RELAY TESTING

PRACTICES
PSN RAJU
Programme runs as follows
20-10-14 Introduction on protection
system
Testing practices hands on training using
microprocessor based test kit(MPRT)

21-10-14 Testing practices hands on

training using microprocessor based test
kit(PUNOVA)

22-10-14 Configuration of numerical

relays
 INTRODUCTION

PROTECTION SYSTEM

3
COMPONENTS OF PROT. SYSTEM
.
Connectivity of protection
elements

Supporting systems
Protection philosophy

.
protection
Testing of these elements individually

then connectivity

Then combined testing/scheme testing

Verities of relays
Evolution of relays
Application in TRANSCO
protection
. 33KV Line feeder

33kv capacitor

132kv line
220kv line
400kv line

400kv reactor---line and bus

Transformer
 TRANSFORMER PROTECTION
CLASSIFICATION

1. Protection against Electrical Faults

Unit Protection (against Internal Faults)
Differential Protection.
REF Protection.

Non-Unit Protection (against uncleared external faults)

IDMT O/C, E/F Relays.
Definite Time O/C, E/F Relays.

2.Protection against Abnormal Conditions

Over Load protection
Over Fluxing Protection

3. Protective Devices (Non-electrical)

Buchholz (Main Tank / OLTC)
Oil / Winding Temperature Indicators / Relays
Pressure Release Valve
Oil Level Gauges / Indicators
Differential Relay(87)

A Differential relay compares the currents on both sides of

the transformer. As long as there is no fault within the
protected equipment (Transformer), the current circulates
between the two CTs and no current flows through the
differential element.

But for internal faults the sum of the

CTs secondary currents will flow through the differential
relay making it to operate.
 It works on KIRCHHOFS first law(current node law)

Two-basic requirements that the differential relay

connections are to be satisfied are :

a) It must not operate for load or external faults.

b) It must operate for internal faults.
TRANSFORMER PROTECTION
DIFFERENTIAL RELAY OPERATING PRINCIPLE

Current Distribution (External Fault)

TRANSFORMER PROTECTION
DIFFERENTIAL RELAY OPERATING PRINCIPLE.

Current Distribution ( Internal Fault)

 As on-load tap changer facilities are invariably provided
in the grid transformers, any departure from the nominal
tap position will result in spill currents in the relay circuits.

Further, the CTs are often of different types and have

dissimilar magnetization characteristics, again resulting in
spill current during heavy through fault conditions.

To avoid unwanted relay operation under the above

two conditions, a "Percentage Bias" differential relay is

used.
 132/33KV 16MVA PTR

Taps=25,
5N,
1.25% voltage raise for each tap
Ihv=70, Ilv=280 amp
CT ratios---100/1 and 400/1
In 5n tap is 87 works well
When for extreme tap 25(worst case),87
may operate for normal conditions.
 At 25 tap, voltage raise= 20*1.25%=25%
HV side current=93.3 (from70 amp to 93.3
amp)
Lv side current= 280 amp (no change)
I diff=.93-.7=0.23 so relay operates
Addition to this CT mis-match error due to
tap change, instruments errors further
magnifies the problem.
for External faults(10 times
rated),Idiff=2.3

CONTD..
 To overcome this problem, percentage
bias concept introduced in the
differential relay.
%Bias=Iop/Ibias
Bias coils creates restraining force
I bias proportional to load current/
through fault current
I diff vectorial sum of two currents
I diff(actual)>Iop, then relay operates,
otherwise no operation
 Case1: normal current(full load)
I op=% bias*I bias=0.3*I bias=
0.3*(0.93+0.7)/2=0.24
I diff=0.23 , which is less than Iop. Hence
no realy operation
 Through fault
If=10 times rated
Iop=2.4,
Idiff=2.3 which is again less than Iop
Hence no trip

case2
 Internal fault

case3
 The operating characteristics of percentage bias differential
relay is shown in the figure.
The current flowing through the operating coil of the relay
should be nearly zero during normal operating conditions and when
external short circuit occurs.
While setting the differential relay on a transformer, the
(mismatch) current through differential element at normal tap and
positive and negative extreme taps are to be computed. Differential
element pickup setting and/or bias settings is adopted based on
maximum percentage mismatch adding some safety margin.
Differential Current = | I1 -I2 |
Bias Setting = | I1-I2 |
-----------
(I1+I2)
C T Ratios and connections for differential relay:
1. A simple rule of thumb is that the CTs on any Wye (Star)
winding of a Power transformer should be connected in delta
and the CTs on any delta winding should be connected in Wye
(Star).

2. a) If the CTs are to be connected in Star, the C.T Ratio

will be In / lA Where In is transformer full load current.
b) If the CTs are to be connected in Delta, the C.T Ratio
will be In/0.5775 A.
DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION- CT CONNECTIONS.
Different vector group transformers

YNyn0,
Dyn11
YNaod11
Yd1
DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION- CT CONNECTIONS.
STAR / STAR TRANSFORMER
DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION CT CONNECTIONS.
DELTA / STAR TRANSFORMER (Dy11)
DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION STAR / STAR
TRANSFORMER

Instability With STAR CONNECTED CTs On Up-stream Earth Fault.

DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION STAR / STAR TRANSFORMER.

Delta / Delta CTs filter Zero Seq. Current & ensure Stability.
settings
I min-diff
Slope1
Slope2
2nd harmonic
5th harmonic
Transformer protection : Electrical
BASIC SCHEME
Restricted Earth Fault Protection (REF) : -
This relay is operative only for the internal faults of the
transformer and thus fast operating time can be achieved.

1. An external fault on the star side will result in current flowing in

the line CT of the affected phase and a balancing current in the
neutral CT and current in the relay is zero and hence relay is
stable. During an internal fault, the line current on the line CT
gets reversed and hence relay operates.

2. The arrangement of residually connected CTs on the delta

side of a transformer is only sensitive to earth faults on the delta
side because zero sequence currents are blocked by the delta
winding.
For external faults no current flows through REF unless
a CT gets saturated. Hence minimum pickup current
setting is adopted (10% or 20% In) on REF relay.
Based on the through fault current, the stabilizing
resistor is set such that the relay will not operate for
external fault when a CT gets saturated.
This relay operates only for internal earth faults,
instantaneously.
 REF---

Current Distribution on External Earth Fault.

Current Distribution on Single Phase load.
Current distribution on Internal Fault.
 TRANSFORMER PROTECTION
STABILISING RESISTOR

SETTING CRIETERIA

If B-CTfullyactivewhile

NCT fully saturates, maximum

Voltage across Relay Branch

(Vs) = If/n (Rct + 2Rl).

IfRelaycurrentsettingisIs

and Ohmic burdenisZr,

Stab. Resistor Setting (Rs)

= Vs/Is Zr Ohms.
Fault current for external fault If = 2500 A (assume)
C.T.Ratio (line and neutral) - 300/1 A
2500
Secondary fault current = ------ = 8. 33 A (Sec.)
300
RCT = C.T. Resistance
TL = Lead Resistance = 7.41 Ohms/Km (2.5 sq mmCu)
Voltage developed across CT (Saturated)
(Vk) = If (RCT + 2RL)
= 8.33(5 + 3)
= 66.64 Volts
Relay burden = l VA
Relay Operating
Current = 0.2 A (Set value)
Relay Operating Voltage
VR =
Relay burden
------------------
Relay Operating current
= 1/0.2 = 5 Volt
Stabilizing Resistor SR = VK - VR
-----------
ISet
= 66.64 - 5.0
---------------
0.2
= 308.2 Ohms
Set SR = 310 Ohms
If the calculated value of SR exceeds the existing range, the
current settings can be raised accordingly and arrived at suitable
SR value.
 REF for AUTO
TRANSFORMER
Over current relays
DT relays
IDMT relays
 Current setting
Time setting

DT RELAYS
Over current Protection
Definite (Independent) Time Relays

TIME

TOP

IS Applied Current
(Relay Current Setting)
 PS,TMSare two settings available for
adopting
PSM,TIME---are X-axis,Y-axis respectively
---plays in getting inverse
curve

IDMT relays
Over current Protection
IDMT
TIME

IS Applied Current
(Relay Current
Setting)
Inverse Definite Minimum Time characteristic
Over current Protection
IEC Characteristics
1000

SI t = 0.14
(I0.02 -1) 100

VI t = 13.5

Operating Time (s)

(I2 -1) 10
EI t = 80 LTI

(I2 -1) SI

1
LTI t = 120 VI

(I - 1) EI

0.1
1 10 100
Current (Multiples of Is)
 CFB
TURE
DOBLE
OMICRON
FREJA
CHAINA KIT(PUNOVA)

TESTING KITS
OVER CURRENT RELAYS
Starting current & IDMT characteristics
verification
Starting current = current at which disc
starts/start LED glows
IDMT
Current applied to relay= PSM*PS
Time of operation = time*TMS
Graph of normal inverse characteristic(IDMT)
1.35 2 4 10 20 PSM
30 10 5 3 2.2 time

PSM*P.S= I fault / ct ratio(current flowing in the relay)

TMS* time= time of operation
 Settings:- MTA---30 or 45 degrees
30 degrees for plain feeders
45 degrees for transformer feeders

DIRECTIONAL RELAYS
Distance Relays: -
Introduction:

The impedance relays also called distance

relays are employed to provide protection
to transmission lines connected in a
network as they are economic and possess
several technical advantages. They are
comparatively simple to apply, operate with
extremely high speed, and both primary
and backup protection features are inherent
in them.
Distance Relays: - (contd)

Moreover, they can be easily modified to

work as unit schemes by coordinating
them with power line carrier facilities and
are suitable for high speed reclosing. The
impedance relay is made to respond to
the impedance between the relay location
and the point where fault is incident. The
impedance is proportional to the distance
to the fault, (hence the name 'distance
relay') and is therefore independent of the
fault current levels.
Distance Relaying Principle:
A distance relay compares the currents
and voltages at the relaying point with
Current providing the operating torque and
the voltage provides the restraining torque.
In other words an impedance relay is a
voltage restrained over current relay.

The equation at the balance point in a

simple impedance relay is K1V2 = K2I2 or
V/I = K3 where K1, K2 and K3 are
constants. In other words, the relay is on
the verge of operation at a constant value
of V/I ratio, which may be expressed as an
impedance
 Since the operating characteristics of the
relay depend upon the ratio of voltage and
current and the phase angle between them,
their characteristics can be best represented
on an R-X diagram where both V/I ratio and
the phase angle can be plotted in terms of an
impedance R+jX. Further, the power system
impedance like fault impedance, power
swings, loads etc. can also be plotted on the
same R-X diagram. Therefore response of a
particular relay during power swing, faults
and other system disturbances can easily be
assessed.
Main Features in Distance Scheme
Distance schemes consist of the following
major components:-
i) Starters.
ii) Measuring units.
iii) Timers
iv) Auxiliary relays
Starters: -
The starting relay (or starter) initiates the distance
scheme in the event of a fault within the required
reach (more than zone-3).
Starters: -
Other functions of the starter are: -
a) Starting of timer relays for second and
third zones.
b) Starting of measuring elements.

The starters are generally of Mho or

impedance type.
With Mho type starters: -
Measuring units for phase and earth faults
can be either directional or non-directional
as Mho starter is inherently directional.
With impedance type starters: -

Measuring units have to be directional as

impedance starters are non directional.
The under impedance relay can be used in
conjunction with the directional relay as
starter which will then function similar to
the Mho starter.

Measuring units: -
They are generally of a mho or reactance
or a combination of mho, reactance and
resistance types.
Phase Fault Units:-

These measuring units are fed with line to line

voltages (such as Vab, Vbc) and difference
between line currents (Ia-Ib). They measure
the positive sequence impedance from the
relay location to the fault point. Three such
relays respond correctly to all possible single
line to ground faults line to line faults, double
line to ground faults and 3-phase faults. They
however do not respond correctly to earth
faults.
Earth Fault Units: -
These measuring units utilize line to neutral
voltage (Van, Vbn Vcn) and phase currents
(Ia, Ib, Ic). In order to make these units
measure the positive sequence impedance
correctly, a zero sequence current
compensation is to be provided which is
obtained by:
KN = (Z0-Z1)/ 3*Z1 (where Z1 = positive
sequence impedance of line.
Z0 = Zero sequence impedance of line)
In the current circuit (1+KN) Ia will be fed
for the above measurement.
Types of Distance Relays:
(1) Impedance relay
(2) Reactance relay
(3) Mho relay
(4)Modified impedance relay
Impedance relay:
Characteristics of an impedance relay on
R-X diagram is shown in fig
Operation of the impedance relay is
independent of the phase angle between V
and I. The operating characteristic is a
circle with its center at the origin, and
hence the relay is non-directional.
Characteristic of Directional Impedance
Relay:
Characteristic of a directional impedance
relay in the complex R-X phase is shown in
fig.

The directional unit of the relay causes

separation of the regions of the relay
characteristic shown in the figure by a line
drawn perpendicular to the line impedance
locus. The net result is that tripping will
occur only for points that are both within
the circles and above the directional unit
characteristic.
The Reactance-type Distance
Relay:
Reactance relay measures V/I Sin (i.e. Z
sin = X). Whenever the reactance
measured by the relay is less than the set
value, the relay operates. The operating
characteristic on R-X diagram is shown in
fig
The resistance component of impedance
has no effect on the operation of reactance
relay, the relay responds solely to
reactance component of impedance. This
relay is inherently non-directional. The
relay is most suitable to detect earth faults
where the effect of arc resistance is
appreciable.
Mho relay:
This is a directional impedance relay, also known as
admittance relay. Its characteristic on R-X diagram
is a circle whose circumference passes through the
origin as illustrated in figure showing that the relay
is inherently directional and it only operates for
faults in the forward direction.
Modified impedance relay:
Also known as offset Mho relay whose characteristic
encloses the origin on R-X diagram as shown in fig
This offset mho relay has three main applications: -
i) Busbar zone backup
ii) Carrier starting unit in distance/carrier blocking
schemes.
iii) Power Swing blocking.
Timers: -
Timer relays when initiated by starters
provide the time lag required for zones.
They also will be used for zone extension
purpose whenever required.

Auxiliary relays: -
Distance scheme comprises of several
auxiliary relays, which perform functions
such as flag indications, trippings,
signaling, alarm etc.
Additional Features in distance
schemes: -

i) Power Swing blocking relay

ii) VT fuse failure relay.
iii) Switch onto fault relay
iv) Fault locator
v) Auto-reclosing scheme.
vi) Carrier communication scheme.
Power Swing blocking: -
Distance relay which respond to balanced
3-phase changes in the impedance will be
affected by power swings. These swings
or oscillations occur following a system
disturbance such as major load change or
a dip in voltage due to delayed fault
clearance.

In case of fault, the transition from period

of impedance locations (25 to 33% of
starter impedance) to fault impedance
(starter impedance) is sudden whereas
during power swings. The PSB relays use
this difference to block the tripping during
 VT fuse failure relay: -
The distance relays being voltage restraint
O/C relays, loss of voltage due to main PT
fuse failure or inadvertent removal of fuse
in one or more phases will cause the relay
operation. The fuse failure relay will sense
such condition by the presence of residual
voltage without residual current and blocks
the relay.
 Switch onto fault: -
When the line is switched on to a close by
fault (say after line clear with earth switch
closed), the voltage at the relaying point
will be zero. Faults of this type will
normally be cleared by backup zones.
The voltage applied to the relay is low and
this condition occurring simultaneously with
the operation of starter will cause
instantaneous trip by SOTF relay. This
SOTF feature will be effective only for
about 1-2 seconds after the line is charged.
Faults occurring after this time will be
measured in the normal way.
 Fault locator: -
It measures the distance between the relay
location and fault location in terms of Z in
Ohms, or length in KM or percentage of line
length.

This relay gets same inputs as the distance

relay (connected in series with one of the
main relays). The measurement is initiated
by trip signal from distance relays.

The fault locator gives the exact location of

the fault, thereby reducing the time of
restoration.
Auto Reclosing Schemes:-
Types of Faults:-

i) Transient Faults:-
These are cleared by the immediate
tripping of circuit breakers and do not recur
when the line is re-energised.

ii) Semi-permanent Faults:-

These require a time interval to disappear
before a line is charged again.
iii) Permanent Faults:-

These are to be located and repaired before

the line is re-energised.
About 80-90% of the faults occurring are
transient in nature. Hence the automatic
reclosure of breaker (after tripping on fault)
will result in the line being successfully re-
energised, thereby
Decreasing outage time
Improving reliability
Improving system stability
Reduces fault damage and maintenance
time
iv) Dead Time:-
The time between the Auto-reclosing scheme
being
Energised and the 1st reclosure of the circuit
breaker . This is normally set at 1 Sec.

v) Reclaim Time:-
The time following a successful closing
operation measured from the instant the
auto-reclosing relay closing contacts making
which must elapse before the auto-reclosing
relay initiated another reclosing attempt. In
other words, it may be said to be the time
between 1st and 2nd re-closure.
 Types of Auto-reclosing schemes (based
on phase):
a) Three phase Auto-reclosing:
This type of auto-reclosing causes an
immediate drift apart of the two systems and
hence no interchange of synchronizing power
can take place during the dead time.
b) Single Phase Auto-reclosing:
In this only the faulty phase (which already
has tripped on SLG fault) is reclosed without
causing interruption in interchange of
synchronizing power between two systems
through other two healthy phases.
Types of Auto-reclosing schemes (case on
attempts of
reclosure):
a) Single Shot Auto-reclosing:-
In this scheme, breaker is reclosed only once
on a given fault before lockout of circuit
breaker occurs. High speed auto-reclosing for
EHV system is invariably single shot.

b) Multi-shot Auto-reclosing:-
In this scheme, more than one reclosing
attempt is made for a given fault before
lockout of the circuit breaker occurs.
Repeated closure attempts with high fault
level would seriously affect the circuit breaker,
i) Circuit Breaker Limitations:-
Ability of circuit breaker to perform several
trip close operations in quick succession.

ii) System Conditions:-

In the percentage of the semi-permanent
faults (which could be burnt out) is
moderate, for example on the lines through
the forest, multi shot auto-reclosing is
followed
Types of Auto-reclosing (depending on
speed):
High speed Auto-reclosing:-
This aids in fast restoration of supply but
should be done by taking into account the
following factors:-
System disturbance time can be tolerated
without loss
of system stability.
Characteristics of protection schemes and
circuit breaker.

Low Speed or Delayed Auto-reclosing:-

This is suitable for highly interconnected
systems where the loss of a single line is
unlikely to cause two
sections of the system to drift apart and
For EHV Systems:-
a) Choice of Dead Time:-
Lower limit is decided by deionising time of
circuit breaker.
Upper limit is decided by transient stability
and synchronism.
Long transmission lines require longer dead
time for single phase faults.
The dead time for high speed auto-reclosing
scheme with EHV system is 0.3-0.8 Sec.
b) Choice for reclaim time:-

This should not be set to such a low value

that the operating cycle of breaker is
exceeded when two fault incident occurs
close together. The reclaim time will be in
the range of 10-30 Sec., depending on the
breaker opening and closing mechanisms.
vi) Carrier Communication Schemes:-

The main disadvantage of conventional

time-stepped distance protection is that the
instantaneous Zone-1 of the protective
scheme at each end of the protected line is
set to cover 80% of the line and hence
faults in the balance 20% of the line (at
each end) are cleared in Zone-2 time, which
is undesirable.
 The desirable scheme is the one wherein
the relays clear the faults on the 100% of
the protected line instantaneously and also
provide backup for uncleared faults on
adjacent lines. This can be achieved by
interconnecting the distance relays are each
end of the line by a signaling channel
(which can be either pilots, a power line
carrier communication channel, a radio link
or a microwave channel).
 The purpose of the signaling channel is to
transmit the information about the system
conditions at one end of the protected line
to the other end and initiate or prevent
tripping of the remote circuit breaker. The
former arrangement is referred to as a
Transfer trip scheme while the latter is
known as Blocking scheme
a) Transfer trip scheme:-

In this scheme, the distance relay at one

end of the protected lines sends a carrier
signal to the relay at other end of the line
for inter-tripping, thereby clearing the faults
on entire line instantaneously.
Transfer trip is of two types:-
Under-reaching scheme:-
The scheme in which the Zone-1 relay
(set to cover about 80% of ZL) is used
to send a signal to the remote end of
the feeder for inter-tripping is termed
as transfer trip under-reaching scheme.
To avoid mal-operation due to receipt of
false signal, the receiving end relay
operation is inter-locked with its Zone-
3/starter operation i.e. the scheme
operates either by its own Zone-1 relay
operation or by receipt of carried and
 Over-reaching scheme:-

This scheme is suitable for short lines where

an underreaching Zone-1 would be too short
to be of any practical use. In this scheme the
relay set to reach beyond 100% of the line, is
used to send an inter-tripping signal to the
remote end of the line. It is essential that the
receive relay contact be monitored by a
directional relay to ensure that tripping does
not take place unless the fault is within the
protected section. The disadvantage of this
scheme is that there is no independent Zone-1
tripping. The fast tripping therefore relies
entirely on signaling channel.
The disadvantages of these schemes is that
the signal is transmitted over the fault line
b) Blocking schemes:-

In this scheme, a blocking signal is sent by

the reverse looking directional unit ZR to
prevent instantaneous tripping for Zone-2 &
Zone-3 faults, external to the protected line.
Here ZR must operate faster then forward
looking Zone-3 units and the signaling
channel must also be extremely fast is
operation.
Non-switched scheme vs
switched scheme:-
In an ideal Non-switched scheme, there will
be 6 starters, 3 for phase faults and 3 for
ground faults. There will be independent
measuring units for both phase faults and
earth fault for each phase, for all three
zones, totaling to 18 units. This scheme is
faster and more accurate but is costly.
 In the switched scheme, only one
measuring unit will be used for all types of
faults. This single measuring unit is
switched to the correct fault loop impedance
by switching-in the respective voltages and
currents by the starter.

The reach of the measuring element gets

extended to zone-2 and zone-3 after the
elapse of corresponding timings through
zone extension process. Switched scheme is
relatively slow in operation and has the risk
of total scheme failure in the event of
failure of the only one measuring unit
Application of distance relays:
Since the distance relays are fed from the
secondaries of line CTs and bus PTs/line
CVTs, the line parameters are to be
converted into secondary values to set the
relay as per requirements.

Zsecy = Zpri/Impedance ratio

(where Impedance ratio =
P.T.Ratio/C.T.Ratio)

Hence any changes in C.T .ratio has to be

effected along with revision of relay
settings only.
For the lines, the impedance in Ohms per KM is
approximately as under:
---------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------
KV Z1 (= Z2 ) Line Angle
---------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------
132 KV 0.4 60 to 70
Deg.
220 KV 0.4 70 to 80
Deg.
400 KV 0.3 80 to 85
Deg.
---------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------
The line impedance is to be computed depending on line
configuration
To ensure proper coordination between distance relays in
power system, it is customary to choose relay ohmic
setting as follows: -
----------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------
S.No. Zones Reactance Time
----------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------
1. Zone-1 80% of ZL
Instantaneous
(no intentional
time delay).
2. Zone-2 100% of ZL + 40-50%
0.3 to 0.4 seconds
of ZSL

3. Zone-3 100% of ZL + 120%

0.6 to 0.8 seconds of ZSL

4. Zone-4 100% of ZL + 120%

0.9 to 1.5 seconds
 where ZL = Positive sequence
impedance of line to be protected.
ZSL = Positive sequence impedance of
adjacent shortest line.
ZLL = Positive sequence impedance of
adjacent longest line.
Note:

i) Where a three zone relay only is

available, the zone 3 will be set to
cover the adjacent longest line.
ii) The zonal timings will be carefully
selected to properly grade with the
relays on all the feeders emanating
from the adjacent bus.
Norms of protection adopted for
transmission lines
in our .System:-

i)132 KV Lines: -
A switched type distance scheme
supplemented by three numbers directional
O/L relays and 1 No. directional E/L relay.
ii) 220 KV Lines: -
Two Distance Schemes: -
Main-I: - Non-switched scheme fed
from bus PT.
Main-II: - A switched scheme fed from
line CVT.
 A provision is generally made for the
changeover of voltage supply for the
distance schemes from the bus PT to line
CVT and vice-versa.
Each distance scheme is fed from
independent CT secondary cores.
iii) 400 KV Lines:-
Two Distance Schemes:-
Main-I:-Non-switched or Numerical
distance schemes
Main-II:-Non-switched or Numerical
distance schemes
 Recording devices have existed for many years,
from the first ink chart recorders to the digital
recording equipment available today.
Modern digital equipment has the capability to
monitor a larger number of analog and binary
inputs that could not be monitored in the earlier
disturbance recording devices. The introduction
of microprocessor relays provided another
method of disturbance recording.
The increased capability of disturbance recording
devices and microprocessor relays with
Disturbance Recorders
disturbance recording capability, have created
analysis challenges for the engineer.
 Disturbance - Any perturbation to the
electric system.

Disturbance Recorder or Disturbance

Recording
Equipment :
General name for non-continuous
power system time
sequence data recording
 The capability of disturbance monitoring equipment
has improved due to advances in technology.
The number of data inputs has increased with the
advances in increased processing power of modern
digital technology.
The amount of information available to the engineer
today from the types of recording devices and
associated analysis tools allows for a more thorough
analysis of power system disturbances.
Prior to the advent of fault recording equipment,
utility engineers relied on limited data such as relay
targets and visual evidence of fault damage to
determine whether the protective systems worked
correctly.
As technology advanced, the digital fault recorders
of today evolved to capture analog and binary
inputs. Examples of typical point densities today for
 Early disturbance (power swing) recorders were in
the form of the continuous monitoring equipment
using magnetic tape media.
These units captured data anywhere from several
seconds up to three hours, depending upon the
location of the data on the tape relative to the end
of the reel.
Retrieval of the records (paper charts or film) from
the early fault and disturbance records required a
technician to visit the substation or power plant to
collect the records.
Modern digital fault recorders now have
communications capability allowing for remote
retrieval of the records, reducing the time it takes
to get a record back for analysis and allowing the
protection engineer to perform a disturbance
investigation quicker.
 The ability to retrieve the records remotely and the
technology advances in disturbance monitoring, i.e.
larger electronic records have increased the storage
and communications time requirements for the
retrieved records

Time stamping and time synchronizing of records is

a necessary task of todays disturbance recorders.

Global Positioning System (GPS) satellites provide in

the GPS IRIG-B (and other) time code formats the
ability to synchronize and time stamp the
disturbance records of DFRs, protective relays and
other recording equipments.
Types of Disturbances of interest to
protection engineers:
There are typically four types of disturbance or
event records of interest to a protection engineer.
These are categorized by the event duration as
follows:

Transient - These are very short in duration and

typically include faults that are cleared
immediately by circuit breaker operation.
These events are generally no longer than 8
cycles for high speed clearing and 16 cycles for
sequential line clearing.
These events are usually analyzed to determine
correct protection operation, fault location, or
verification of system model parameters.
 Short Term - These generally include all other
time-delayed fault clearing and reclosing events
where the system operation (stability) is not
affected.
These events are typically 20 to 60 cycles in
length but may be longer if multiple protection
operations are required to clear the fault.
These events are usually analyzed to determine
correct protection operation, fault location or
verification of system model parameters.
Long Term- These include those events that
affect system stability such as power swings,
frequency variations and abnormal voltage
problems.
These events are usually analyzed to determine
causes of incorrect system operations.
 Data management techniques are employed to
process a number of samples and record the
value for the
parameter of interest. Record length parameters
may be defined.
Steady State - There are steady state
disturbances where system operation is not
threatened, but power quality is affected.
This may include harmonics or sub-harmonics
produced by the load and/or the interaction
between power systems components.
Depending upon the type of phenomena being
analyzed, higher sample rates may be required to
capture the events and data of interest.
Record length parameters may be defined.
MICOM DISTANCE RELAY (Alstom
make):
MICOM P440 series is a distance scheme
with Advanced numerical technology.
MICOM P441 and P442 relays have five
zones of phase fault protection and
five zones of earth fault protection.
a) Phase fault protection:-
Phase fault quadrilateral characteristics is
shown in the figure.
Zones 1,2 & 3 directional forward zones,
as used in conventional three zone distance
schemes. Note that Zone-1 can be extended
to Zone-1X when required in Zone-1
Zone P Programmable. Selectable as a
directional forward or reverse zone.
Zone-4 Directional reverse zone. Note
that Zone-3 and Zone-4 can be set
together to give effectively a forward zone
with a reverse offset.
Earth Fault Protection:
Earth fault quadrilateral characteristics is
similar to the phase fault quadrilateral
characteristics as shown below. Resistive
reaches can be set independently for
phase and earth fault protections.

All earth fault elements are quadrilateral

shaped, and are directionalised similar to
the phase fault elements. The impedance
reaches of earth fault elements use
residual compensation of the
corresponding phase fault reaches.
 RELZ-100:
It is a numerical relay with quadrilateral
impedance units for phase and earth faults.
Each measuring unit has individual and
independent setting of the reach in
resistive and reactive directions, as well as
for the zero sequence compensation factor,
KN. Entire Zone-3 reach (in forward
direction) is available in reverse direction
with a separate timer T3R. R-X diagram is
as indicated.
 Four groups of setting parameters are
possible to suit different system conditions.
Only one of the groups will be in service by
choice. It has continuous self monitoring
and self testing feature and indicate the
same by extinguishing "Relay Available"
LED on the relay. Through MMI, one can
enter; edit the settings, read the mean
service values of line voltage, current, real,
reactive power and frequency. It stores
data of latest 3 disturbances occurred. (The
settings are not password protected).
Setting rage: 0.1 to 150 Ohms.
Timers: 0 to 10 Secs.
It has a feature which does overload
supervision and unsymmetrical load
 Make: - Seimens Ltd.
7SA511 relay:
It is a numerical protection scheme with
16 bit microprocessor. With three
version of detectors.
i) Phase selective overcurrent fault
detector.
ii) Voltage controlled (under-
impedance) fault detector (with
independent R & X reaches) and
iii) Polygonally shaped angle -
dependent impedance fault detector.
It has five zones (two of which can be
 Setting range:0.1 to 200 Ohms
with 0.0 to 32 sec (in step of 0.01
sec) timers.
Four groups of settings are
possible to suit different system
conditions. Only one of the
groups will be in service by
choice.
 Apart from common features, it provides
Emergency over current function, which
comes into picture when main distance
scheme is blocked due to VT fuse failure
conditions.

It provides two user defined logic functions.

It has continuous self monitoring and self
testing feature. It stores data of latest
three faults and measures values of load
current, operating voltage, power and
frequency continuously.
 SEL 321: -
It is numerical relay with Four Mho zones
for phase faults with independent phase
to phase over current supervision.
Four ground faults for Mho and
Quadrilateral zones with independent
phase and residual over current
supervision and zero sequence
compensation.
Two Quadrilateral zones for power swing
blocking.
Load-encroachment characteristics.
Instantaneous, Definite time and IDMT
Setting ranges:-
For Mho zones : 0.25 to 320
Ohms (Secondary)
For Quadrilateral Zones :
Reactance : 0.25 to 320
Ohms (Secondary)
Resistance : 0.25 to 250
Ohms (Secondary)
Timers : 0-2000 Cycles
 BACKUP
PROTECTION

50 High Set Inst. O/C Relay ( Delta side S.C. protection)

64 REF Protection (Delta side REF protection)
51 IDMT O/C Relay (time graded backup for down-stream S.C.)
51N IDMT E/F Relay (time graded backup for down-stream E/F)
BACKUP PROTECTION
E/F PROTECTION ON DELTA
SIDE.

Delta side E/F relay inherently immune to Star

side earth faults but can respond to Delta winding
earth faults. Hence sensitive, high speed E/F relay
(64) in High Impedance mode can be used on
Delta side.
 BACKUP
PROTECTION

50 High Set Inst. O/C Relay (Primary Star side S.C.)

51- IDMT O/C Relay (time graded backup for down-stream S.C.)
67N Directional IDMT E/F Relay (backup to TFR/down-stream E/F.)
51NIDMT E/F relay (time graded backup against down-stream E/F)
BACKUP E/F PROTECTION- STAR / STAR
TRANSFORMER

Directional IDMT E/F relay (67N) looking towards transformer

do not respond to up-stream E/F due to current out-flow from
TFR terminal into Grid, thus requiring co-ordination with down-
stream E/F protections only.