CHAPTER IV

RELIGIOUS ORDERS AND LANGUAGE

RESURGENCE: ADAPTATION AND

REORIENTATION

Belief in the magical power of language in which the philosophies

and other ritual devices exist is a common phe;nomenon in many religions.

In Tamil Nadu, Tamil and Sanskrit are regarded as 'divine languages',

capable of working miracles, efficacious in pleasing God. However the

claims of. one or other of the two languages are often contested. The

poems of Sa iva Nayanmaars and the Vaishnava A/wars are regarded as.

sacred and salvational by the followers of the two sects. Ooran Adigal

writes, "The language of Saivism is Tamil. Saivisim and Tamil are not

different: Saivism is Tamil and Tamil is Saivism."1 Such formulations

indicate .the importance of the language to religion. The importance of

Tamil to Vaishnavism is no different. Naalayira Divya Prabandham holtls

the same sacred place in Vaishnavism as the Thriumurais do in Saivism.

Religious orders are intimately connected in the preservation and

propagation of these poems and other religious texts.

The important Saivite Orders in Tamil Nadu are the

Thiruvavaduthurai Adheenam, the Dharmapuram Adheenam, Kasi Madam,

Ooran Adig<:~l, "Tamizh Valarchiyil Samayathin Pangu" (The Role of Religion in the
Growth of Language), Fourth World Tamil Teachers Conference, December 1998,
Madras.

67
Su~yanar Koil Adheenam, Thondai Mandala Adheenam, Thirugnana

Sambandar Adheenam (Madurai) and Thiruvannamalai Adheenam

(Kundrakudi). Among the Veera Saiva Adheenams in Tamil Nadu, the Perur

Adheenam in Coimbatore and Mayilam Bommapuram Adheenam are the

most famous ones. The important Vaishnavaite Orders are the

Vanamaamalai Mutt, Sriranga Narayana Jeeyar Adheenam, Sriperumbudur

Yatiraja Jeeyar Mutt, Thirukkurungudi Mutt (See Appendix VI.), Srirangam

Andavan Ashramam, Parakaala Mutt (See Appendix VII.) and Ahobila Mutt

(See Appendix V.). While the first four belong to the Southern school of

Vaishnavism, the last three belong to the Northern school. Ahobila Mutt is

in Andhra Pradesh and The Parak~ala Mutt is in Karnataka: However,

numerous branches of these Orders are in Tamil Nadu and the pontiffs

make frequent visits to these branches. The famous Advaitic orders are

Kanchi Kamakoti Peetam in Kanchipuram and Sringeri Saradha Peetam.

There are three other Advaitic orders founded by Shankara in Varnasi,

Dwaraka and Puri.

PROFILES

Thiruvavaduthurai Adheenam

The Thiruvavaduthurai Adheenam was founded during the late

fifteenth or early sixteenth century by Namasivaya Desikar. 2 The present

pontiff is the twenty third in line and is presiding over the Order from 1983.

S. Krishnamoorthy, Thiruvavaduthurai Adheena Varalarv, (History of

Thiruvavaduthurai Adheenam), Cuddalore, 1999, p.l.

68
(S~e Append!x 1.). Among the Saivite Orders, Thiruvavaduthurai Order is

generally regarded as the most ancient one with a hoary past. 3 One of the

reasons for this is that the Order has more branches than any other Saivite

Order and also the landed property of the Order is considerably larger than

the other ones. 4 The majority of Saivite Orders belong to the tradition of

Meikandar, the greatest exponent of Saiva Siddhantha philosophy in Tamil.

While the followers of Saiva tradition belong to no one single caste, the

Thriuvavaduthurai Adheenam is usually headed by a Saiva Vellala, a higher

caste in the non-Brahman fold. As already noted, 'Vellala' is a generic term

for all agricultural castes. Among them, the Saiva Vellala is a vegetarian

caste and generally known for its puritanical practices and observances.

In the following few paragraphs, we shall see some of the important

events and instances that happened during the history of the Adheenam.

Many of the pontiffs of the Order were eminent scholars in Tamil and a few

of them have written works in Sanskrit also. (See Appendix VIII.). While

the founder-preceptqr himself did not write any books, at least twelve

books were written in . his praise during his times, an indication of his

influence and popularity. 5 The other interesting aspect that is to be noted

is that the close similarity between Royal Courts and the Orders. It is a well

known phenomenon that during these times, that kings and chieftains

However the Madurai Adheenam seems to have existed from late .eighth century and
the Kundrakudi Adheenam from the thirteenth century. But among the followers,
Thiruvavad~thruai Adheenam definitely ranks as the most prestigious.
No precise information seems to be available on the extent of land holding of the
mutt.
Krishnamoorthy, 1999, op. dt, p.B.

69
were the main objects of eulogy and praise - a privilege that seems to

have been extended to the pontiffs of the various Orders. This practice

seems to have persisted till the present day and U.V. Saminatha Iyer has

noted in his autobiography several instances where poems were written in

praise of the then pontiff.

The third pontiff, Sri Ambalavan Desikar (16th century) is credlted

with writing the maximum number of books among the pontiffs. He has

written around ten books, which are known as Pandara Sathirams. 6 The

period of the fourth pontiff Sri Rudhirakodi Deiskar (1610-21 A.D.) was

marked by a wide expansion of the mutt's property and . branches,

especially in the southern regions. This was the result of the pontiff's close

association with the then chieftain of Madurai, Muthu Veerapa Nayakkar. 7

Also Muthu Veerappa Nayakkar seems to have resisted the spreading

influence of Christianity in the region and the resistance is directly traced to

his association with the Thiruvavaduthurai Order. He was also a good Tamil

poet and again the influence of the mutt could be seen here. 8

Another aspect that is to be noted is that many of the pontiffs and

scholars associated with Saiva Orders wer-e credited with writing numerous

devotional and canonical works. This is indicative of the role of the

religious orders in not only preserving old Tamil manuscripts, but also in
6
Ibid., p.14. Generally, the pontiffs are called Pandarams. "Pandara Sathirarrt' literally
means "Treatises of Pandarams'.
Ibid., p.16-17. Also see Dinamani Deepavali Malar 2000, p.48.
8
Ibid., PP.22-23. Also see, Mu. Varadharasan, A History of Tamil Literature, New Delhi,
1988, pp.202-28.

70
the production of a large corpus of Tamil literature. Like all Saiva Orders,

Thiruvavaduthurai Adheenam too, has brought out a large number of

publications. (See Appendix IX).

Dharmapuram Adheenam

Dharmapuram Adheenam was founded in the middle of the

sixteenth century by Guru Gnana SambandC~r, a Saiva Vellala, to spread

Saiva Siddhantha philosophy. 9 As per the rich tradition of Saiva Orders, the

founder preceptor was a scholar in Tamil and had authored eight books.

The repeated reference to the authorship of Tamil devotional and canonical

works by the pontiffs in many of the Adheenam publications attest to the

fact tha,t Tamil language has been accorded prime importance right

throughout their history. This is in somewhat of a contrast to Orders of

other sects, .for we find that the other Orders have generally given more

importance to Sanskrit, especially the Kanchi Kamakoti Advaita Order or

Manipravala in case of Vaishnavite Orders. However, while the Saiva

Orders had generally g;ven more importance to Tamil, their attitude

towards Sanskrit is accomodative.

The fourth pontiff of the Dharmapuram Adheenam asked one of his

disciples, Sri Kumara Guruparar Swamigal to proceed to Varanasi, and

spread Saivism there. He learnt Hindi and founded a mutt there, namely Sri

Kumara Sami Mutt, which exists till date. The legend avers that Kumara

9
Selvaganapathy, "Dharmapuram Adheenamum Thamizhum", (Dharmapuram
Adheenam and Tamil), Unpublished PhD dissertation, Madras, 1984 p.l.

71
Guruparar proved the superiority of Saivism to the Mughal Emperor there

and was given many land grants. The head office of the mutt was however

shifted to Thirupanandal in Kumbakonam district during the eighteenth

century 10 and today it is one of the leading Saivite Orders. It is regarded as

the 'Shishya (disdple) Order' of the Dharmapuram Order and the head of

the Kasi Order is usually coronated by the pontiff of the Dharmapuram

Order.

The Adheenam has contributed in the clarification of important

issues regarding caste and varna for headship in the religious orders. The

seventh pontiff wrote a Sanskrit book called Vamashrama Chandrika, which

argues that ~ven Shudras, members of the fourth varna are eligible for

initiation into monk hood and headship_...-of religious orders. 11 The need to

write such a .book indicates that the issue of sanyas for Shudras was a

point of contention.

The growing importance to Tamil language among Saiva mutts was

again indicated by the seventh pontiff Thiru Ambala Desikar, who wrote

apart from Vamashrama Chandrika, a book called Samadhi Linga

Prathitavidh/ (The Rules for the installation of Linga) in Tamil to overcome

the defect of non-existence of Saiva Agama works in Tamil. The close

association of Saivism and Tamil is reinforced by several aspects of Saiva

literature and religious practice. Apart from a preoccupation with writing

10
Mu. Varadharajan, 1988, op. dt., p.203.
11
Selvaganapathy, 1984, op. dt., p.6.

72
books in Tamil, Saivism also believes that Lord Shiva, the foremost deity of

Saivism to be the author of many works in Tamil.

Thirupanandhal Kasi Mutt

Thirupanandal Kasi Mutt is located in the Kumbakonam-Chennai

National Highway in the Kumbakonam district. As already noted, Kasi Mutt

is regarded as the disciple mutt of the Dharmapuram Adheenam. The Mutt

was founded in the seventeenth century, and the founder was a great

scholar in Tamil. Meenakshi Amman Pi/faith Thamizh, Needhi Neri

Vilakkam, Chidambara Mummanik Kovai, Chidambarach Seyyu/ Kovai and

Sakalaka/a Valli Maa/ai were some of the Tamil works written by him.

Initially, the Mutt was called as Kumarasamy Mutt and later when the head

quarters of the Mutt was shifted to Thirupanandal, it came to be called as

t.he Thirupanandal Kasi Mutt. The present pontiff is Kasivasi Muthu Kumara

Swamy Thambiraan and is the twenty-first in the line of succession. (See

Appendix II.). He is also the advisor to the HR&CE Board of the Tamil Nadu

government.

The Mutt has also appointed othuvad 2 in famous temples like

Varanasi, New Delhi, Vadathiruvaalankadu, Kanchipuram, Thiruvannamalai,

Chidambaram, Rameswaram. The Mutt brings out a monthly Kumara

Gurubarar. The Order has also instituted several educational endowments.

In the tradition of Saiva orders, Kasi mutt too has a history of patronising

12
Othuvaars are non-Brahman singers who sing the Thirumurais in Saivite temples on
ritual occasions.

73
Ta~il scholars. Keeva Jagannathan and V.M. Subramanayan are among

the scholars who are patronised by the order. The mutt has also brought

out cheap editions of famous Tamil works like Thevaram, Thiruvaasagam,

Thirukkovaiyaar, Thiruvisaippa, Thirumandhiram, Kandha Puraanam, Periya

Puraanam and other Thirumurais, canonical works and works of the

founder Kumara Gurubarar. 13

KundrakudiAdheenam

Kundrakudi Adheenam was founded around 1310 A.D. in

Thiruvannamalai by Deivaasigamani Desikar. Around 1690 A.D., the

Adheenam was shifted to Piraanmalai by the seventeenth pontiff

Naagalinga Desikar, following a request by the Ramanathapuram king, who

was greatly pleased with the pontiff for bringing rains during a drought.

Marudhu Pandiya kings who were ruling over Sivagangai, renovated the

Kundrakudi temple .and asked the thirty-first pontiff Marudha Naayaga

Desikar to take care of the administration of the temple. So the

headquarters of the 'Mutt was shifted to Kundrakudi in 1778.

Arumuga Naavalar, the famous Saiva Siddhanthin, who was

associated with the language and religious resurgence during the

nineteenth century visited the Adheenam in1864 A.D. during the period of

the thirty eighth pontiff Arumuga Desikar and delivered a lecture there.

The pontiff was greatly pleased by Naavalar and his service to Tamil gifted

13
Dinamani Deepavali Malar, 2000, op.dt., pp.SG-59.

74
a palanquin to him. Naavalar was also closely associated with

Thiruvavaduthurai Adheenam and the Adheenam gave him the title

'Naavalar' roughly meaning 'one who is proficient in speech'.

Th.e most famous of the pontiffs of Kundrakudi Adheenam was

Deivasigaamani Arunachala Desika Parmachaariar, affectionately called as

'Kundrakudi Adigalar'. From obscurity, the Adheenam became well known

throughout Tamil Nadu because of the activities of Kundrakudi Adigalar.

Kundrakudi Adigalar, sometimes called as 'revolutionary ascetic' was well-

known for his wide participation in social reform activities and was among

the first religious heads to reach out to the people. He also founded a

religious forum called Arul Neri Thiru Kootam to fight atheism and another

one called Thriukkural Peravi to spread Tamil culture and Thirukkural. His
1
success in making the Kundrakudi village self-suffiCient drew praise from

the then Prime f"linister Indira Gandhi. Kundrakudi Adigalar was also known

for his insistence on worship in Tamil language, dynamic activities during

his years at the helm of Deivt:ega Peravai, as a member of the Upper

House of the Tamil Nadu Assembly and his peace initiatives during

communal riots in early eighties in Tamil Nadu. The present pontiff is

Deivasigamani Ponnambala Adigalar, the forty-sixth in line and took charge

in 1995. 14

14
Ibid., pp.S-10. Also see, Maru. Paramaguru, ed., Kundrakudi Thirukayilaaya
Paramparaith Thduvannama/ai Adheena Varalaru, Kundrakudi, 1990.

75
Perur Adheenam

Perur Adheenam was established by Santhanlinga Adigal around

four hu.ndred years back and belongs to the Vira Saiva tradition. The

founder had written four .books: Kolai Marruthal, Vairaakiya Sadhagam,

Vairaakiya Dheepam and Avirotha Unndhiyaar. There is no information

about those who were in charge of the Adheenam till the nineteenth

century. From 1850 A.D. onwards Nacchimuthu Adigal, Ramalinga Adigal,

Sachidhanandha Adigal and Mouna Adigal were presiding over the Order. It

is during the period of Mannicka Adigalar, the religious order came into

prominence. He founded an organisation called Sathvidhya Sanmarga

Sangam which was active during that period and during the annual

celeberations, various religious leaders from all over Tam!l Nadu

participated This .was one of the first attempts to bring all the religious

leaders in the one platform. Maraimalai Adigal, the doyen of pure Tamil

Movement had attended the seminars conducted by the Adheenam.

Also Perur Adheenam is one of the religious orders which forcefully

insists that the language of liturgy in Tamil Nadu should be Tamil. The

present pontiff is in charge of the Order from 1967 A.D., and Marudhachala

Adigalar.has been nominated as his successor. 15

15
Dinama~i Deepavali Malar 2000, op.dt., pp.BS-90. Also see Sivakalai Mu. Subbiah,
"Brahmapuramum Perurum", in Sathvidhya Sanmarga Sangam: Pon Vizha Malar,
1966, pp.75-78. Also "Nilaya Valarchi" in Ibid., pp.l-vii.

76
Mayilam Bommapura Vira Saiva Adheenam

Bommapura Adheenam is in Villupuram district and was founded by

Baala Siddhar, probably in the seventeenth century. The Bommapuram

Murugan temple is under the administration of the Adheenam. The main

temple tower was built by the fifteenth pontiff, and the eighteenth pontiff

created the paraphernalia like jewels, temple cart a.nd other endowments

for the conduct of regular worship.

In 1938, Bommapuram Adheenam became the first among the

religious orders to establish a Tamil College. The present pontiff is the

nineteenth in line and is called Srilakshmi Sivagnana Balayaswamigal. Many

Tamil works were written in this religious order. 16

Andavan Ashramam, Srirangam

Andavan Ashramam in Srirangam is one of the foremost Vaishnavite

Orders of Vadagalai School. The Order was founded in the seventeenth

century by Sri Vazhuthoor Andavan, the famous disciple of 'Thiru Kudanthai

Desikan'. The present incumbent Srimad Andavan Sri Ranga Ramanuja

Maha Desikan is the eleventh in line of succession of pontiffs, and is in

charge of the Order from 1989. Apart from being a renowned scholar in

Vishistadvaita, he is well versed in music, ayurveda and astrology. Among

its many achievements, this is one of the Orders which has established

16
Dinamani Deepavali Malar, 2000, op. o"t., pp.1819. Also See Subbiah, 1966, op. dt

77
bra_nches in . .foreign countries, the most famous being "Sri Ramanuja

Mission" in Maryland, United States of America, an indication of growing

diasporic connection of the religious orders.

The Order also brings out a monthly magazine namely Ranganatha

Paduka with the avowed purpose of spreading Vishishtadvaita philosophy

of Sri Vaishnavism and general ethics. The other major activity of the Order

is to help the renovation of old temples in Tamil Nadu. The Order has also

brought out ancient Sanskrit texts like Geetha Bashyam and Paduka

Sasthiram in simple Tamil, books which are regarded as important by

orthodox Sri Vaishnavas. The contemporary popularity of the Order is

reinforced by the initiation of former President Shankar Dayal Sharma by

the current pontiff. 17

Vaanamaamalai .Mu~ Tirunelveli -

Vaanamaamalai mutt is one of the most prestigious Orders of the

Southern School of Sri Vaishnavism. It was founded by the great

Vaishnavite Acharya of the fourteenth century and a doyen of the Southern

School, Manavaala Maamunigal, who appointed his second in command,

Azhagiya Varadan as the first pontiff of the mutt. 18 The current occupant

of the seat is thirteeth in line, and is called Pramahamsa Sri Kaliyan

Vaanamaamalai Jeeyar Swamigal (See Appendix III.) and a renowned

scholar in both Tamil and Sanskrit. He has translated the famous Tamil

17
. Dinamani Deepavali Malar 2000, op. dt., p.83.
18
Arjun Appadurai, Worship and Conflict Under Colonial Rule, Delhi, 1981, p.92.

78
ethi~l book Thirukural in Sanskrit. The mutt is easily among the richest of

Vaishnavite Orders, and is in charge of the administration of the very

famous Vaanamaamalai temple in Thirunelveli district. The followers of the

mutt are spread across the subcontinent right upto Nepal and according to

popular lore, the mutt has the largest disciple base among all. the

Vaishnavite Orders in Tamil Nadu. The pontiff is seen by many Vaishnavite

followers as the most enterprising, who makes frequent tours to all parts of

the country to spread the influence the Vaishnavism and also these tours

are also very successful fund-raising campaigns to further the activities of

the Order.

Kanchi Kamakoti Peetam

Kanchi Kamakoti Mutt is the most famous and influential religious

order in the country and follows Sankara's Advaita philosophy. Even though

the religious order claims that it was one of the orders founded by Adi

Sankara and in the year 477 B.C.,the claim is contested by other Advaita

orders. The Order's sixty-eighth pontiff Sri Chandrasekara Sarasvathi was

one of the revered religious leaders in the country, who was cultivated by

various political leaders, including some former presidents and prime

ministers. The governments, both at the centre and the state have been

sensitive to the views of this religious order regarding religious policy. The

scope and depth of the religious order's activities are very diverse

encompassing education, medicine,and social service The current pontiff is

Sri Jayendra Sarasvathi and he has nominated Sankara Vijayendra

79
 Sarasvathi. (See Appendix IV.). Renovation of old temples is one of the

principal activities of the Mutt and it has built new temples in Delhi,

Coimbatore, Salem and Secundrabad. The Mutt has built a number of Veda

patashalas, Oreintal Schools and Sankara Schools. The religious order

serves as the model for other orders in the state.

WHAT Do REUGIOUS ORDERS Do?

Religious orders are essentially religious institutions presided over by

ascetics. The main functions of the religious orders are to initiate people

into their respective sects, to practice spiritual pursuits and meditation.

Most of the religious orders are attached to temples and train choristers

who sing Vedic and other sacred hymns during worship. The heads of the

religious orders are also in charge of the administration of temples,

supervise the religious functions and partidpate in rituals. Perpetuation of

the memory of the founder is one of the chief functions of religious orders.

In course of time, the religious orders started functioning as educational

institutions - teaching Philosophy, Agamas, Lexicography, Grammar, Arts

and Medicine. Some of the religious orders preserved valuable manuscripts

of great Works and developed facilities for taking out copies.

Apart from religious and educational facilities, religious orders

provided charitable services providing boarding and lodging facilities for the

inmates, food and shelter for the poor, destitute and pilgrims. Kings and

80
me~chants during the medieval period richly endowed the religious orders

to carry out their various,activities. 19

Nilakanta Sastri writes that in contemporary times religious orders

are,

... trying to take into account the impact of modem forces and move with the
times, but without in any way departing from their original raison. d' etre.
They seek to combine a modicum of modem studies with traditional studies
in the educational institutions in their charge. They seek to distinguish the
essentials of religion from the externals, and bring about a common
understanding and co-operation among the mathas of different schools - a
thi~g undreamt of in the old Order. They seek to check the division in the
Hindu fold and secure a 'fresh and vital unity on a ground of social philosophy
and ethics commonly accepted by them. 20

How accurate is Sastri's description on the present state and activities of

religious orders?

Propagation Of Religious Philosophy

Religious orders, have founded many endowments and prizes to

encourage study in their areas of interest - religious philosophy, Tamil

culture and language. For example, one of the publications of Kasi

Thriupanandal Order lists a total of two hundred and eighty six

endowments under different heads like Tamil Culture, Saiva Siddhantha,

Thevara Thriumurais and public benefits. A substantial number of these

19
See Ma. Rasam~nickam, Saiva Samaya Valarchi, (Growth of Saiva Religion), Madurai,
2000.
2
K.A.Nilakanta Sastri, Development of Religion in South India, New Delhi, 1963, p.ll9.

81
en~owments are operated through educational institutions. 21 Similar lists of

endowments are available in other mutts too. In many of the publications

and souvenirs of the Orders, usually a section is allocated to describe the

propagation of religious philosophy of the Orders. The publication of

Dharmapuram Adheenam (Saiva Order) describing the various

achievements of the first decennial rule of the twenty fourth pontiff, lists

various activities of the Order. Among them, 'Service to promoting religion',

'Aid to conferences', 'Conduct of the grand conference at the Adheenam'

, (to promote Saiva Siddhantha), 'literary treatises published with the aid of

the Adheenam', 'Works for which exdusive copy-right has been obtained',

'Dissemination of Agamas', 'Printing press', 'Patashalas',, and 'Ubraries find

a prominent mention. 22 A careful perusal of the above list would indicate

that promoting religious studies form the core of the agenda. Both

Vaishnavite and Saivite orders bring out journals and magazines for the

propagation of their philosophies: Ahobila Mutt brings out a magazine

called Narasimha Priya, Andavan Mutt publishes Ranganatha Padhuka,

Thiruvavaduthurai Adheenam publishes Meikandar, while Dharmpuram's

mon~hly is called Gnana Sambandhan and Thirupanandal Mutt brings out

Sri Kumara Gurubarar. Also, the various religious orders conduct religious

discourses in various towns and specially depute people from the order to

cor.duct the discourses. In case of Vaishnavite orders, the pontiffs

21
Sixty First Birthday Celebrations of His Holiness Sri Ia Sri Kasi Vasi Arul Nandi
Tambiran Swamiji, Head of Kasi Mutt, Thirupanandal and Mahant of Kumara Swamiji
Mutt, Varanasi, Souvenir, Varanasi, 1959, pp.137-52.
22
Thiru Kaiyilaya Paramparai Dharmapura Adheena lrupathi Nalavadhu Maha
Sannidanam Sri Ia Sri Shanmuga Deslka Gnana Samabanda Paramacharya Swamigal,
Patthandu Atchi Malar 1933-43, (Rule of a Decade, 1933-43), Dharmapuram, 1943.

82
the~selves -give a number of lectures during their tours. When the

Vaanamaamali and Andavan mutt pontiffs were staying in New Delhi

during the year 2000 and 2001 A.D., they gave more than thirty such

lectures. The Vaishnavite orders also conduct Sadas (Seminars) on

occasions -of the memorial days of their founders, when a number of

eminent scholars are invited to discuss intricate spiritual and religious

issues. Saivite orders organise lecture clubs in various towns for interested

devotees on a particular day every month. A scholar deputed by the

Adheenam visits the particular clubs. These occasions are used to discuss

various religious issues. During the field visit in Erode district, the

researcher atte~ded several classes conducted by Dr. Sundramoorthy of

Dharmapuram Adheenam. The occasion is also used to disCU?S issues like

the efficacy of Thirumurais over other works. The general pattern of these

discourses is to propagte the philosophy and to resolve the doubts of their

respective followers over religious questions.

The Thiruvavaduthurai Adheenam concjucts a Saiva Siddhantha

correspondence course for interested persons and distributes free

educational material for those who attend the course. The

Thiruvavaduthurai Adheenam has also endowed a sum of fifty thousand

rupees in the Sa iva Siddhantha Department of the Madras University.

Several seminars like Meikandan Siddhantha Maanadu are conducted by

the religious orders. The Dharmapuram Adheenam has established an

organisation called Dharumai Adheena Madaa/aya Dewa/aya Samayap

83
Prachaara Nilayam {Centre for the propagation of religion by Dharmapuram

Adheenam and Temple} in Madras. The religious orders have also brought

out hundreds of books on religious philosphies of their sects.

The Saiva Naayanmaar Appar was known for his Uzhavaara Pani,

cleaning of temples. Follwing his lead, the Saiva religious orders, in the

recent decades have resurrected this practice and have encouraged the

Saiva follower$ to visit all the temples in their vicinity and clean the

temples - removal of weeds, washing the walls of the temples, sweeping

and making the surrounding environment look spotless are the major

activities in Uzhavaara Pani. Symbolically, the temples upon which the

Bhakti poets have composed poems are selected. Kunrrakudi Adigalar, as

soon as he took ch~rge of the mutt, undertook Uzhavaara Pani in the

temples ,under the mutt's control. Adigalar has also encouraged

'congregational worship'. The days on which the temples are cleaned is

also used for congregational worship. This mode of involvement is

popularised by other orders also. The follower of the Perur Adheenam,

"Apparadigal" Pulavar Sokkalingam of Erode has formed a voluntary group

called Apparadigal Sivaneri Vazhipaatu 7hirukootam. The voluntary group

.decide about their weekly programme in advance and on the appointed

day vi~lt the particular temple and with the help of the local population,

clean the temple. (See Appendix X.). Pulavar Sokkalingam claimed that the

group has members from all the communities and transcends class barriers

too. This is another way in which the Adheenams attract people to their

84
fold, since the people who get involved in this activity, in course of time

become followers of the mutt.

Modes Of Initiation

Here we have to understand the historical and certain philosophical

differences between Saivism and Vaishnavism in Tamil Nadu. First of all it

has to be understood that the population in Tamil Nadu is largely Saivite

than Vaishnavite. While there are no precise numbers available, it is a well-

recognised fact th,at Shiva is a more popular deity than Vishnu.

In Vaishnavisf11, Ramanuja, the great Vaishnavite teacher envisaged

different functions for the Sanyasins in the Orders and other teachers. For

initiation into Vaishnavism, Ramanuja's ritual handbook lays down the

following .five sacraments and they "begin with the branding of Vishnu's

symbols or weapons and also include the application of the sectarian mark

on the forehead, the taking of a religious name, receiving a mantra and

presenting an image for worship ... " 23 In Sri Vai~hnavism, the initiation can

only be conducted by Acharya Purushas, or the teachers appointed by

Ramanuja for that specific purpose. The initiation ceremony in Tamil

Vaishnavism is called Pancha Samskara or Samashrayanam. Arjun

Appadurai writes,

... by the. twelfth century, the role of the acharya, which combines in practice
the meanings of preceptor, mediator (between man and God), and sectarian
leader, had achieved its centrality in Vaishnava praxis. The essence of the
acharya's role was the initiation (t:iksal) of outsiders into the Sri Vaishnava

23
J.L Brockington, Tne Sacred Tnread, New Delhi, 1981, pp 138-9.

85
 sect. This Pancha Samskara ritual becomes the fonnal process of initiation
into the Sri Vaishnava community. Its monopoly by recognized acharyas was
the sign of their privilege of recruiting who acx.epted the absolute authority of
the acharya in sectarian matters. 24

Appadurai goes on to link this role of acharya to administration of temples.

However, this linkage is generally controversial and is not attested to by

many members of the Tamil Vaishnava community.

Actually, one of our respondents, a respectable member of

Vasihnavite community and a Suyamacharya Purusha himself, who is also

intimately connected . with the affairs of the religious order, gave the

following detailed answer:

If you study the tradition of Shri Vaishnavism, you can come across two
types of ac:haryas: matadhipathis (pontiffs) and the Suyamacharya PUrushas
The roles given to the Suyamac:harya Purushas and the matadhipathi
respectively have to be analysed carefully. According to the Guruparampara
Prabhava, it is said that there were seventy-four Simhasinadhipat:his I
ac:harya purushas. These seventy-four ac:harya purushas and their successors
were requested to propagate the philosophy of Sri Vaishnavism and they
should also initiate people into Sri Vaishnavism. They were Grahasthas
(householders) and not Sanyasins. The Sanyasins 1 matadhipathis were
attached to the temple and were to look after the administration of temples.
Since they were reduses, they would have no family connection and they
would not have any selfish motives and they could look after the temple
administration impartially and see to that the worship is conducted properly.
This is the idea you get after reading the Guroparampara Prabhava. If you
got Thirupathi, you have got two Jeeyars (pontiffs), one Is Periya Jeeyar and
the other is Chinna Jeeyar. Their only duty is to go to the temple often and
see to that the worship is conducted property by the temple employees. They
were having the upper hand, and they used to administer the entire temple.
Unfortunately that has changed due to political and other reasons. (He refers
to HR&CE).

Simii:Jrly Sri Ranga Narayana Jeeyar was attached to Srirangam temple. Even
the great Vaishnavite Acharya Manavala Maamunigal took Sanyas
(renounced) so that he can perform temple service in its spirit. Now, the role
of matadhipathi 1 sanyasin Is very dear. They should perfonn Kainkaryam I
service in the temple, and being red uses, they should not freely mix with the
society. They can also be impartial and incur the displeasure of anyone
without worry so that worship is conducted properly.

H Appadurai 1981, op. cit., pp 76-77.

86
 However, the Suyamacharya Purushas are expected to move very closely in
the society and at the same time initiate people into Shri Vaishnavism. Most
of them are householders- mind you the Sanyasins do not have authority to
perform the rituals. If you want to do Pancha Samskaras, ttle first ritual is
branding. There are also other rituals involved like performing a homam
(yagna). Being a sanyasin, one cannot perform these rituals. Therefore, what
these people do now is take the disc from somebody else and brand. In my
opinion, this is not a very correct procedure. Only emergencies and
contingendes may warrant such things. The Suyamacharya Purushas were
completely suppressed and the institution slowly went into decline. The
matadhipathis, with their paraphernalia, attracted more and more people and
today if we trace the seventy-four Acharya Puruc;ha lineages, one could not
get very far.

Despite Ramanuja being a renouncer and with his aura, he could have very
well performed the function of propagation. Yet he created the institution of
Suyamacharya Purushas and he took care of temple administration. Today
the matadhipathis instead are performing the role of Suyamacharya
purushas. This is what is happening to Sri Vaishnavism and this is not good.
The sanyasins liave not looked upon the administration of temples, but they
have encroached upon the territory of some other persons."25

Another respondent, a follower of the Tengalai Vaanamaamalai Mutt

responded in almost a similar fashion, except that he did not feel that the
-
development was bad for Sri Vaishnavism. 26 While there are still a handful

of Suyamacharya Purushas who claim privileges and initiate members into

Shri Vaishnavism and give lectures in various towns and temples to earn

their living, the institution itself has fallen into disrepute.

There are three stages in the initiation (Dheeka1) ceremonies in

Saivism. They are Samaya Dheekai, Viseda Dheekai and Nirvaana Dheekai.

Samaya Deekai (Religious Initiation) enables a person to live according to

Saiva norms: applying sacred ash in sixteen places in the body, using the

rudraksha garland (made of one rudraksha with five faces), reciting the

five letter sacred name of Lord Shiva (Sivahya Nama). The Viseda Dheekai

25
Personal Interview with Lakshmi Thathachar, Melkote, May, 2000.
26
Personal Interview with Murali, Srirangam, December, 2000.

87
(SRecial Initiation) enables a person to conduct Siva worship and rituals.

However to conduct the rituals in religious institutions one should have

received Acharya Abidekam. Only those who have received the Special

Initiation should conduct the daily puja everyday without fail. Nirvaana

Dheekai enables a person to initiate the process of reaching God. The

person becomes a celibate and concentrates on realising god. The guru

who initiates a person to Nirvaana Dheekai gives the new entrant a new

name. The inmates of Sa iva religious orders are progressively given the

three initiations, the third of which gives him the qualification to succeed

the head. Am<?ng the eligible persons, the head chooses the one who he

avers has attained 'the spiritual maturity' to succeed him.

There :is a major difference between Saivism and Vaishanvism. In

. .
Saivisim, .only a Nyshtika Brahmachari (life long celibate) can become the

head of the religious order where as in Vaishnavism, a Grahastha after

taking Sanyas can become the head of the order. In Vaishnavism too, the

head usually chooses his successor. However, in case no successor is

chosen, the followers of the mutt after due consultations among them,

selects a suitable candidate.

Educational Institutions

Starting in the mid 1930s, most of the religious orders have founded

educational institutions with modern curricula, especially Tamil colleges in

the case of Saivite Orders. Burton Stein calls religious orders in Tamil Nadu

88
as seminaries27 Religious orders which are also called as Ghatikas are

defined as Brahmanical Educational Institutions by N. Subramanian. 28 U.

V. Saminathiar's autobiography gives a detailed account of how religious

orders functioned as educational institutions. 29 The importance given to

education by the religious orders can be understood by the number of

educational institutions founded and administered by them. The

Kundrakudi Saiva Order is administering sixteen educational institutions

including Primary, Middle and Higher Secondary schools, technical

institutes (popularly called ms) and colleges. The Mayilam Bommapuram

Veerasaiva Order founded a Tamil college in 1938, the first Order to found

a college exclusively for this purpose. There are also two schools under its

administration. The Kanchi Kamakoti Advaita Order has a number of

educational institutions under its control, including a deemed University

called Sri Chandrasekara Saraswathi Viswa Maha Vidyalayam which

conducts a number of courses including one which lead up to post

graduate degrees in Business Administration and Computer Applications.

Apart from these, there are a number of Engineering, Science and Medical

Colleges (including one in Orissa) under its control. The nature of its

involvement in education can be understood when it is known that it plans

to open a Medical college in Nepal!

27
Burton Stein, Peasant State and Society in India, New Delhi, 1994, p.236.
28
N. Subramanian, The Brahman in the Tamil Country, Madurai, 1989, p.72.
29
See Iyer, 1950, op. cit.

89
 The Thiruvavaduthurai Order, apart from conducting a Saiva

Siddhantha training course, has also founded many Primary and Middle

schools in many of the towns where the branches of the mutt exist. The

Thirupanandal Kasi Order has been administering many schools and also

Sri Kasivasi Swaminathan Swamigal Arts College, where courses, leading

up to doctoral degree are offered. It has also created a number of

educational endowments in Annamalai~ Kasi, Calcutta and Allahabad

Universities. The Dhahnapuram Saiva Order has a very famous college

where hundreds of students from in and around Mayiladuthruai are getting

educated. The college was started in 1946. The famous head of the

Kundrakudi Saiva Order and the present pontiff of the Kasi Thirupanandal

Order graduated from this college. The Andavan Ashramam in Srirangam

administers . Srimad Andavan Arts and Science College where many

disciplines including Computer Applications are taught. The college also has

a reputation of not collecting capitation fee, the bane of many a self-

financing college in Tamil Nadu. The Perur Veerasaiva Order started a

Tamil college in 1954, which was subsequently upgraded to include other

disciplines. The College provides education leading right up to the Doctoral

degree. 30

-!"he above details reinforce the notion that the religious orders are

.seminaries even in the modern sense, but with secular curricula. Basically,

while many of the Orders look upon their educational institutions as

30
Dinamar;'li Deepavali Malar 2000, op.dt., pp.4-90.

90
co~tinuation of a historical duty in the dissemination of knowledge, the

need to adapt to the contemporary demands and relevance has also played

a role in ,diversifying their educational interests. The alumni of the

institutions provides ready-made follower-base for the Order; it also helps

the Orders to spread their influence and networking in the society.

There is absolutely no doubt about the fact that the nction of

religious Orders as educational institutions has a different connotation

today. First and foremost, only the poorest approach the Orders for

religious education - Agamas and Thirumurais in case of Saiva Orders,

Prabandams and Vedas in case of Vaishnavite Orders - to earn a livelihood

as a prie~ or a temple functionary. So the Orders serving as educational

institutions in a traditional sense no longer exist. However, founding and

administering secular educational institutions like Arts and Science colleges,

technical institutes, engineering and medical colleges provide an important

link to the Orders with outer society. Repeatedly, the famous personalities

who were educated in the institutions administered by the Orders were

quoted with pride by many of the respondents. The other aspect is that the

Tamil colleges administered by the Orders have also served as a breeding

ground for successors in various Orders, in the case of Saivism. For

example, Kundrakudi Adigalar, the famous pontiff of the Kundrakudi Order

and the present pontiff of the Kasi Order were educated in the

DharmaRuram Tamil College.

91
lANGUAGE RESURGENCE: THE CONTEXT

Nineteenth century Tamil Nadu witnessed a powerful language and

religious resurgence. The language resurgence was marked by the

discovery and publication of severc;sl andent Tamil texts, which brought out

the antiquity and the great literary tradition in Tamil going back to nearly

two tho.usand years. Many of the palm-leaf manuscripts of Tamil texts were

preserved in religious orders. Among the nineteenth century poets,

Meenatcisundaram Pillai was a pre-eminent scholar who was the author of

the largest number of works in Tamil. 31 Historically, religious orders,

especially the Saiva ones patronised Tamil scholars and was a major centre

of Tamil education. Meenatcisundaram Pillai was the Adheenam poet of

Thiruvavaduthurai Adheenam. The most important among his works were

the 'Murukan Pillaitamil, 77ruvitaikkalik Kuravand Cuta CiJnkitai, Kutantait

77ripantati, Akilandanayaki Malai, Ambalavana Tedkar Kalambakam,

Vatpokkik Ka/ambakam, 77ruvidaimarutur uta and Cuppramaniya Teakar

Nencuvitu Tutt./.3 2 Stha/apuranas which are the legends of divine places is

, very famous in Tamil Nadu, whose knowledge brings scores of devotees to

the temples concerned. A number of Stha/apuraanams were written by

Meenatcisundaram Pillai. Apart from writing a large number of works,

Meenatcisundaram Pillai also trained a vast number of Tamil Scholars

duriny his association with Thiruvavaduthurai Adheenam. U.V. Saminatha

Iyer who was instrumental in discovering many of the ancient Tamil works

31
varadharajan, 1988; op. dt., p.220.
32
Ibid.

92
was the student of Thiruvavaduthurai Adheenam. Later, U.V.Saminatha

Iyer himself became the Adheenam poet of Thiruvavaduthurai Adheenam.

Apart from training such a vast number of scholars, the practice of

preserving _old Tamil manuscripts by the religious orders was one of the

defining moments in the history of Tamil literature. U.V. Saminatha Iyer,

who discovered and published many Tamil texts, refers to the copy of the

Jaina work 'Seevaga Sinathamanl made available to him in the

Thiruvavaduthurai Adheenam. 33 Later, the same Order helped U.V.

Saminatha Iyer, in the discovery of many ancient Tamil texts. 34 Today,

when one has become aware of Tamil literature's antiquity, its richness and

sophistication, the discovery and publication of such works might not bring

much excitement. But one has to place the discoveries and publication in

the proper context. Even, in his times, U.V. Saminatha Iyer was regarded

as a doyen of Tamil literature and was a highly respecte~ and acclaimed

scholar among the literary circle. In his autobiography, he had graphically

explained the discovery of the existence of such ~exts in some detail and

perhaps a description of his first acquaintance with the texts would explain

ttle enormity of the discovery, the importance of their publication and the

impact it made on the consciousness of Tamil population about the

literature's richness and antiquity.

33
Iyer, 1950, op. cit., p. 536.
31
Ibid., pp. 621-730.

93
 Apparently, the Adheenam poet heard of a Tamil Schoiar Salem

Ramaswamy Mudaliar, who at the time was a Judge of Kumbakonam

Court. Being a scholar himself he wanted to acquaint himself with

Ramaswamy MLidaliar. Once the gentleman himself visited

Thiruvavaduthurai Adheenam and enquired about Tamil scholars there.

Later in 1880, Iyer went and met Ramaswamy Mudaliar. Ramaswamy

Mudaliar promptly asked about Iyer's proficiency in Tamil books. Iyer

writes that he decided to astonish Mudaliar with his answers and started

listing the works in which he was proficient,

Kudanthai Andhadhi, Maraiasai Andhadhi, Pugaloor Andhadhi, Thiruvarangath

Andhadhl~ Azhgar Andhadhi, Kambar Andhadhi, Mullai Andhadhl~
Meenatchiamman Pillai Tamizh, Muthu Kumara Swamy Pillai Tamizh, Akilanda
Nayagi Pillai Tamizh, Sekkizhar Pillai Tamizh, Thiru Kovai, Thanjai Vaanan
Kovai...I went on listing twenty Andhadhi, twenty Kalmbagam, fifteen Kovai,
thirty Pillai Tamizh, thirty Uta, twenty Thoodhl/5. .. but he was simply
unmoved. Suddenly he asked what's the use of all this? ... I went on listing:
Thiruvilayadarp Puranam, Thiru Naagakkarojap Puraanam, Mayoorap
Puraanam, Kandha Puraanam, Periya Puraanam, Kutralap Puraanam. .. He still
stared at me stonily... " 36

Iyer explains how he went on listing several other works, which he

ha~ learnt, but in the end, it made no impact upon Mudaliar. He asked in

the end, about the nature of his proficiency in ancient Tamil works, even if

he had learnt all the recent works. Iyer could not understand the object of

the question and mentioned that in the list that he quoted there were

many old compositions. Ramaswamy Mudaliar, quoted Mani Mekala~

Seevaga Sinthamani and Silappadhikaram as the truly ancient texts and

.
said that they
. were in one sense the source of all the books that he had

35 Andhadh1: Pi/faith Tamizh, Kovai, Ula, and Thoodhu are different genres of Tamil
poems.
36 .
Iyer, 1950, op. dt, p.573.

94
list~d. When he started reading Seevaga Sinthamani, he felt a new world

of Tamil literature had been opened to him. 37

This incident illustrates the state of awareness about Tamil

literature, even among scholars, during the nineteenth century. Therefore,

when ancient texts were discovered and published, it added a new sense

of pri~e about the antiquity and sophistication of Tamil language.

Two personalities were important in the printing and publication of

ancient Tamil works, U.V. Saminatha Iyer (1855-1942) and C.Y.

Thamodharan Pillai (1832-1901). Both Saminatha Iyer and Thamodharan

Pillai arew upon the resources of religious orders for their printing and

publication works. For example, palm leaf manuscripts for Irayanaar

Porulurai and Thiruththamizaip Puranam were given to Thamodharan Pillai

for correction, printing and publication. In course of their publication

initiativ~s both U.V. Saminatha Iyer and Thamodharan Pillai found out that

a number of ancient Tamil manuscripts, whose existence was hitherto

unknown, were found in religious orders. For example, the ancient and

much acclaimed Sangam classics Narrinai and Ettu Thogai were discovered

in Thiruvavaduthurai religious order. Further, the existence of Pathup

Pattu, whose contents were again hitherto unknown, was found in the

Thiruvavaduthurai religious order. Today, the Pathup Pattu - a collection

of ten anthologies, namely Thiru Murugarruppadai, Porunararruppadai,

37
Ibid.

95
 Mu~laip Pattu, Maduraik Kanch~ Nedune/ Vaada~ Pattinap Paa/ai and

Ma/aipadu Kadam - is regarded as a dassical collection of andent Sangam

literature. The discovery and printing of these works and the periodisation

of these works by scholars like Vaiyapuri Pillai pushed the antiquity of

Tamil literature by several centuries reaching right up to the period of

Christ.

Again Aga Naanooru and Pura Naanooru, two of the most famous of

Sangam collections were found in the Order (while many good translations

of Aga Naanooru and . Pura Naanooru have been published, A.K.

Ranianujan's translation, 'Poems of Love and War' is most enjoyable and

beautiful). In 1885, Thamodharan Pillai published the earliest available

Tamil work Tolkappiyam and in 1887, he published another ancient Tamil

work, Kalithogai. After the publication of Sinthamani in 1887, U.V.

Saminatha Iyer .published another ancient Sangam Tamil text

Padhitruppatthu in 1889, followed it up with Pura Naanooru in 1894 and in

1898, he published Mani Mekalai. 38

During this same period, modern forms of Tamil art were also

making their debut. The first modern Tamil drama was staged in 1876 by

Gopalachaar. J!l The first novel in Tamil Pratapa Mudaliar Sarithiram was

38
Ibid.
39 A.N. Perumal, "Arupathu Andugalil Tamizh Natagam, 1920-1980", (Tamil Drama in
Sixty Years, 1920-1980), in Thirunelveli Thenn Indhiya Saiva Siddhantha Noorpathipuk
Kazhaga Manivizha Malar, 1982, p. 26.

96
wri~en by Veda Nayagam Pillai (1826-1889) and was published in 1879. 40

The first newspaper in Tamil was brought out by Father Percival in 1855

and it was called Dinavardhamani Tamizh Magazine (1831). Pumtha

George Gazette (1832), Raja Viruthi Pothini (1833), Madras Chronicle

(1835), Putl;wvai Nadunilai (1838), Udhyadharagai (1841), Jana Vinodhini

(1870), and Lalitha Prasonodaya (1887) were among the first Tamil

magazines. 41 The other famous Tamil magazines were Sudhesa Mithran

(1882), Vivekacinthamani (1892), Lopokari (1895), .

Tamizhar Nesam

(1917), Tamizh Nadu (1919), Nava Sakthi (1920), Senthamizh Selvi (1923),

and Tamizh Pozhil (1925). 42 Modern forms of Tamil arts and new

introductions like newspapers and magazines gave a vibrant character to

the language and characterised the language resurgence that the Tamil

speaking regions witnessed during late nineteenth and early twentieth

centuries.

Language Resurgence, Politics and Religion

We have to place the language resurgence if"l the socio-political

context of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries Madras state.

In 1856 A.D., Rev. Robert Caldwell (1819-91 A.D.), a Scottish missionary

published his most famous book called, A Comparative Grammar of the

~ K.S. Anandan, Indhiyavil Desiya Inagalum Tamizh Desiyamum, (Nationalities in India

and Tamil Nationalism), Periyar, 1997, p. 270. Also see, Mu. Varadharajan, 1988, op.
dt.
~~ E. Sundaramoorthy and M.R. Arasu, eels., Indhiya Viduthalaikku Munthaya Tamizh
Ithazhgal, (Tamil Magazines before Indian Independence), Madras, 1998, pp. 13-14.
~2 Ibid.

97
 Dra_vidian or South Indian Family of Languages43 In the book, he reached

a number of important conclusions: (i) The languages Tamil, Telugu,

Kannada and Malayalam belong to the Dravidian group of languages. (ii).

Tamil Dravidian culture dated back to the period of the Christ. (iii).

Dravidian languages were not derived from Sanskrit. (iv). Tamil was the

most sophisticated of all Dravidian languages. (v). It can dispense with

Sanskrit and stand-alone. (vi). Sanskrit had been brought to India with

' their idol worship and peculiar brand of Hinduism. (vii). The Brahmans had

written nothing worthy of preservation in Tamil and (viii). 'Native Tamilians'

called Sudhras by the Brahmans, even though they were Dravidian

chieftains, soldiers, and cultivators, cultivated Tamil. 44 Another missionary,

G.U. Pope (1829-1907 A.D.), who produced a number of Tamil dictionaries

and grammars, translated Thiruvasagam, an important Saivite work and

called Saiva Siddhantha as the choicest product of the Dravidian intelleet. 45

Such formulations had important consequences in the subsequent

developments in Tamil language and developments.

The two major elite social groups of Tamil speaking regions at that

time were the Brahmans and the upper-caste non-Brahmans - mainly

Vellalas, Chettis, Reddis and Nayars. Brahmans with their early start in

English educa'Lion availed the many opportunities available to them in the

colonial administration. A severe conflict ensued between the elites of

43
Robert catd~ll, A Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian or South Indian Family of
Languages, London, 1856.
44
E.F. Irschick, Politics and Social Conflict in South India: The Non-Brahman Movement
and Tamil Seperatism,1!}16-1929, Bombay, 1969, pp.278-9.
45
Ibid., p.280.

98
Tamil society, and Barnett defines, the conflict between them as the one

between "lando~ning non-Brahman elite with a history of rural dominance,

and nascent urban Brahman elite that had used the opportunities

presented by British Rule.'146 However, there is another aspect to this

conflict. Irschick points out that

... the large landowners, particularly the Zamindars and the main peasant
groups were all non-Brahman caste Hindus. Census figures on factory
ownership in 1911 indicate that here too, non-Brahmans - mainly Balija
Naidus, Vellalas, Kapus, Nattukottai Chettis and Komatis ... were far ahead of
Brahmans."7

It is only or;~ those occupations which required literary skills that

Brahmans dominated, especially in the upper levels of administrative and

professional services. 48

. With the introduction of political reforms in India by the British

government, new opportunities for political power and space expanded for

the Indians. Also by the second decade of the twentieth century, literacy

among the upper non-Brahman castes increased, resulting in a major

competition with Brahmans for political power. With the expanding role of

state, political power acquired more importance, status, and influence in

the society.

Concurrently, a clear division among Brahmans and non-Brahmans

was emerging in the consciousness of the people, with the identification of

6
" M.R. Barnett, The Politics of Cultural Nationalism in South India, New Jersey, 1976,
p.17. "' ~
7
" Irschick, 1969, op. cit, p.12.
8
" Ibid.

99
Brahmans and Sanskrit as outsiders to Tamil society and the non-

Brahmans as the original inhabitants (now identified as Dravidians) of the

region This is where Saiva Siddhantha intellectuals strove their best to

identify Tamil, Saiva Siddhantha and Dravidians into one single identity kit.

The fact that among the many competing religious philosophies, like Saiva

Siddhantha, Vishishtadvaita (Vaishnavism) and Advaita, (1) the largest

number of Tamil works, existed only in Saiva Siddhantha and (2) Saiva

religious orders operated as major institutions of Tamil learning that helped

in the process of identification of Saiva Siddhantha as 'Tamil Religion'. One

of the methods of achieving it was to identify 'Saiva Siddhantha' as a

religious philosophy independent of Sanskritic Hinduism and. so untainted

by Brahmans and Brahmanism. Irschick notes,

Professor P. Sundaram Pillai (1855-1896) was perhaps the first Tamilian to

propagate the ideas concerning the antiquity and OJitural self-suffidency of
the Dravidians. Some of his theories are set out in a book entitled Milestones
in the Histqry of Tamil Uterature& but also wrote a remarkable essay in the
Madras Standard (1897) called the "The Basic Bement in Hindu Ovilization",
in which he elaborated his view that South India, and partiOJiar1y the Tamil
area, was culturally self-suffident and could be independent of the arts and
philosophy of Sanskrit and the north.49

Maraimalai Adigal wrote,

Saivism is the true and original religion of all Tamilians who are not Brahman.
It is also the most andent religion of India, predating Sanskritic Hinduism by
many centuries. Its prindples . are enshrined in the devotional and
philosophical texts .of divine Tamil, and it would be in vain, therefore, to seek
it ir. the demonistic rituals of the populace... Further, it was not the
Dravidians who corrupted a pristine Hinduism ... on the contrary, it was
Brahmanism and Aryanism that had debased the original Tamil religion and
diverted it from its hallowed path of monotheism, rationalism and

~9 Irschick, 1969, op. cit., pp.282-3.

100
 egalitarianism into the "gutters" of polytheism, irrational rituals and unjust
social hierarchies. 50

One has to note that historically, religious orders had Brahman-non-

Brahman conflicts. We have already quoted some legends, which indicated

tensions between Brahmans and non-Brahmans, but there were no explicit

conflicts over the use of Sanskrit language and Sanskrit scholars and

studies were historically encouraged in religious orders like

Thiruvavaduthurai, Dharmapuram and Thirupanandal. Many of the pontiffs

of th~se Orders were scholars in Sanskrit. For example, the eighth pontiff

of Thiruvavaduthurai Adheenam Maasilaamani Desikar was a renowned

Sanskrit scholar. 51 Saminatha lyer, in his autobiography, mentions sever~l

incidents, in which Sanskrit scholars were invited and were given honours.

But what was happening during the late nineteenth and e~rly twentieth

centuries went beyond mere caste tension. It included the language,

religious, and ethnic dimensions too. Regarding the role of religious orders,

. Oddie observes,

... the non-Brahman mathas were, nevertheless, helping to develop what

came to be regarded as distinctive non-Brahman culture. The emphasis on
Tamil rather than on Sanskrit and the study of propagation of Saiva
Siddhantha (which subsequently, was often referred as the original Tamil
religion) contributed towards a growth of a sense of Tamil identity - a
regional consciousness and ideology which during the early decades of the
t\ventieth century, were utilised by leaders of the non-Brahman movement in
their struggle against Brahman dominance.SZ

50
Maraimalai Adigal, quoted in Sumathi Ramaswamy, Passions of the Tongue: Language
Devotion in Tamil India, 1891-1970, NP.w Delhi, 1998, pp.29-30.
51
Krishnamoorthy, 1999, op. dt., p.29.
52
Geoffrey A. Oddie, Hindu and Chnstians in South East India: Aspects of Religious
,Continuity and Change, 1800-1900, London, 1991, p.l14.

101
PURE TAMIL MOVEMENT

The intellectual atmosphere was vibrant with the claims made by

the Saiva Siddhanthins. In 1886, a Saiva Siddhantha Sabha was established

to foster the cause and at the local level, a number of Tamil Sangams were

established, like the Madurai Tamil Sangam and Karandhai Tamil Sangam.

Annual Saiva Siddhantha conferences were held and journals like

Siddhantha Deepika, Navasakthi and Senthamizh Selviwere brought out.

One of the other important developments that took place during the

period was the 'Pure Tamil Movement', which aspired to eradicate all

Sanskrit words from Tamil expressions and to use them in speech and

writing. Writing about the history of Pure Tamil Movement, Pavaleru

Perunchithiranaar writes,

.. ;vedic religion of Aryans, Jainism and Buddhism gradually corrupted our

pure, sweet mother tongue and caused it to degenerate... Sanskrit, which
was a combination of the Vedic language of the Aryans and the northern
Dravidian language of Pali, mixed with Tamil In a religious disguise and
debased it So, Tamil language split into Telegu, Kannada, Malayalam,
Tulu ... and so on into twenty-two languages. Because of the splitting of the
language, Tamil populace and tenitory diminished. Tamil source books were
translated into Sanskrit by Vedic Aryans and elevated their language to a
higher level and destroyed the Tamil sources. Similarly, Vedic religion
internalised the salient features of foreign religions like Buddhism and
Jainism, and the religious practices and gods of the native Saivism. and
Vaishnavism and thereby destroyed the uniqueness of these religions.
Because of religious conflicts and the stupendous growth of Vedic religion,
Tamil degenerated more and more and became a hybrid language of
infamy .... Large number of San::;krit words entered into the daily usage of
people's life. The easy and elegant religious expressions were translated into
Sanskrit. More and more Sanskrit works were written. Sanskrit dominated
Prose, Poetry, Music and Theatre ....

It is under these circumstances in the early twentieth century, Tamil scholars

and the common people, who were wonied about Tamil language, became
aware of the situation and made tremendous efforts to protect Tamil from

102
 corruption by foreign languages and preserve its chastity and andent
glory.'153

Such was the general understanding of the state of Tamil language

during the Pure Tamil Movement among its votaries. As we can see from

the quote, movement had linguistic, territorial, religious and ethnic

features. The important names in Pure Tamil Movement were Maraimalai

Adigal, K. Subramania Pilla I, Bharathidasan, V. Subbiah Pillai, Devaneya

Paavaanar, K. Appadurai, S. Illakuvanaar, Ilavazhaganaar, V. Suba

Manikkanaar and K.A.P. Viswanathan. 54 Sumathi Ramaswamy writes, "The

Tanittamil Movement associated with Maraimalai Adigal and his followers

was. largely an expression of contestatory classicism and radical nee-

Shaivism. Their efforts to cleanse Tamil were propelled by hostility towards

Brahmanism and its literary and ritual vehicle, Sanskrit. "55

During the same time the Saiva religious orders were conducting

various conferences and the conferences were used by the Tamil

enthusiasts to promote their cause. Religious orders, as an authoritative

institution on religion and language provided a very effective platform to

promote the . new ideas on religion and language. For example,

Dharmapuram Adheenam conducted a grand Saiva conference in

Thirunelveli, known as the Meikanda Sastra Conference. Also, they

53
'Pavaleru' Perunchithiranaar, "Thamith Tamizh Iyakka Thotramum Valarchi
Varalarum", (The Genesis, Growth and History of Pure Tamil Movement), in Vizha
Malar, Madurai, 1981, pp.354-5.
5'1 For a short history and activities of th~ scholars see, S Meyyappan, Tamizh Iyakka
Verga/, (Roots of Tamil Movement), Madras, 1994.
55
Ramaswamy, 1998, op. cit;.p.147.

103
pa~cipated and patronised the conferences held by _Saiva Siddhantha
.. '
;~--fl- ~

Maha Samajam. Similarly, the Adheenam participated in the lhiruppugazh

Conference in Palani and the 711iromurai Conference in Thirunarayur. 56

They also started patronising Tamil music and endowed a sum of Rs.

10,000 for the advancement of Tamil music in Madras Tamil Sangam. 57

Also, the other major activity of the Adheenams was regarding the Tamil

Othuvars in Saivite temples in Tamil Nadu. Othuvars are non-Brahman

singers, who during the conduct of 'puja' in temples would sing the Saiva

canons, standing just outside the sanctum sanctorum. Adheenams trained

a large number of Othuvars and appointed them in the temples under their

control. It has to be noted that pattern of singing has no relatior:t to Tamil

classical music, but a different one. While Tamil classical music is open to

both Brahmans and non-Brahmans, Othuvars are non-Brahmans.

Language, Archaria and Religious Orders

During all these years, Dravidian movement, with its anti-caste, anti-

Brahman and anti-North Indian platform was gradually gaining strength

and was posing a serious challenge to Brahmans in every sphere of

activity. In addition, politically, they emerged as a viable alternative to

Congress party and by 1962 A.D. they were the major opposition in the

state assembly and for the first time captured power in 1967 A.D.

Advocates of pure Tamil movement and Saiva Siddhanthins were

56
The Rrst Decennial Rule, op. cit., (1943), pp. 309-10. Also see Meikandan Siddhantha
Maanadu, Dharmapuram,)941.
57
Ibid.

104
demanding a change in the language of liturgy in Tamil Nadu. The

Dravidian party saw in it another wonderful opportunity to oppose

Brahmins and Sanskrit in Tamil Nadu. Here, a note about the language of

worship in South Indian temples would not be out of place.

In the temples of Brahmanical 58 deities in Tamil Nadu, Brahmins are

the priests who conduct the rituals. Both in Saivism and Vaishnavlsm

temple worship, the bhakti poetry of A/wars and Nayanmars is held in great

reverence and esteem. However, the use of these poems varies from

temple to temple. In most Vaishnavite temples, the poems of A/wars are

literally used even in day-to-day rituals. For example, the use of Tamil

bhakti literature is widespread in Srirangam temple (a Vaishnavite temple

of Tengalai school) so much so that during the twenty-day Vaikunta

Ekadasi festival in December-January, bhakti poems are recited along with

a peculiar .dance form called Arayar Sevai, for several hours everyday. Even

during other festivals, recitation of A/wars' poems forms a part of the ritual.

The Vadagalai School, in the temples under its control, uses these poems

too, but to a lesser extent. However, traditionally, the language in which

the archana is performed is usually, Sanskrit. Also, the poems on most

occasions are recited by the Brahman priests themselves. But in Saivite

temples, even though, there is a tradition of recitation of poems of

Nayanmaars, it does not usually constitute an integral . part of the ritual

cycle, as it does in Vaishnavite temples. Also, the Tamil poems in Saivite

58
Here Brahmanical deities denote those other than village deities.

105
te~ples are recited by Othuvars, a dass of non-Brahmans, specially trained

and appointed for this purpose. The practice of reciting Ta.mil poems in

temples was said to be initiated during the period of Raja Raja Chola I (d.

1014 A.D.), in both Saivite and Vaisnavite temples. 59 The scarce use of

Tamil in Saivite temples caused a heart bum for radical Saiva Siddanthins,

who regarded Tamil as given by God Shiva Himself. They also consider that

Shiva presided over the first of the three ancient Tamil Sangams. Religious

orders, which are administering many temples in Tamil Nadu, naturally had

a great interest in the issue. From 1920 A.D. onwards, Saiva Siddanthins

were demanding the use of Tamil for worship in temples. 60

Presler defines as "a popular form of worship (in South Indian

temples) outside the regular cycle of worship in the temple, in which, for a

small fee, a devotee receives darshan of the deity and an abbreviated puja

is performed for his personal welfare.'161 It is usually the recitation of the

various names of deity and the general language of worship in Sanskrit.

However, in an atmosphere where the use of Sanskrit was not welcome,

the language in which the archana performed became one of the points of

contention among the religious community. In response to these demands,

HR&CE (which controls the administration of temples and mutts in Tamil

Nadu since 1325 A.D. More will be discussed about it in the next chapter.)

was promoting the use of Tamil in temples, from 1950s and earty 1960s.

59
Presler, 1987, op. dt, p.llS.
60
61
Ramaswamy, 1998, op. dt.;.. p.l37-8.
Presler, 1987, op. cit, p. 114.

106
The then pontiff of Thiruvannamalai Adheenam was quite supportive of the

demand. He ~rites, "Moreover, to say that God belongs only to anyone

language is to find flaw in the flawless wholeness of God. All languages

belong to God."62 On June 24, 1953 he first initiated Tamil Puja in

Patteeswaran temple, belonging to the Kundrakudi Adheenam. However,

not all were convinced of the efficacy of puja in Tamil. The Kanchi

Sankaracharya Chandrasekara Saraswathi Swami, speaking about tt;le

sacredness and efficacy of Sanskrit Vedas, observes that " ... the Nathan of

veda mantras with their special sound, they bring world peace even

without their meaning. However, they are highly meaningful also.'163

~owever, Kundrakudi Adigalar differed from the view. He argued

that to say that language of one community (Sanskrit and Brahmans)

should be used was unacceptable and its imposition on another community

,
unjust. So, it is only fair to have Tamil as the language of liturgy in temples

where Tamils worship. Also, pressure for Tamil worship was building from

the Dravidian movement. In 1962, Kundrakudi Adigal~r placed a request

with the then HR&CE Minister M. Baktavatsalam for the institution of Tamil

language in the worship practices of temples in Tamil Nadu. Baktavatsalam

responded by querying whether there was any precedence for worship in

Tamil in temples in Tamil Nadu. Adigalar provided with hist?rical evidence,

the various instances of worship in Tamil and along with that, he also sent

62
Kunrrakudi Adigalar, Aalayangal ~mudhaya Maiyangal, {Temples are Social Centres},
Madras, 1987, p.77. ,
63
Chandrasekara Saraswathi, quoted in Ponneelam, Thavathiru. Kundrakudi Adigalar:
Thamizhagathin AanmigaVazhikaattJ~ Chennai, 1991, p.54.

107
a ~odel of worship in Tamil in temples. This brought an immediate result,

and on 4.1.1961, Tamil archana was performed in Madurai Meenakshi

Amman Temple. 64

Advocates of Tamil worship are from both the Dravidian movement

and Saiva Siddanthins. For the followers of Dravidan Movement,

Tamil arruchanai was only one of the several fronts on which to conduct their
war against Brahmanical Sanskritic Hinduism, which induded the breaking of
Brahman monopoly on priesthood, the opening of the Sanc:tl!m Sanctorum in
temples to all castes, and the public burtng of Sanskrit soiptures. 65

. However, Sa iva Siddanthins demanded the use of Tamil on two additional

grounds: (1) Tamil is a divine language and (2) is the mother tongue of the

people of Tamil Nadu. For example, Kundrakudi Adigalar felt that the

spread of atheism in Tamil Nadu was because of the use of unintelligible

Sanskrit in temples rather than the mother tongue Tamil: "If pujaris were

to cast off their superiority complex and to conduct archanais in a language

which is understandable to the average devotee, there would be no anti-

God demonstration in the street.'166 When the DMK came to power in

1967, they pursued the issue vigorously and in 1971, the HR&CE issued a

circular to all major temples to change the language of archana to Tamil.

While religious orders like Thiruvannamalai, Kundrakudi, and Perur

Adheenams were in favour of Tamil archanai, the position of other Orders

64
Ibid., p.S7-. .,
65
Ramaswamy, 1998, op. dt., pp.139-40.
66
Presler, 1987, op. cit., pp.llS-16.

108
are little ambivalent. Since, in most Vaishnavite temples, Tamil was liberally

used, they largely did not react to the announcement. Also, with their all

India Brahman . clientele, they had little reason to respond or mobilise

public opinion on the issue, which was limited to Tamil Nadu. However, the

Kanchi Kamakoti Sankara Mutt, which almost exclusively uses Sanskrit, did

not react very positively to the announcement. Though they did not

explicitly speak against Tamil archana, they opined that the use of Sanskrit
. .
is more preferable, for what they felt, as the special efficacy of Sanskrit

words. Among the Saivite Orders, traditional Orders like Thiruvavaduthurai,

Dharmapuram and Kasi Order, gave preference to Tamil, even while not

excluding Sanskrit. However, the refusal to perform Puja in Tamil was

con~rued by them as caste superiority on the part of Brahman priests.

SAIVAITE REUGIOUS ORDERS: ARCHANA AND AMBIGUITY

Thiruvav~duthruai Adheenam Poet Adi Muruga Vel summed up the

reaction of eminent Saivite Orders like this: In the affairs of language -

there are two outlooks. One is to regard Sanskrit as an enemy and the

other is to regard both languages sacred. It is only the second outlook that

our religious leaders took. For Appar, the famous Nayanmar sang 'Tamizh

Kandaai Aryaam Kandaai', (You Founded Tamil and You Founded Sanskrit,

meaning Shiva) and it is the outlook that our religious leaders took - that

both the languages are great.

109
 However, there is another group of people who took a different

view. They gave more importance to community consciousness. However,

the Adheenams 'did not share this view. They did not propagate such a

view, did not publish books and none of them did. They used both the

languages for propagation of religion. However, even during these times,

the Brahman group interfered and argued that Tamil and Tamil Culture

(read Saiva Siddhantha) owed everything to Sanskrit, and so indebted to

Brahmans.

Again the Adheenams did not respond to this. However, people like

Maraimalai Adigal protested and asserted the purity and autonomy of Tamil

and its linkage to Saiva Siddhantha. This is where the Dravidian movement

was able to identify with people like Maraimalai Adigal. While the

Adheenams did not join the debate, they started giving more importance to

Tamil. They brought out more Tamil books. They started using Tamil

language, literature and grammar to establish Saiva Siddhantha. It was

only a reaction. 67

Thus, even while religious orders like Kundrakudi Adheenam insisted

on the use of Tamil as religious language in temples, some other Orders

like Dharmapurarn and Thiruvavaduthurai merely insisted on parity

between Tamil and Sanskrit. This may be because of the fact that while

Kundrakudi Adheenam and other Adheenams which insisted on 'Tamil only'

67
Personal Interview with Adi Mururga Vel, Trichy, November 1999.

110
po~ition, identified more closely with Dravidian Movement, while the

traditional Orders generally had to take into account their existing

traditions. Also, they sought to maintain a balance with all-India political

forces. The ambivalent attitude of the Dravidian movement towards Indian

independence is well known and on occasions, the movement had

articulated their secessionist intentions. Traditional Orders like

Thiruvavaduthurai Adheenam, however, had been generally supportive of

India's independence.

For _example, when Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru assumed the Prime

Ministership of the country for the first time, sent him a congratulatory

message which spoke about his sacrifices to the country:

We, twentieth in the Order of succession of Thiruvavaduthurai Adheenam,

established by His Holiness Sri Panchakshara Desika Paramachariar, the
seventh in the line of Meikanda Santhanam, whose successors for the welfare
of humanity have propagated the worship of Sri Nataraja as also the worship
of great souls; and preached universal brotherhood, the comer stone of Saiva
Siddhantha Philosophy through the great work SIVA GNANA BODHAM,
revealed by Lord Shiva, whose abode is Mount Kailas, the highest peak in
Himalayas, to Sri Nandi Devar in order to dispel his doubts in the Vedas and
Siva Agamas, who in tum has established the Meikanda Oevar Santhanam to
propagate incessantly the sacred ideas to ensure the bliss of the suffering
humanity shower our blessings on Sri Jawaharlal Nehruji, who inspite of
opulence and wealth, renounced the life of luxury and embraced the arduous
life of tribulation and suffering in the cause of freedom, who succeeded his
great father Sri Pandit Motilal Nehruji, as the distinguished leader of the
Indian National Congress, who is the foremost among the disciples of the
greatest world personality, Mahatma Gandhiji, who has succeeded in
liberating our andent and great Nation from the foreign yoke, and who in all
fittingness is the first Premier of Free India, the most selfless worker, who
has spent his whole lifetime in the service of his countrymen and the
upliftment of humanity. 68

68
See Sn" Ambalavaana Desika Paramachary Swamigal Ninaivu Malar, Kundrakudi, 1951.

111
In clear contrast to the attitude of Dravidian movement to India's

independence, the message was liberal in its praise for the independence

movement and also to Gandhi and Nehru. The message also refers India as

a 'great and andent' nation. Going beyond delivering the message, the

religious orders also made a symbolic presentation of gold sceptre with

Saiva symbol of 'Bull' to Nehru on his assumption of Prime Ministership.

However, the issue of language of worship remains important to

many Saiva followers. A respondent of Kundrakudi Adheenam put the issue

in following words:

A man regards three kinds of attadvnents as important: Attachment to

language, to the nation and to his religion. And all the three are necessary
for a human being. It is the attachment to religion, which makes a person, a
human being. So in order to know my religion dearty, it has to be in my own
language. Attachment to my religion has to be an intelligent attachment, it
should be rational and I believe only the mother tongue can provide such an
intelligent understanding .... I don't believe any other language can provide it.
Otherwise, I would need a translator/interpreter to reach God .... See, this
urge to worship in mother tongue is there for more than one hundred
years.... Books have been written.... It was not something new and it was
Thavathiru Kundrakudi Adigalar who took the issue to the people... And my
guru is Kundrakudi Adigalar's disciple. Now, the Perur Adheenam is also
doing the same thing.... Both the Perur Adigalar and Kundrakudi Adigalar
were responsible for the cnange where the religious orders reached out to
the people from a situation where the people had to approach the institution
for any kind of interaction to take place. And Gaumara Adheenam (another
Saivite Order) has also partidpated in the process ...

Even today, many Saivite Orders perform their worship only in Sanskrit. But
at a few appropriate places, Tamil songs from Thevaram and Thiruvasagam
are used. Otherwise, everything else Is in Sanskrit.... But what we say is that
everything is available in Tamil in the form of the 'iOngs of Nayanmaars- no
need to search for anything new.... But even today, when Tamil
consciousness has ~pread, the Mutt leaders are scared to introduce Tamil
worship.... Probably, they don't want to lose their tradition. May be they
wonder whether God would accept If the puja is performed in Tamil. But,
however, they do agree that Thirumurais are efficadous and they could be
placed on par with Sanskrit Mantras. At least they accept these things in
public platforms, but how much of it would be implemented is open to
question. Perur Adheenam and Kundrakudi Adheenam have published many
books for conducting rituals like marriage, passage de rites in Tamil.... In
Coimbatore, somebody has even filed a case against conducting such Tamil

112
 rituals.... But Perur Adheenam is very insistent that they should be conducted
in Tamil language inspite of the case. 69

The fact that the temple priests are Brahmans has also added the

edge to the controversy, perhaps reinforcing the Dravidian theory of

'Brahmans and their Sanskrit' and 'Non-Brahmans and our Tamil'. Actually,

when the orders for Tamil Archana was passed in late 1970s and then

reinforced in early 1971, a Brahman Priest one Dakshinamoorthy Battar,

argued in Madras High Court that,

... the issue was not simply one of translation. Rather, the efficacy of the
ritual depended on particular sounds, especially the Nathan which followed
the deity's name. He concluded that 'disaster' would follow if 'he dared to
perform archi:lnai in Tamil'. He further argued that DMK which was a party
with no faith in God was attempting to thrust its own religious feelings into
the temple and destroy the temple's purity. 70

However, the court ruled in favour of Sanskrit archanas, arguing that, "the

circulars are not shown to affect freedom of conscience or the right to

freely profess, practice and propagate religion. Language is no part of

religion and it cannot be taken that unless religious matters are expressed
71
in a particular language they cease to be religious or religious practices. "

Soon, even the Sankaracharya of Kanchi Kamakoti Peetam urged his

followers to give importance to 'Tamil stotras and hymns'. Today, in many

major temples, a prominent board is displayed with the message that

'Tamil Archanas also are conrlucted here'.

69
Personal interview with Ramalingam, Madurai, March 2001.
70
Presler, 1987, op. dt., pp.116-17.
71
Ibid.

113
 While the controversy in recent times has faded from public

memory, among the devotional community, the issue has hardly died

down. For example, one respondent of Perur Adheenam commented,

I believe the controversy has caste overtones and the upper caste people,
who are practidng Sanskrit worship, believe that the status quo should be
preserved. Nobody else has any objection. The caste which is in control of
temple worship (read Brahmans) insist on continuation of worship ;n Sanskrit
irrespective of whether priests who conduct the worship know its meaning
properly or conduct the worship in the correct way. It is because of their
adamance the situation hasn't changed ... may be, they are scared of losing
their position to others ... even if they lose it to others, it is only appropriate,
as it has been sanctioned .. .for example Kannappa Nayanar (Kannappa
Nayanaar was a hunter who used to worship a Shiva Unga in the forest and
the God was supposed to have loved the worship more than the one
conducted by Brahman priest). In worship, love is more important than ritual
and love can be expressed only in mother tongue .... We are waging a grand
struggle against this .... Please do not think I am against Sanskrit. I respect it
greatly and we would not be he.e if there was no Sanskrit.... But they do not
understand our feelings and they treat us like enemies. 72

The Perur Adheenam has brought out a book to help people in

performing the rituals, including domestic ones in Tamil. In the preface,

Thavathiru Santhalinga Ramasamy Adigalar writes,

.. .If mysterious rituals are conducted in an unintelligible language, no

purpose can be derived ... The religious books in our sweet Tamil were hidden
and people were allured by alien practices... That's how Sanskrit practices
ascended the pedestal. Because of this, religious sphere abounded with
meaningless and fake rituals and practices. Even those that were meaningful
became a mystery. So, those who were interested felt dejected. It is at this
juncture, that scholars and other great men have attempted to introduce
Tamil into the domestic ritual and temple worship. We have used these
methods in temples and in thousands of temples Kumbhaabhishekam
(Renovation) was performed using these methods. This has increased the
religiosity in the society. There is no doubt that those who perform these
rituals in Tamil with passion and belief would succeed. 73

The use of Tamil, in exclusion to Sanskrit, and other languages was

also demanded by the followers of Dravidian Movement, who extended its

72
Personal Interview with Sokkalingam, Erode, March 2001.
73 Thavathiru Santhalinga Adigalar, Tamizhmurai Thirokuda Neerattu Perovizha
Thironedya Tamizh Marabu, Coimbatore, 1996.

114
us_e, to even secular sphere like administration and coining of scientific

terms for educational purposes.

VAISHNAVITE REUGIOUS ORDERS AND TAMIL ARCHANA

The Vaishnavite religious orders, with its long tradition of using

Tamil in temples, generally, did not participate in the debate and on the

whole indifferent to the whole issue. When the Pontiff of the Andavan

Ashramam (religious order of Vadagalai School) was asked about Tamil

archana, he simply said,

Archana should be performed in both the languages and let there not be any
hatred because of language ... And if the people prefer Archana in Tamil, let it
be so, and there are no problems regarding that... Those who demand Tamil
archana have neither changed their names to Tamil nor of their words ...
Tradition had been to conduct puja in Sanskrit, but if they insist on Tamil
74
archana, as popular demand, let them do it, there is no problem ...

While the Pontiff had no objection to Tamil as language of liturgy, he

obviously takes a dig at the Dravidian Movement on their perceived

hypocrisy. (The DMK chief's name is Karunanidhi, a Sanskrit name and his

son's name is Stalin).

When, a respondent of Vaanamaamalai Mutt was asked about the

use of Tamil in Vaishnavite temple, he said,

No Vaishnavite disputes the supremacy of Vedas and Sanskrit. But veda,

apart from speaking about salvation, speaks about so many other things too.
However, the Tamil poems of Alwars speak exclusively about the grace of
God. See, it is not possible for everybody to go and swim in the oceans.
Some need a comfortable pond with easy steps ... It is meant for the common
man and compatible with kali yuga. And the Acharyapatampara from

H Personal Interview with Pontiff, Andavan Ashramam, Srirangam, March 2000.

115
 Nathamuni to Manavaala Maamunigal, give more importance to prabandam:.
in comparison to Vedas... Vedas are supreme, but keeping in mind the
present times, Prabandham are given more importance. In the poems of
Alwars, the Vedas are substantiated through Tamil ... the substance of the
Northern language is explained through the Southern language ... 75

An analysis of the varied nature of responses should be classified, to

explicate the reasons (for the varying responses of religious orders).

Religious orders can be classified both according to their philosophy and

also according to other criteria. Actually, the responses have to be

classified: (1) Those that totally support the use of Tamil, almost to the

exclusion of Sanskrit, (2) Those who prefer both the languages to be used,

and (3) Those who are generally indifferent or accommodative to the

debate. The religious orders classified according to their philosophy and

castes are: Saiva non-Brahman Orders, Smartha Advaita Brahman Orders

and Vaishnavite Brahman Orders. Saiva non-Brahman Orders can be

classified into historically eminent Orders and the Orders which came into

prominence recently. Vaishnavite Orders can be classified into Orders of

Vadagalai school and Tengalai school. Since, the only Advaitic Order under

analysis is Kanchi Kamakoti Peetam, there is no need to classify it. In terms

of responses, Saiva Orders show the greatest variance: traditional Orders

like Thiruvavaduthurai, Dharmapuram and Kasi Madam, prefer both

languages to be used and reluctant to deviate from tradition. Orders like

Kundrakudi Adheenam and Perur ::>anthalingar Madam, which came into

prominence only recently, are unequivocal in their preference for Tamil to

Sanskrit. Kanchi Kamakoti Order, is generally indifferent to the debate,

75
Personal Interview with Murali, Srirangam, December, 2000.

116
through they would prefer Sanskrit. Since Smarthas, as a social group,

were never involved in the administration of temples, the debate was not

important to them from a religious point of view. However, politically,

Kanchi Kamakoti Mutt as the most powerful religious institution in the

country, they cannot remain totally indifferent to the debate. Only Adi-

Saivas, and not Smarthas who are a different class of Brahmans from

Smarthas, are priests in Saivite temples. The Vaishnavite Orders are

accommodative in their responses.

The chapter has two sections: In the first section, a general

introduction to religious orders in Tamil Nadu is given with profiles of some

of the more important orders. Also we have tried to understand the varied

nature of activities of the religious orders, like education, propagation of

religious philosophy and social service. We have also tried to understand

how the religious orders have adapted to modem changes to fulfil their

historical role as a seminary by establishing new educational institutions

with secular curricula.

In the second section, the relation between language and religious

orders has been analysed. Specifically, our attempt has been to understand

the role of religious orders in the language resurgence that took place in

the later and early decades of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries

respectively in Tamil speaking regions. The resurgence has to be politically

contextualised, for the emergence of the non-Brahman movement posited

. l17
the 'Tamil identity' as a major tool in its conflict with Brahmanism and

Brahmans. The attempt to construct such an identity usually tries to

obfuscate the differences among the probable constituents and the internal

contradictions come to the fore. While the Brahmin-based Vaishnavite and

Advaitic religious orders could not be expected to the reforms brought by

the Dravidian movement, the differences among the Saivite religious orders

indicates the plurality of religious practices and also the role played by

context in influencing the actions of various orders.

When 'language of liturgy 'a domain which was conflict free, became

a point of contention in the twentieth century, the religious orders were

forced to reorient their positions and the reorientation and adaptation has

used both context and history in choosing from the various choices

available to them. Even while indicating the dynamic nature of religious

orders, the chapter has tried to capture the limitations within which the

religious orders operate.

118