecommunications and entertainment electronics. The LCDs have even started
replacing the cathode ray tubes (CRTs) used for the display of text and graphics, and also in
small TV applications.
This section describes the operation modes of LCDs then describe how to program
and interface an LCD to 8051 using Assembly and C.
LCD operation
In recent years the LCD is finding widespread use replacing LEDs(seven-segment
LEDs or other multisegment LEDs).This is due to the following reasons:
1. The declining prices of LCDs.
2. The ability to display numbers, characters and graphics. This is in
contract to LEDs, which are limited to numbers and a few characters.
3. Incorporation of a refreshing controller into the LCD, there by
relieving the CPU of the task of refreshing the LCD. In the contrast,
the LED must be refreshed by the CPU to keep displaying the data.
4. Ease of programming for characters and graphics.
LCD pin description
The LCD discussed in this section has 14 pins. The function of each pins is given in
table.

TABLE 1:Pin description for LCD:

Pin symbol I/O Description
1 Vss -- Ground
2 Vcc -- +5V power supply
3 VEE -- Power supply to
control contrast
4 RS I RS=0 to select
command register
RS=1 to select
data register
5 R/W I R/W=0 for write
R/W=1 for read
6 E I/O Enable
7 DB0 I/O The 8-bit data bus
8 DB1 I/O The 8-bit data bus
9 DB2 I/O The 8-bit data bus
10 DB3 I/O The 8-bit data bus
11 DB4 I/O The 8-bit data bus
12 DB5 I/O The 8-bit data bus
13 DB6 I/O The 8-bit data bus
14 DB7 I/O The 8-bit data bus
TABLE 2: LCD Command Codes
Code Command to LCD Instruction
(hex) Register

1 Clear display screen

2 Return home
4 Decrement cursor
6 Increment cursor
5 Shift display right
7 Shift display left
8 Display off, cursor off
A Display off, cursor on
C Display on, cursor off
E Display on, cursor on
F Display on, cursor blinking
10 Shift cursor position to left
14 Shift cursor position to right
18 Shift the entire display to the left
1C Shift the entire display to the right
80 Force cursor to beginning of 1st line
C0 Force cursor to beginning of 2nd line
38 2 lines and 5x7 matrix
Uses:
The LCDs used exclusively in watches, calculators and measuring instruments
are the simple seven-segment displays, having a limited amount of numeric data. The recent
advances in technology have resulted in better legibility, more information displaying
capability and a wider temperature range. These have resulted in the LCDs being extensively
used in telecommunications and entertainment electronics. The LCDs have even started
replacing the cathode ray tubes (CRTs) used for the display of text and graphics, and also in
small TV applications.
LCD INTERFACING
Sending commands and data to LCDs with a time delay:
Fig 21: Interfacing of LCD to a micro controller
To send any command from table 2 to the LCD, make pin RS=0. For data, make RS=1.Then
send a high to-low pulse to the E pin to enable the internal latch of the LCD.

IR transmitter and receiver:

IR LED:

Here the IR transmitter is nothing but the IR LED. It just looks like a normal
LED but transmits the IR signals. Since the IR rays are out of the visible
range we cannot observe the rays from the transmitter.

These are infrared LEDs; the light output is not visible by our eyes. They
can be used as replacement LEDs for remote controls, night vision for
camcorders, invisible beam sensors, etc.
 Fig: IR LED

Advantages:

Infrared LEDs are ideal light sources for use with night vision
goggles, surveillance cameras, medical imaging, recognition
and calibration systems.

Due to their resistance to ambient-light impediments and

electromagnetic interference (EMI), Infrared LEDs enhance the
performance of wireless computer-to-PDA links, collision
avoidance systems, automation equipment, biomedical
instrumentation, and telecommunications equipment.

Solid-state design renders Infrared LEDs impervious to

electrical and mechanical shock, vibration, frequent switching
and environmental extremes. With an average life span of
100,000-plus hours (11 years), Infrared LEDs operate reliably
year-after-year.

Photo diode:
A photodiode is a type of photodetector capable of converting light into either current
or voltage, depending upon the mode of operation.

Photodiodes are similar to regular semiconductor diodes except that they may be
either exposed (to detect vacuum UV or X-rays) or packaged with a window or optical fibre
connection to allow light to reach the sensitive part of the device. Many diodes designed for
use specifically as a photodiode will also use a PIN junction rather than the typical PN
junction.

Principle of operation
A photodiode is a PN junction or PIN structure. When a photon of sufficient energy
strikes the diode, it excites an electron thereby creating a mobile electron and a positively
charged electron hole. If the absorption occurs in the junction's depletion region, or one
diffusion length away from it, these carriers are swept from the junction by the built-in field
of the depletion region. Thus holes move toward the anode, and electrons toward the cathode,
and a photocurrent is produced.

Photovoltaic mode
When used in zero bias or photovoltaic mode, the flow of photocurrent out of the
device is restricted and a voltage builds up. The diode becomes forward biased and "dark
current" begins to flow across the junction in the direction opposite to the photocurrent. This
mode is responsible for the photovoltaic effect, which is the basis for solar cellsin fact, a
solar cell is just an array of large photodiodes.

Photoconductive mode
In this mode the diode is often (but not always) reverse biased. This increases the
width of the depletion layer, which decreases the junction's capacitance resulting in faster
response times. The reverse bias induces only a small amount of current (known as saturation
or back current) along its direction while the photocurrent remains virtually the same.

Although this mode is faster, the photovoltaic mode tends to exhibit less electronic
noise. (The leakage current of a good PIN diode is so low < 1nA that the Johnson
Nyquist noise of the load resistance in a typical circuit often dominates.)

Other modes of operation

Avalanche photodiodes have a similar structure to regular photodiodes, but they are
operated with much higher reverse bias. This allows each photo-generated carrier to be
multiplied by avalanche breakdown, resulting in internal gain within the photodiode, which
increases the effective responsivity of the device.
Phototransistors also consist of a photodiode with internal gain. A phototransistor is in
essence nothing more than a bipolar transistor that is encased in a transparent case so that
light can reach the base-collector junction. The electrons that are generated by photons in the
base-collector junction are injected into the base, and this current is amplified by the
transistor operation. Note that although phototransistors have a higher responsivity for light
they are unable to detect low levels of light any better than photodiodes. Phototransistors also
have slower response times.

Materials
The material used to make a photodiode is critical to defining its properties, because only
photons with sufficient energy to excite electrons across the material's bandgap will produce
significant photocurrents.

Materials commonly used to produce photodiodes include:

Wavelength range
Material
(nm)

Silicon 1901100

Germanium 4001700

Indium gallium arsenide 8002600

Lead sulfide <1000-3500

Because of their greater band gap, silicon-based photodiodes generate less noise than
germanium-based photodiodes, but germanium photodiodes must be used for wavelengths
longer than approximately 1 m.

Since transistors and ICs are made of semiconductors, and contain P-N junctions,
almost every active component is potentially a photodiode. Many components, especially
those sensitive to small currents, will not work correctly if illuminated, due to the induced
photocurrents. In most components this is not desired, so they are placed in an opaque
housing. Since housings are not completely opaque to X-rays or other high energy radiation,
these can still cause many ICs to malfunction due to induced photo-currents.
Features
Critical performance parameters of a photodiode include:

Responsively:

The ratio of generated photocurrent to incident light power, typically

expressed in A/W when used in photoconductive mode. The responsively
may also be expressed as a quantum efficiency, or the ratio of the number
of photo generated carriers to incident photons and thus a unit less
quantity.

Dark current:

The current through the photodiode in the absence of light, when it is

operated in photoconductive mode. The dark current includes
photocurrent generated by background radiation and the saturation
current of the semiconductor junction. Dark current must be accounted for
by calibration if a photodiode is used to make an accurate optical power
measurement, and it is also a source of noise when a photodiode is used
in an optical communication system.

Noise-equivalent power:

(NEP) The minimum input optical power to generate photocurrent, equal to

the rms noise current in a 1 hertz bandwidth. The related characteristic
detectivity (D) is the inverse of NEP, 1/NEP; and the specific detectivity ()
is the detectivity normalized to the area (A) of the photo detector,. The
NEP is roughly the minimum detectable input power of a photodiode.

When a photodiode is used in an optical communication system, these parameters contribute

to the sensitivity of the optical receiver, which is the minimum input power required for the
receiver to achieve a specified bit error ratio.

Applications

Photodiode schematic symbol. P-N photodiodes are used in similar applications

to other photo detectors, such as photoconductors, charge-coupled devices, and
photomultiplier tubes.
 Fig 31: Photo Diode

Photodiodes are used in consumer electronics devices such as compact disc players, smoke
detectors, and the receivers for remote controls in VCRs and televisions.

In other consumer items such as camera light meters, clock radios (the ones that dim the
display when it's dark) and street lights, photoconductors are often used rather than
photodiodes, although in principle either could be used.

Photodiodes are often used for accurate measurement of light intensity in science and
industry. They generally have a better, more linear response than photoconductors.

They are also widely used in various medical applications, such as detectors for computed
tomography (coupled with scintillators) or instruments to analyze samples (immunoassay).
They are also used in blood gas monitors.

PIN diodes are much faster and more sensitive than ordinary p-n junction diodes, and hence
are often used for optical communications and in lighting regulation.

P-N photodiodes are not used to measure extremely low light intensities. Instead, if high
sensitivity is needed, avalanche photodiodes, intensified charge-coupled devices or

Photomultiplier tubes are used for applications such as astronomy, spectroscopy, night vision
equipment and laser range finding.

PRINCIPE:

Transmitter and receiver are incorporated in a single housing. The modulated

infrared light of the transmitter strikes the object to be detected and is reflected
in a diffuse way. Part of the reflected light strikes the receiver and starts the
switching operation. The two states i.e. reflection received or no reflection are
used to determine the presence or absence of an object in the sensing range.

This system safely detects all objects that have sufficient reflection. For objects
with a very bad degree of reflection (matt black rough surfaces) the use of
diffuse reflection sensors for short ranges or with background suppression is
recommended.

Sensitivity setting - Diffuse reflection sensors

For diffuse reflection sensors with sensitivity setting the sensitivity should always
be set to maximum independent of the required range in order to achieve the
highest possible operational safety. Only in the case of interfering backgrounds
(walls, machine parts) could it be necessary to reduce the range.

Diffuse reflection sensors for short ranges

Short-range diffuse type sensors are diffuse reflection sensors which have been
specifically designed for short ranges. Light and dark objects are almost equally
detectable within the set sensing range.

FIG: Diffuse reflection sensors for short ranges

Short-range diffuse types have high excess gains which allow usage even under
extreme environmental conditions (e.g. dust, mist etc.). Objects outside the
range are not detected.

Diffuse reflection sensor with foreground suppression

Diffuse reflection sensors with foreground suppression are the preferred choice in
the case of well reflecting backgrounds and less well reflecting objects. They are
adjusted to the background (background serves as reflector). Reflections from
the foreground are evaluated as an interruption of the light beam.

Diffuse reflection sensor with background suppression

Diffuse reflection sensors with background suppression limit the range to
adjustable, geometrically defined areas. This makes it possible to optically
suppress
interfering elements (e.g. shining machine parts) behind the object to be sensed.
Objects within the range are detected largely independent of their reflective
characteristics (colour, size, surface). Thus the effective range does not depend
on the target objects, but only on the set range.

SMOKE SENSOR (MQ2):

Smoke sensor is used to detect any leakage of smoke and any hazardous gases such that an
alarm can be initiated to avoid any damages in the industries. These sensors are also used in
many applications like corporate and in any office work areas these are linked to fire alarms
And buzzers through the micro-controller.

There are two main types of smoke detectors: Ionization detectors and photoelectric
detectors. A smoke alarm uses one or both methods, sometimes plus a heat detector, to warn
of a fire.

Ionization Detectors:

Ionization detectors have an ionization chamber and a source of ionizing radiation. The
source of ionizing radiation is a minute quantity of americium-241 (perhaps 1/5000th of a
gram), which is a source of alpha particles (helium nuclei). The ionization chamber consists
of two plates separated by about a centimeter. The battery applies a voltage to the plates,
charging one plate positive and the other plate negative. Alpha particles constantly released
by the americium knock electrons off of the atoms in the air, ionizing the oxygen and
nitrogen atoms in the chamber. The positively-charged oxygen and nitrogen atoms are
attracted to the negative plate and the electrons are attracted to the positive plate, generating a
small, continuous electric current. When smoke enters the ionization chamber, the smoke
particles attach to the ions and neutralize them, so they do not reach the plate. The drop in
current between the plates triggers the alarm.
Photoelectric Detectors

In one type of photoelectric device, smoke can block a light beam. In this case, the reduction
in light reaching a photocell sets off the alarm. In the most common type of photoelectric
unit, however, light is scattered by smoke particles onto a photocell, initiating an alarm. In
this type of detector there is a T-shaped chamber with a light-emitting diode (LED) that
shoots a beam of light across the horizontal bar of the T. A photocell, positioned at the bottom
of the vertical base of the T, generates a current when it is exposed to light. Under smoke-free
conditions, the light beam crosses the top of the T in an uninterrupted straight line, not
striking the photocell positioned at a right angle below the beam. When smoke is present, the
light is scattered by smoke particles, and some of the light is directed down the vertical part
of the T to strike the photocell. When sufficient light hits the cell, the current triggers the
alarm.

Both ionization and photoelectric detectors are effective smoke sensors. Both types of smoke
detectors must pass the same test to be certified as UL smoke detectors. Ionization detectors
respond more quickly to flaming fires with smaller fire particles; photoelectric detectors
respond more quickly to smoldering fires. In either type of detector, steam or high humidity
can lead to condensation on the circuit board and sensor, causing the alarm to sound.
Ionization detectors are less expensive than photoelectric detectors, but some users purposely
disable them because they are more likely to sound an alarm from normal cooking due to
their sensitivity to minute smoke particles. However, ionization detectors have a degree of
built-in security not inherent to photoelectric detectors. When the battery starts to fail in an
ionization detector, the ion current falls and the alarm sounds, warning that it is time to
change the battery before the detector becomes ineffective. Back-up batteries may be used for
photoelectric detectors.

Sensitive material of MQ-3 gas sensor is SnO2, which with lower conductivity in clean air.
When the target alcohol gas exist, The sensors conductivity is more higher along with the
gas concentration rising. MQ-3 gas sensor has high sensitivity to Alcohol, and has good
resistance to disturb of gasoline, smoke and vapor. The sensor could be used to detect alcohol
with different concentration; it is with low cost and suitable for different application.

Good sensitivity to alcohol gas

Long life and low cost

Simple drive circuit

Basic test loop

The above is basic test circuit of the sensor. The sensor needs to be put 2 voltage, heater
voltage and test voltage VC . VH used to supply certified working temperature to the
sensor, while VC used to detect voltage (VRL) on load resistance whom is in series with
sensor. The sensor has light polarity, Vc need DC power. VC and VH could use same power
circuit with precondition to assure performance of sensor. In order to make the sensor with
better performance, suitable RL value is needed:
Structure and configuration:

Structure and configuration of MQ-3 gas sensor is shown as Fig. 3, sensor composed by
micro AL2O3 ceramic tube, Tin Dioxide (SnO2) sensitive layer, measuring electrode and
heater are fixed into a crust made by plastic and stainless steel net. The heater provides
necessary work conditions for work of sensitive components. The enveloped MQ-4 has 6 pin,
4 of them are used to fetch signals, and other 2 are used for providing heating current.

TEMPERATURE SENSOR (TMP103):

The TMP103 is a analog output temperature sensor in a four-ball wafer chip-scale package
(WCSP). The TMP103 is capable of reading temperatures to a resolution of 1C. The
TMP103 features a two-wire interface that is compatible with both I2C and SMBus interfaces.
In addition, the interface supports multiple device access (MDA) commands that allow the
master to communicate with multiple devices on the bus simultaneously, eliminating the need
to send individual commands to each TMP103 on the bus. Up to eight TMP103s can be tied
together in parallel and easily read by the host. The TMP103 is especially ideal for space-
constrained, power-sensitive applications with multiple temperature measurement zones that
must be monitored. The TMP103 is specified for operation over a temperature range of
40C to +125C.

Features:

Multiple Device Access (MDA):

o Global Read/Write Operations

I2C-/SMBus-Compatible Interface

Resolution: 8 Bits

Accuracy: 1C Typ (10C to +100C)

Low Quiescent Current:

o 3A Active IQ at 0.25Hz

o 1A Shutdown

Supply Range: 1.4V to 3.6V

Digital Output

Package: 4-Ball WCSP (DSBGA)

Applications:

Handsets

Notebooks
 Fig: TMP103

SOFTWARE DESCRIPTION

Softwares used is:

*KEIL Vision using Embedded C programming
*Express PCB for lay out design
*Express SCH for schematic design
Express PCB
Express PCB is a Circuit Design Software and PCB manufacturing service.
One can learn almost everything you need to know about Express PCB from the help topics
included with the programs given.
Details:
Express PCB, Version 5.6.0
Express SCH
The Express SCH schematic design program is very easy to use. This
software enables the user to draw the Schematics with drag and drop options.
A Quick Start Guide is provided by which the user can learn how to use it.
Details:
Express SCH, Version 5.6.0

EMBEDDED C:
The programming Language used here in this project is an Embedded
C Language. This Embedded C Language is different from the generic C language in few
things like
a) Data types
b) Access over the architecture addresses.

The Embedded C Programming Language forms the user friendly language with access over
Port addresses, SFR Register addresses etc.
Embedded C Data types:
Data Types Size in Bits Data Range/Usage
unsigned char 8-bit 0-255
signed char 8-bit -128 to +127
unsigned int 16-bit 0 to 65535
signed int 16-bit -32,768 to +32,767

Signed char:
o Used to represent the or + values.
o As a result, we have only 7 bits for the magnitude of the signed number, giving us
values from -128 to +127.

KEIL Vision using Embedded C programming

ABOUT KEIL SOFTWARE:
It is possible to create the source files in a text editor such as Notepad, run the Compiler on
each C source file, specifying a list of controls, run the Assembler on each Assembler source
file, specifying another list of controls, run either the Library Manager or Linker (again
specifying a list of controls) and finally running the Object-HEX Converter to convert the
Linker output file to an Intel Hex File. Once that has been completed the Hex File can be
downloaded to the target hardware and debugged. Alternatively KEIL can be used to create
source files; automatically compile, link and covert using options set with an easy to use user
interface and finally simulate or perform debugging on the hardware with access to C
variables and memory. Unless you have to use the tolls on the command line, the choice is
clear. KEIL Greatly simplifies the process of creating and testing an embedded application.
Projects:
The user of KEIL centers on projects. A project is a list of all the source files
required to build a single application, all the tool options which specify exactly how to build
the application, and if required how the application should be simulated. A project
contains enough information to take a set of source files and generate exactly the binary code
required for the application. Because of the high degree of flexibility required from the tools,
there are many options that can be set to configure the tools to operate in a specific manner. It
would be tedious to have to set these options up every time the application is being built;
therefore they are stored in a project file. Loading the project file into KEIL informs KEIL
which source files are required, where they are, and how to configure the tools in the correct
way. KEIL can then execute each tool with the correct options. It is also possible to create
new projects in KEIL. Source files are added to the project and the tool options are set as
required. The project can then be saved to preserve the settings. The project is reloaded and
the simulator or debugger started, all the desired windows are opened. KEIL project files
have the extension

Simulator/Debugger:
The simulator/ debugger in KEIL can perform a very detailed simulation of a micro
controller along with external signals. It is possible to view the precise execution time of a
single assembly instruction, or a single line of C code, all the way up to the entire application,
simply by entering the crystal frequency. A window can be opened for each peripheral on the
device, showing the state of the peripheral. This enables quick trouble shooting of mis-
configured peripherals. Breakpoints may be set on either assembly instructions or lines of C
code, and execution may be stepped through one instruction or C line at a time. The contents
of all the memory areas may be viewed along with ability to find specific variables. In
addition the registers may be viewed allowing a detailed view of what the microcontroller is
doing at any point in time.

ARM SOFTWARE:
About KeilARM:

1 Click on the Keil u Vision3 Icon on Desktop

2 The following fig will appear
3.Click on the Project menu from the title bar
4.Then Click on New Project
5.Save the Project by typing suitable project name with no extension in u r own folder
sited in either C:\ or D:\
6.Then Click on Save button above.
7.Select the component for u r project. i.e.NXP
8.Click on the + Symbol beside of NXP
9.Select LPC2148 as shown below
10.Then Click on OK
11.The Following fig will appear
12.Then Click YES
13.Now your project is ready to USE
14.Now double click on the Target1, you would get another option Source group 1 as
shown in next page.
15.Click on the file option from menu bar and select new
16.The next screen will be as shown in next page, and just maximize it by double clicking on
its blue boarder.
17.Now start writing program in either in C or ASM
18.For a program written in Assembly, then save it with extension . asm and for C
based program save it with extension .C
19.Now right click on Source group 1 and click on Add files to Group Source
20.Now you will get another window, on which by default C files will appear
21.Now select as per your file extension given while saving the file
22.Click only one time on option ADD
23.Now Press function key F7 to compile. Any error will appear if so happen.
24.If the file contains no error, then press Control+F5 simultaneously.
25.The new window is as follows
 26.Then Click OK

27.Now Click on the Peripherals from menu bar, and check your required port as shown in
fig below
29.Drag the port a side and click in the program file
 29.Now keep Pressing function key F11 slowly and observe.
30.You are running your program successfully
Flash magic

Flash Magic is a PC tool for programming flash based microcontrollers

from NXP using a serial or Ethernet protocol while in the target hardware. The figures below
show how the baud rate is selected for the microcontroller, how are the registers erased
before the device is programmed.
Figure 4.4 Dumping of the code into Microcontroller
 Figure 4.5 Dump process finished

If dumping process of the hex file is completed, then the controller will work as per our
requirement
 CONCLUSION

The project REAL TIME BUILDING ZONE OCCUPANCY DETECTION

AND ACTIVITY VISUALIZATION UTILIZING A VISITOR COUNTING
SENSOR NETWORK has been successfully designed and tested. Integrating features of
all the hardware components used have developed it. Presence of every module has been
reasoned out and placed carefully thus contributing to the best working of the unit. Secondly,
using highly advanced ICs and with the help of growing technology the project has been
successfully implemented.

REFERENCES
Books
[1]. ARM7TDMI datasheet ARM
[2]. LPC2119/2129/2194/2292/2294 User Manual Philips
[3]. ARM System on chip architecture Steve Furber
[4]. Architecture Reference Manual David Seal
[5]. ARM System developers guide Andrew N. Sloss,
Domonic Symes,
[6]. Chris Wright
[7]. Micro C/OS-II Jean J. Labrosse
GCC The complete reference Arthur Griffith
Websites
[1]. http://www.arm.com
[2]. http://www.philips.com
[3]. http://www.lpc2000.com
[4]. http://www.semiconductors.philips.com/
[5]. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org
[6]. http://ww.hitex.co.uk
[7]. http://www.keil.co.uk
[8]. http://www.ucos-ii.com
[9]. http://www.ristancase.com
[10]. http://gcc.gnu.org/onlinedocs/gcc/Evaluation Boards And Modules
[11]. http://www.knox.com