Subramanian N., Principles of Space Structures, 2nd Ed, 1999
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மாறன் செங்கேணிSubramanian N., Principles of Space Structures, 2nd Ed, 1999
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மாறன் செங்கேணி
Ree
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he
od
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— 73152
|}-_—. 390144 —__.|
}
16000
Loe) aeee |
},}-—____—_——— 4000. ——— —
Fig. 2.42 Example to illustrate camber
Page 72/687 - SUBRAMANIAN N.
SPACE STRUCTURES Sain Ieydelsis ss
This decrease applies to a module length of 2000 mm
For edge members having a module length of 4000 mm the decrease will be (25.15) +0,8= 11.1 mm,
‘The diagonal bottom module will also have to be calculated.
W, = 16000 mm
Depth = 1000 mm
decrease = 8824x1000 | 4,
© 5.66 x 16000
= 7.28 + 08 = 8.08 mm
‘The decreases to the bottom chord modules as shown above will give a total rise on the upper grid
layer of 300 mm when measured between supports.
Example 2.2
Calculate the increase in top chord module for a square on diagonal (Fig,2,42) grid with bottom layer
Supp9rted around periphery. Assume spherical camber, Itis also required that the total rise in the bottom
layer is to be kept a minimum.
w,= 14000 mm.
Depth = 1000. mm,
e = Hom,
2000
Max. calculated deflection for bottom layer = 58 mm (as per computer output) ‘ w
pedeea ( 2)
R= 58 + (1400/1000) = 72 mm
Thus, Rer+r,=72mm
R= rll Hoye]
72 = r{1 + (240007140007)
18.28mm
= 72 - 18.28 = 53.72 mm
increase. in top chord as per equation (2.1)
8x 18.28 1000
7x 14000
+08 = 149+08=2,29 mm
‘The increase of 2.29 mm to the top chord modules will give a total rise on the lower grid layer of 72
mm when measured between supports,
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56 Principles of Space Structures digitalised by RLC
240 TRIPLE LAYER GRIDS
Indouble layer grids, for spans over 100m, deflection may become the controlling Factor; Ht apps that
the economic limit for such systems is in the region of 100 m. However, there are often special cases
when greater spans may be desirable. There are also applications which require large span grids to carry
heavy concentrated loads and supported only at the corners.
in such cases, by logically extending a double layer grid to a triple layer grid, the problem may be
solved. The tiple layer grid, consisting of top, middle and bottom layers, interconnected together, forms
‘amore rigid system and can be used to cover still larger spams.
‘Several structures of this (ype have already been constructed. Aa example is provided by the Philips
Hall in Disseldorf, built using the Mero system as a multi-purpose sports stadium measuring 66.3 m by
75.1 m'". This roof is shown in Figs 2.43 and 2.44. The geometry of this space grid has been formed by
joining two pyramidal units together atthe centre line and forming a diagonal grid at the top and bottam
Tayers. The depth of this roofis 4.42 m, The spherical connectors for this roof range in diamete! from 120
mento 156 mm, The tubular members range in diameter and wall thickness from 70 mm and 2.9 mma to
88.9 mm and 3.2 mm for Grade St 37 and from 108 mr and 3.6 mm to 159 men to 8 mm for St 2, Tt
involved the use of 4860 members and 1062 joints, weighing 167 tonnes in all. while the connectors
‘weighing about 12 tonnes, Another interesting example is provided by the triple Layer grid over the
Currigan Exhibition Hall, Denver, Colorado.
‘The hangar constructed at Kldten airport, Zitrich, Switzerland in 1976 is 2 sophisticated form of triple
layer grid, This grid covers an area of 128 mx 125 m and is supported af four comer points only. The
(auical reaction at each of these supports is approximately 2000 tonnes. More details about this grid is
available in Ref.2.
"The Evangelical Catholie Parochial Centre in the Olympic Village, Munich built in 1972 for
Olympiad XX is a triple layer grid, supported by the four corner columns only.
Special mention must be made of a MERO space frame used for the Palais Omnisports a+ Bercy in
Paris, France, completed in 1984. This imposing structure covers an area of 100 m > 100m. Iris in he
Fam of a ancated pyramid with an octagonal, nearly equilateral ground plan. The main roof structure is
tee] two-way lattice grid with a 5.5 m spacing between the main trusses, supported at each ofits four
splayed corners on large cylindrical concrete columns. The A-shaped support frames contain
se vmrnistration and service rooms. There are foyers of 2,600 sqm, area, which are covered with a steel
MERO space frame.
‘Another example of a tiple-layer grid is the triangular space frame erected in 1977 over the Larkspur
Ferry Terminal in California, USA. The roof structare in plan forms an equilateral triangle of 58.5 im side
and rests on only three pyramidal supports, The roof area of 1500 sqm is covered by 256 translucent
plexighass roof-light domes with equilaveral triangular bases of 3.65 m side. The struck consists of
egular tetrahedronal space units made of 2100 steel tubular members each 3.65 m long, ‘All three layers
‘are regular three-way grids. The ends of the tubular members are flattened and welded to three-
dimensional prefabricated joints each consisting, of three interconnected gusset plates.
‘The concept of triple-tayer grids has been extended for the construction of lange-span highway bridges.
‘This concept was proposed based on the double-layer grids reinforced with an integral RC. slab forming
the tap layer CThis system was developed in Mexica by Prof. H.Castillo as the Tridilosa system).
Page 74/687 Fig. 243 Triple layer grid for the Philips Hall at Dasseldorf, Germany
(Courtesy: Mera Raumstruktur GMBH and Co.)
Further developments done by Mr A.Calderon Olivier extended this system into a modified triple-
layer grid bridge consisting of two layers of skeleton pyramidal units interconnected together and
stiffened with vertical bars along two longitudinal sides and having R.C. slab deck at the top. Using such
prefabricated elements, highway bridges spanning upto 55 m have been erected in Mexico. The designers
claim that in some cases savings up to 60% have been achieved in comparison with conventional
R.C.bridges.
‘The most impressive example is the triple layer space frame over the Jacob K.Javits convention centre,
New York in 1986. This is considered to be the world’s largest space frame with a plan area of over
53,000.sqm. Its cost is around $480 million. (Architects : [.M.Pei and Partners and Structural engineers:
Weidlinger Associates). In this case double-layer grid construction has been used for walls, internal
floors and roofs. It consists of 76,000 tubular steel members and 19,000 prefabricated connectgrs*”.)
This multi-level roof structure climbs in giant steps of glass clad cubes creating a crystalline structure
reminiscent of the Victorian era’s Crystal Palace. The space frame is supported by columns spaced at
27m centres in both directions and the total area of approximately 220m by 300m is divided into eight
separate regions bounded by free edges or expansion joint, These regions range from a single 27m square
bay with 1400 bars to an assembly of 19 bays with almost 21,000 bars.
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— Sing Migaitellereth by Gab 59
The space frame is arranged around a standard tetrahedral geometry with a 3m grid of top chord bars
and bottom chord bars offset from each other by a half module. The depth of the grid is 1.3m deep. A
second space frame layer is added along the column lines creating 3m deep diamond shaped trusses and
atthe columns, the third layer aets in effect like a drop panel (Fig.2.45).
This space frame has been constructed using the PG system. The hollow nodes (Cast/forged steel) are
215mm / 240mm in diameter and with strengths of 863 MPa / 1035 MPa. The tubes are from 73mm to
215mm in diameter and 365 MPa yield strength steel. The design has been verified by a series of tests on
the components conducted at the Lehigh University and on the actual structure,
{> Top chord ir
{ ~ Typical HUB.
Se Tpottom chord of /
—— Tx © Buttom chord of
“diamond wuss
Typical lamond space frame)
bearing ma
SABLE
oh
Fig. 245 Typical section through space frame edge truss of K Javits Convention Centre, New York
2.11 DOUBLE LAYER GRIDS FOR WALLS
Originally double-layer grids have becn used (0 cover flat roofs
ate using double-I
inelined wa
space frames.
‘These architectural trends are best illustrated by Fig.2.46 giving typical examples of configuration
uses young Dutch engineer/architect Mr Mick Eekhout, from Delfi®?.
In Japan) the double-layer grid covering an area of 60m x¢63.2 mover a gymnasium of the Yamanashi
Prefecture, provides an example of a building with grids for the roof and walls. It uses the space truss
System developed by the Nippan Steel Corporation.
Further examples af the use of double-layer grids for inclined or vertical walls are found in Paris. The
first example refers to the complex structure built in 1984 in the “Elysees-La Defence’ in Neuilly-
Puteaux, which comprises a giant building housing the Paris of Citicorp Centre and the Caisse Centrale
des Mutuelles Agricoles, [tis a double layer MERO grid of width 37.5m, rising vertically from the base
tothe second floor at 6.5m height and then sloping backwards at 56° at the seventh floor at ?3.4m height
Sinally reaching the rear edge of the wedge (whilst reducing its width to one third of the original size). In
this case double layer grid covers an area of 1,120 sqm. The second building, the CCMA. is also covered
e recent trends show that archite
ayer grids not only for roofs, or floors in multi-storey buildings, but also for vertical or
In fact, many Targe steuetures designed during recent years have beén constructed as huge
Page 77/687 SPACE STRUCTURES - SUBRAMANIAN N_
di:
60 _ Principles af Space Structures.
with a double-layer structure,(The grid rises vertically as far as the ninth floos height} from there
it changes its direction, adopting an almost horizontal level. The covered area ructure is 1,790
sqm, On the vertical course of the facade it represents a dense packing of semi-octahedrons. but in the
horizontal plane, consists of a series of semi octahedrons and cube octahedrons,
KABAAAARAA
ry Y |
Fig. 2.46 Typical examples of cross-sectional shapes used for recently constructed space frames”
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sigiliadl Gets BKB Stas a1
Another example refers to the newly completed complex of buildings ir[Hong Kong}for the Academy
for performing Arts. Fig.2.47 illustrates the MERO double-layer prismatic grid over an external theatre,
constructed as a three-way grid, supported at the top of the building and resting on the foundation blocks
at the bottom. Fig.2.48 shows the Congress Centre at Ibbenburen, Germany, where the walls are of
exposed double layer grids. In the same structure the central foyer is also covered by a double-layer grid,
though in this case it is of a two-way system,
‘The architects in their search for new[forms andBRAPESave discovered that space structures not only
¥ | but also produce king simplicity of form, often an_
leasing appearancd,and unusual beauty, The beautiful gossarn
appearance of double-layer grids gives the architects, especially in the design of their churches, the
opportunity to leave the structural framework exposed to view, thus emphasizing the\richnesé of the |
architectural effects provided by the regular geometric pattern of the interconnected skeletal members
Mr. Eekhout built large number of space frames using his two systems, the Octatube and the Tuball
Most of his structures are in aluminium.
‘The light weight, high sion resistant and n. of aluminium alloys is now being)
appreciated by an increasing number of progressive designers, The best exainples of economic use af
aluminium double-layer grids come [rom various countries in South America, Mexico, USA and Canada.
4
14x 3.19 = 44.66 m
‘b>
Mig. 247 Cross-section and ground plan of structure decorating the external theatre academy of
performing arts, Hong Kong
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62. Principles of Space Structures digitalised by RLC
Fig, 248 Space frame structure for Congress centre at Fpbenburen, Germany
‘Analytical investigations on triple layer grids using different types of bracing systems were carried.
out by Prof. Z. 8, Makowski of the University of Surrey. From this study, he found (hat the middle layer
tarries very small loads in comparison with the top and bottom layers since it is positioned near he
neutral plane of the structure. But it provides lateral restraint against movement, stabilizing the whole
mctnte and reducing the deflections considerably. Triple layer grids can be analyzed using the standard
rrethods discussed in chapter 10, Approximate methods of analysis of (hese frames have also been
developed (see Ref. 9).
22 MULTI-LAYER GRIDS
‘These are feasible for varlous applications and one should perhaps refer to the very early attempts of
building multi-layered flying machines by Alexander Graham Be! in 1907. A much more recent attempt
to cover a large area with a minimum of support is at the Denver Convention Centre, Colorado, USA
‘shore the Currigan Exhibition Hall, completed in 1969, provides over 10,000 sqm of column free area,
Tisanof structure is strictly a triple-layer grid covering an area of 205m by 72m and containing meré theh
24.000 members and joints. To provide for expansion and contraction, the total area was divided inte
four independent units, each Slm by 72m, Each of these units is carried at the four corners by inverted
pyramid columns, formed by extending the basic framework downwards to form multi-layer grids. (A
ae lat arrangement provided for the columns in a Church at Hochlahl, Germany using Mero nodes as
already been shown in Fig.2.23). Bach pyramidal unit is of size 3.05m x3,05m with adepth of 2.1m. The
basic configuration of the grid layout is square on square offset. The centre of each column is set back
from the edge of the space frame so thatthe negative moments can be used to balance positive moments
The joint of the space truss was prefabricated from plates (0 form three intersecting octagonal planes thal
can accommodate up to 12 members.
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Single and Multi Layer Grids 63
213 PROGRESSIVE COLLAPSE AND COMPOSITE SPACE TRUSSES
Double layer grids are usually highly indeterminate, and therefore have a large number of redundant
zs between 154 and 259 of the total number inthe assembly'®". Some designers mistakenly believed
that this inherent redundancy provides a large measure of safety against collapse, and hence the di
safe space truss isa straightforward process that requires only a standard linear analysis follo
member sizing. However, the sudden collapse of the Hartford Coliseum space trusy in Connecreat in
1978, and the large number of tests done in this field?=52!"4 jaye indicated that space trusses may fail in
a brite and unstable manner and the buckling of one member due to @ erloading can tigger a
Progressive collapse af the whole structure, in which successive members fail in a rapid sequence.
Madi and El-Tayem' studied the collapse pattern. of double layer grids and arrived at the followin, 2
conclusions ;
ay
Double layer grids are very similar to concrete flat siabs in their failure pattern that fall into two
main types ; flexural yield line pattern and punching shear pattern,
{2) The number of supports, the grid depth and the relative strength of members are the main fac tors
that dictate the collapse pattern, The grid module or configurations have very little effect.
(3) Increasing the number of supports enhances the economy of double layer grids as it reduces the
member forces and precludes the possibility of punching shear type failure,
(4) Having more member types enhances the economy: however it increases the difficulty of
Predicting the collapse pattern as the number of possible Patterns increases considerably,
From an extensive experimental study of non-composite space trusses, (using Triodetic and Bamford
Jointing systems as well as eccentric welded and bolted jointing systems), Schmidt et.al"? and
Hanaor'™ concluded that with greater degrees of redundancy, non composite space trusses became more
sensitive to fuetors normally neglected in design and consequently proved to be
sollapse. These factors included: (1) the residual forces due to member lack
(2) the experimental seatter in peak loads of compression members, (3) the slip that can occur in some
Jointing systems; (4) the non-proportional increase in member forces owing to variations in aeial cy fines
\sshich may be caused by eccentricities and inital curvatures in members) and (3) the stiffness of the
member-node joints
Saka and Taniguchi®' carried out theoretical and experimental investigations on buckling
behaviour of square-on-diagonal grids (SD) and diagonal-on-square grids (DS) and found the following:
SD grids have limited ducti lity after initial buckling of compressive members, but there is only a small
Aifference between the load carrying capacity and the buckling load. Whereas DS Btids do not exhibit
any ductility after initlal buckling, and post buckling behaviour is brittle, No clear collapse line was
foamed The buckling load may be the load carrying capacity of the grid, The boundary members were
‘ound to be effective in controlling buckling of DS grids, but not effective in SD grids, Hence it is clear
thal the buckling behaviour af DS grids is very different from that of SD grids, although the slenderness
ratio of compression members are of the same value.
‘orce distribution between a group of parallel chords and to optimize the load carrying capacity of double
layer grids. By adopting aT section (with ribs added to the flanges to Provide resistance to local buckling)
Tor the diagonals, they created a ‘quasi-duetile’ behaviour of the grid. They adopted it in a roof of size
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digitalised by RLC
64 Principles of Space Structures
130 mx 130 m with a clear span of 60m, Gargari and ‘Marsh®®" also found that by providing non-
linear behaviour in chords or by removing selected diagonals, improved load carrying capacity may be
tained in double layer, offset squarc-on-square flat laitice roof structures, supported on columns
equally spaced in two directions,
‘Schmidt? also found that over-strengthening the compression members, to prevent the brittle
collapse of non composite space. trusses, would normally increase their collapse loads. However, this
vodification was unable to change the brittle nature of the eventual collapse, and furthermor=, ead to
uneconomic structures, Schmidt” demonstrated that critical bottom chord member under-design for
tiniform trusses and compressive top chord member over-design for strip trusses improve ductility. On
the other band, although special measures such as force-timiting devices (see section 2.1% 1) were
snecessful in inducing, a ductile type of failure, they proved to be expensive and difficult v9 install.
Ta this connection, it is of interest to note that the buckling load of elastically connected spac: YuSS
will be greater than that of the cortesponding pin-jointed truss due tothe effect of the joints (provided the
rotational rigidities of the joint are not small)!
Composite Space Trusses
As an alternative te the above investigations, El-Sheikh et al 101.02 investigated the possibilities of using
oe dnerete slab acting compositely with the top chord members, with the intention of providing simple
and efficient means of controlling the progressive collapse of space trusses. They also studied the
srfectiveness of using over-strengthened top chord members. They used a double layer square-on-sq00"
space truss with an overall dimensions of 4m x-4m and depth of 0.57m, which was supported on the four
Letom chord comers with a span of 3.2m in each direction. The bottom chord and diagonal members
swore tubes (28,6mm dia, and wall thickness 1.6mm} and joints were standard MERO nodes (46mm dia.
vith M12 bolts), The top chords were made of toes-up channel section (40 x 24 1.Gmm and 5) % 38x
6 dnvi). End plates welded to the channels were used to bolt the top chords directly to the upper nodes
(see Fig.2.49). The decking plates to support the wet conerete were made of 1.2mm thick steel plates.
“The corners were cut back to provide clearance over the end plates ofthe top chord channel members and
the edges were folded downwards inside the channel members. The nodes Were covered. with small
square plates. A slab of small thickness 50mm with reinforcement in the form of steel mesh 6mm dis. at
200mm cic in both X and ¥ directions was provided.
Fron the experimental results they concluded that composite action between an UPPEt conerete slat
and a lowersteel truss ean be developed with simple configurations of decking plates and node mounted
‘Shear eonnectors. The composite action significantly reduced the sudden progressive type of failur
experienced in non-composite truss models. Inthe composite mode, the overall behaviour was dependent
ton the ductile properties of the bottom chord members under tension, ‘They also concluded that over
strengthening of the top chord members of a non-composite space system can introduce same ductilit
ince the qverall steactural behaviour, but does not provide adequate warning to a sudden final collapse
‘The finite element based computer program developed. by them, predicted the buckling Joads wit
reasonable accuracy.
Soare and his associates have also conducted theoretical and experimental research on composi
double layer grids in Romania from 1978" 105 ‘They have analyzed and tested diagonal-on-square an
square-on-square double layer grids with mesh size of 3.0m, The precast reinforced conerete slab, whic
forms the top layer is of constant thickness (30mm) and has two sets of ribs. ‘The main rib connects tt
voile of the slab sides and the secand set of ribs is provided at the perimeter of the slabs. At the mi
span of the sides, gusset plates (6mm thi@9Gee% 248d in the concrete perimetral ribs. Whe SPACE eee ae Co
assembling the composite structure, the gussets of two neighbouring slabs are in contact and are mutually
connected by bolis. The comers of the precast slabs are chamfered in order to render the jaint manolithie,
The bottom layer consists of two cold formed channels of size 120 x 55 x 7mm and the diagonals two
| <
2
( g
|
|
b) A MERO node
18 holes
Flange of top member
1
3 “i a washers t= 14 mm.
Z nN
An upper Node
a} A plan view of the End plate t= 4.0 mm
i
1
node connection |
1
x A top channel member
40 24% 16 mm,
Conerete slab
ap la above nade
A / node
End plate of
member
{
7 M 12 bolt
Standard MERO. |.
tube member and S
2 end fittings C
c) Cross section between nodes d) Cross section across a node
Fig. 2.49 A typical interior node connection with top chord channel members in the composite truss!"
Page 83/687 66 Principles of pues Sinctues__ SPACE STRUCTURES = S00 A
channels of size 80 x 40 x 4mm. In the analysis, the slab is replaced by an equlvalent member. They
found that though the weight is increased by 27%, the steel consumption is reduced by 22% and the cost
of the composite structure is 1.2% lower than that of the steel structure. They recommended these
structures for'a span of 45-SOm. A similar composite system has also been reported by Hong!
Levine, Murrell and Gesund’! adopted a unique methed of constructing orthogonal offset double layer
grids using reinforced concrete elements, This system called coupled pan forming system, consists of
both prismatic and non-prismatic linear members plus an integral planar top slab. They found it to be
economical and as an integrated framework for a total building system combining structural, mechanical,
architectural and constructional requirements. Several such systems have bccn reported in Ret.109.
Jingyang”, et al. also report a similar composite framework adopted for the Fuzhou Gymnasium of
size 45m x 58.8m. The roof supported by reinforced concrete perimeter beams has reinforced concrete
ribbed slabs as upper chords, steel pipes as lower chords and hollow spheres as joints, Orthogonal
pyramid space framework with a mesh size of 3.46m x 3.46m and a height of 3.2m is adopted and the
weight is only 23.55 kg/sqm
2.13.1 Use of Force Limiting Devices
Several studics on double layer grids suggest that the conventional design of space trusses, based on
elastic analysis, may lead to unsafe design. Even in trusses designed to yield in tension, the collapse is
ultimately governed by compression member buckling. In the practical ranges of slenderness ratios, the
buckling characteristics of compression members is often of a brittle type. The following techniques
have been developed for improving space truss response in terms of strength and ductility : Under /over
design of chords, eccentric diagonals, diagonal removal, prestress by lack of fit and employing force
limiting devices”. Itis also possible to combine several of these techniques to improve the behaviour of
double layer grids. (It may be of interest to note that the technique of member removal showed that the
squarc-on-larger-square, square-oft-diagonal and diugonal-on square, arrangements of double layer grids
are more efficient than square on square layout-though they are not suitable where wind uplift forces
control the design ), Of the above methods the technique of using force limiting devices is found 10 offer
potential benefit in terms of duetility and load bearing. Different jointing systems may require different
devices. Hanaor and Schmidt“ developed a simple device as shown in Fig.2.50a for the Mero system. It
consisted of a standard Mere joint and members with an end tightening nut in which elliptical holes were
machined to produce the: [oad characteristic as shown in Fig.2.50b. Fig.2.50c presents analytical and
experimental results conducted by Hanaor and Schmidt, which demonstrated the ability of the force
limiting devices in increasing the ductility of the space truss.
‘The characteristics required from the force limiting devices in addition to the ideal elastic-plastic
behaviour are reliability and repeatability, The device must be capable of providing a constant limit
force with a load plateau of sufficient length to allow redistribution of member forces to occur within the
encompassing space structure. (This is very diffieultto attain with most of the devices). In addition, the
device should function with minimum of maintenance and the behaviour characteristics should be
independent of loading sequence and time,
2.13.2 Soft Compression Member
As discussed in the previous section, the main problem of the limiting devices is the lack of eontrol of
their load displacement characteristics. Hence Parke! designed a novel compression member, which
will act both as a ‘soft member’, with reduced axial stiffness and as a load-limiting device.
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Page 85/687 SPACE STRUCTURES - SUBRAMANIAN N_
68. Principles of Space Structures digitalised by RLG
Details of such a fall size soft member are shown in Fig. 2.51. The compression member consists of
two square hollow section tubes and four rectangular strips. The two hollow section tubes are
proportioned so that the smaller tube plus strips just fit inside the large tube, Fig. 2.52 shows the load-
train relationship obtained for the soft member loacled in compression. Under a compre:sio) load, the
oft member initially behaves elastically, but with a reduced elasti stiffness (A to B, Fig. 2.52). Ata
pre-determined compression load acting on the soft member, the Feur ‘middle strips yield in tension and
provide a load plateau for the complete soft member (B to C, Fig. 2.52). St this stage, the member is only
Capable of supporting a constant compression force. Under this steady compression, yielding of the
tniddle strip wall continve until the outer and inner tubes mate simultaneously at both énds of the soft
member, represented by point C in Fig. 2.52. When this has oceurzed, the stiffness of the soft member
seeanes and the compression member acts as a pfe-stressed colurna which is capable of supporting a
further increase in compression loading (C to D, Fig. 2.52). At point D, the column buckles exhibiting a
“prittle type’ strut buckling path! >.
“The characteristics ofthe soft member shown in Fig, 2.51, can be significantly altered by varying both
the length and cross-sectional area of the four steel strips. ‘The initial stiffness of the system can be
Sneteased by shortening the length of the four strips, and the magnitude of the Ioad plateau can be
rbanced by increasing the cross-sectional area of the strips. In addition, the length of the load plateau
can be controlled by varying the end distance occurring between the inner and outer square wbes.
Fig. 2.53 shows the tensile load-strain behaviour obtained from the soft member. If the soft member is
Ie joa in tension, then the four steel strips are subjected to compression forces, and both the inner and
outer square tubes are stressed in tension. Ifthe gap between the strips and tubes is very small, then the
steel strips will yield and squash in compression. If this is not the case, the strips will buckle and deflect
until they are restrained by the inner and owter tubes, whereupon the member will carry additional load,
until the strips yield in compression and deform plastically. When the strips have yielded, the soft member
‘vill earryan almost constant tensile load until the strip material strain hardens, and the member supports,
vy additiona tensile load. The tensile load cartied by the member will increase, until either the end welds
fail, or the inner or outer square tubes yield and finally rupture in tension'!*
Several improvements to the type of soft member shown in Fig. 2.51 have Been made'">, The relative
maximum load capacity of the device was enhanced, by changing the two square tubes to round tubes,
and more significantly, by replacing the four separate sieel strips also by a round steel tube, The three
tubes were fitted closely one inside the other, and the assembly was fabricated using a similar procedure
to that adopted for the square soft members, These triple-tube soft members have a simple mode of
operation, but the ultimate capacity of the novel triple-tube compression member is difficult to assess,
due to the interdependence of the three tubes.
Parke! also conducted experiments on six full scale soft members and found that these membersare
capable of exhibiting a steady load plateau followed by & reserve strength before failure. However,
experimental studies have fo be conducted on double ayer space trusses incorporating the new soft
members, before they are actually used in practice,
2.13.3 Sleeved Column Concept
The behaviour of compression members may be improved by adopting the sleeved column concept
developed by Sridhara''®, In this concept a solid rod (core) is loosely placed inside a tube (sleeve) with
predetermined clearance-alround the core. The coreis made slightly longer than the sleeve so thatonl;
the-core can he loaded, When the core is loaded beyond its yield strength or Euler's buckling load, it firs!
Page 86/687 bao!
1740
SPACE STRUCTURES - SUBRAMANIAN N.
Singlesied Msdhilligyerdinds
a
z
2
A
a
Position of top of
lower end block
Fig. 251
10.
—T-
np et ett
trough outer be
PR to middle sip
[ Outer tube
CLE
Middle strips
— 23—+
Top detail (not to scale)
7%
[ — Inner tube
5 [7 Simm filler wets
4
| +— 4 —__iadte strip
b#—40 —4
Bowom detail
60x 604 SHS
25% 5 Strip
ZZ
40% 40%4 SHS
Full size soft member!
Page 87/687
69 SPACE STRUCTURES BRAMANIAN N.
les of Space Structure:
300 >
aoo
2 308 F
z =
= i
3 = 200
100
ye
5 eae
Percentage strain Percentage strain
Fig. 2.52 Compressive load-strain relationship Fig. 2.53. Tensile load-strain relationship for
for full size soft member’? full size soft member!
bends in the gap provided and further buckling of the core is prevented by the sleeve. The core will then
be subjected to acompressive stress only and the sleeve will be subjected to bending and shear stresses
only. This bifureation of stresses makes it possible to load the core in compression even beyond its
ultimate tensile strength, Sridhara has conducted tests and found that the advantage offered by sleeved
column concept can be fully utilized ifthe slenderness ratio of the sleeve is less than 25, Recently he has
also successfully applied the concept to water tank stagings!"’,
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BRACED DOMES [3 ]
————— — _
3.1 INTRODUCTION
‘4 dome is one of the oldest structural forms and has been used in architecture from earliest times and is
atypical example of three-ditnensional structures. It encloses a maxi Tat jount Of space with a mini
mum surface and can be very economical in terms of material. A dome, being curved in two directions,
provides Oné Of the most efficient shapes suitable for covering very large areas.
‘The dome surface was first introduced in 120 A.D. by Emperor Hadrian when the Pantheon dome was
built in Rome forthe worship of Pagan gods. Many ancient domes are also found in Asia, Greece, Russia
and Europe. St Sophia’s dome in Istanbul, St Peter's deme in Rome, Los Invalidos dome in Paris, St
Paul's Cathedral in London, the National Capitol dome in Washington D.C, are few of the outstanding
ancient domes. The developments in structural mechanics and the improvements in the properties of
structural materials have eliminated these masonry domes and vaults of the past. Timber was the princi-
Pal roofing material used in the Middle Ages and some timber domes of this period still exist in France,
Germany and Scandinavia.
Of late a number of reinforced conerete shell domes have been built. The necessity for complicated
shuttering to support these domes during casting and curing makes the reinforced concrete domes rather
costly, Though the use of precast prefabricated units have greatly reduced the difficulty of shuttering,
they have other disadvantages like heavy dead weight, the difficulty of transport, etc. Hence steel braced
domes have become more popular and many domes of this type have already been buill. Domes are
relatively lightweight, despite long spans, because they can be shaped so that loads iniduce mainly axial
stresses.
3.2. MATERIALS FOR BRACED DOMES
Modern dome skeletons have been made possible by the advent of carbon steels in the latter part of the
19th Century. The high strength, low alley structural steels and heat-treated constructional alloy steels
invented in the twentieth century have resulted in larger and lighter domes. The improvement in the
methods of fabrication such as welding has reduced the time for assembly, thus making it possible to
build temporary, portable and mass produced dome structures. Within the last five decades heat-treated
and tempered aluminium alloys, high strength alloys, magnesium alloys and rolled and extruded sections
of aluminium have been introduced successively; resulting in lightweight, non-corrosive metallic domes.
Table 3.Land 3.2 show clearly that the development of new materials and improved technology has
helped to reduce the dead weight and at the same (ime increase the clear span of these structures. For
example, in modern reinforced concrete shells the thickness of the shell wil be around 90 mm for a span
of 33 m. In prestressed concrete shell this can be further reduced to 60 mm and in pneumatic dome it is
only 2.3 mm.
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78 _ Principles of Space Structures
Table 3.1 Comparison of various concrete and masonry domes"?
“Year of ‘Name, place ‘Span ‘Apprax. average Ratioof
completion and type of roof (mm) thickness of shell, spati to
AD. oreombined thickness thickness
of double shell (mm)
=e Large hen's ege 0.04 03 130
123 Pantheon, Rome; solid concrete
dome with relieving arches: ad 4000 i
1434 Duomo, Florence: double
dome of masonry and
brickwork a2 2000 a
170 St Paul's, London; brick
dome surmounted by brick cone 33 900 a
i924 Planetarium, Jena,
Germany; R.C. shell 35 oo 420
1927 Market Hall,
zig, Germanys
ribbed B.C shell 66 95 700
1953 Schwarzwald-halle,Karlsruhe-
Germany; prestressed
concrete saddle shell 3 58 1,250
1958 CNIT Exhibition
Hall, Paris; double
reinforced concrete shell (Fig:3.1) 219 120 1,800
1946 Radome for Northern Canada
and Alaska: fabric dome
pneumatically supported: 64 3 20,014)
Table 3.2 Comparison of the dead weights of domes.
SL Description Diameter Total weight Unit weight
No. m tonnes kgima™
7, Pantheon dome, Rome, solid concrete a T1000 7.200
built in 123 A.D. ~
2 Reinforced Conercte ribbed deme,
Worelaw, built in 1925 65 6.340 1,920
3. Reinforced Concrete Shell over Octagonal
ribbed Vault, Leipzig, 1947 6 2,200 383
4. Astrodome in Houston, Texas-Lamella_
dome built in 1972 200 2,150 80
3.3 FUNCTIONAL APPLICATIONS OF DOMES
‘There is a growing use of braced domes a
applications, They include: churches, civic'
Page 96/687
round the werld to enclose space for multitudinous functiond
centrcs and auditoriums, club houses, museums, art gallerie: CE STRUCTURES - SUBRAMANIAN N.
mae un digitalised,.by RAG. 79
\ Fig. 3.1 Palais du Centre National des Industries et des Techniques (CNIT Exhibition Hall) in Paris, a
double shell cross-vaulted over a triangular space. Completed in 1958, this is still the lonpest-
spanning architectural structure (219 m}. The combined thickness of the two concrete shells is
only 120 mm. Architeets: Camelot, de Mailly and Zehrfuss; Structural design: Nicholas
Esquillan
planetaria, aquarium, gymnasia, recreation centres, sports arenas, skating rinks, swimming pools, dance
halls, opera houses, theatres, exhibition halls, supermarkets, airplane hangers, rail and bus terminals,
observatories, radar domes, restaurants, offshore applications and sedimentation basins
_34 BASIC GEOMETRIES OF DOMES
Braced domes are- composed either of members lying on.a sucface of revolution, or of straight members
with their connecting points lying on such a surface; an arrangement which avoids any obstruction of the
inner space, This arrangement generally results in a dome of circular base, or in one truncated into a
polygonal base, though domes with elliptical ar oval plan have also been uscd in rare cases. Depending
on the generating element, the domical surface may have eleven vatiants as shown in Table 3.3.
Table 3.3. Types of domical surface”
S.No, Generating element Domical surface
Circular
1. Circular quadrant Hemispherical
2. Circular are Truncated-Spherical
3. Compound of circular ares ‘Truncated-Compound-Spherical
4. Any of the above but truncated after generation Spherical with unsymmetrical boundaries
3. Circular are with eccentric moving cenire Toroidal
Parabolic
6. Semi-parabola Paraboloidal
Elliptic
7. Elliptic quadrant Semi-cllipsoidal
8 Elliptic arc ‘Truneated-ellipsoidal
Cycloid
9 Semi-Cycloid Cycloidal
10, Prolate Cycloid are ‘Truncated-prolate-eyeloidal
IL. Semi-Curtate Cycloid Curtate cycloidal
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80 Principles of Space Structures digitalised by RLC
A dome predominantly high or greatest in enclosed space on the same base area may be produced by
type 5 or 6, whereas a flat dome may be generated by types 2, 3, 8, 9, 100r 11. The hemispherical surface
has the unique ratio of rise to diameter equal to 1/2. By maintaining the diameter of the base constant and.
reducing the ratio of rise to diameter to 1/4 fordomes generated by circular arc, the domical surface area
decreases to 1/2 of the hemispherical surface. Thus, domes for prominence or bulk storage may be given
ahigh rise to diameter ratio.and those requiring expensive insulation, airconditioning and heating may be
given a low:rise to diameter ratio (Ratios upto 1/7 have been used), When advantagesof Folding the edge
are desired, the curtate cycloidal surface may be used.
Domes may be readily supported on columns, without ties or buttresses, because they can be shaped to
produce little or no thrust. Fora shallow dome, a tension ring is usually provided around the base to resist
thbusts, If desired, however, domes may be extended to grade, thus eliminating the need for walls. If an
opening is left atthe crown, forexample, for a lantern, a compression ring is usually provided around the
opening ta resist the thrusts, Also, if desired, portions of a dome may be made movable, to expose the
building interior.
3.5 TYPES OF BRACED DOMES
Designers have a choice of a wide variety of structural systems for domes. In general, dome construction.
may be categorized as:
<1. Frame or skeleton type (single layer dome)
2. ‘Truss type (or double layer dome) which is extremely rigid and provides greater resistance to
uckling—suitable for very large spans.
3. Stressed skin type (in which the covering forms an integral part of the structural system), and
Formed surface type (in which bent sheets are interconnected along their edges to form the main
skeleton of the dome).
Tn addition, each category offers a wide variety of design. Thus the single layer dome has the follow-
ing principal types: (1} ribbed domes; (2) Schwedler domes; (3) stiff, ‘jointed framed domes; (4) plate type
domes; (5) network domes; (6) Zimmermann domes; (7) lamella domes; (8) geodesic domes and (9} grid
domes. We shall discuss about each one of these types briefly.
2
3.6 RIBBED DOMES.
Steel ribbed domes, one of the carliest forms, are sfill very popular because of the possibility of prefab-
fication. They consist of a number of identical jadial solid br trussed (latticed) ribs interconnected at
Grown and supported in an adequate way at the foundation. A
3.6.1 Braced Rib Domes
‘This type of zoois not economical because it does not incorporate the advantages of structural interac
tion of latitudinal intermediate rings, Depending on the base diameter of the dome, there may be eight to
seventy two intersecting braced ribs. They are usually of constant depth.
Braced ribs may be usually formed by one of the two following types of trusses: (1 [Pratt pes
(a) with vertical members vertical, (6) with vertical members radial; or (2) [Warren type}-(a) without
¥ertical members for short spans, (b) with vertical members radial, (¢} without vertical hanger members
at midspans of lower chords when there is no ceiling load. The conventional types of these domes are
illustrated in Fig. 3.2.
Page 98/687 SPACE STRUCTURES - SUBRAMANIAN N.
Sigitalised! WiJ3 Whines 2
Comp, ring.
SESS
| ‘eats |} Comp.and |
Sees) copes |
— he
Bracing trusses
+} Half diametrical spon. ——___ |
Fig. 3.2 Conventional types of braced rib-domes (Half meridional section)
For braced ribs of greater depth in larger spans, the K-lype truss or the subdivided Pratt-type or
Warren-type truss may be used, To increase lateral rigidity of a braced rib dome, adequate (vertical ox)
(Gadial}sway braces and{Jateral bracing systems)at both upper and lower chord levels are provided by
struts and ties between ribs,
” Atlower supports of the braced dit
65 May be introduced with pedestals resting on lubricated
bearings. In order b the tension ring is always used at the lower periphery. This tensior
‘ing may be of prestressed concrete or reinforced concrete or steel sections. If the ribs are directly pin-
connected to the foundation, the dome is of the unstiffened type. Ifthe ribs are connected to the bottom
fension ting, the dome is of the stiffened type and the reaction components from the ribs on the ground are
only vertical, the horizontal thrust being taken by the base ring.
ne disadvamage of intersecting ribs lies in the fact that they all meet at the'erown oF the doine)
necessitating the carrying through of only a smailer number of ribs to avoid congestionyand requiring a
‘ng to transmit the stresses of the intercepted non-through tibs(When there are a large number of ribs
every (wo may be merged into one before they reach the top-centre ringjlin this event, itis desirable to
have a erosszing at the latitude of merging [At top centre, in general, a compression ring is provided)
feasible to build a braced rib dome ona bas¢ oil acircle{various arrangements af these domes are
shown in Fig. 3.3--7
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82. Principles af Space Structures digitalised by RLC
Fig. 3.3 Braced ribbed domes with different bases
‘The bwo hinged, braced arch rib may be analyzed by the energy methods as in plane structures) bu
provision must be made for the compatible displacement of the space system (The hinges are no longe
fixed in position as in ofdinary plane system), While designing, the following loading cascs must b
taken inte account; dead loads, partial or full live loads, wind and suction loads, snow loads (if any)
thermal rise and fall, rib-shortening and inertia forces (if in a seismically active region). By applying th
principle of superposition the combined stresses may be computed
‘A notable example of intersecting braced rib dome is the dome over the Municipal Auditorium 0
Mobile, Alaska which had a 42 m diameter between hinge bearings.
‘A good example of a timber ribbed dome is the structure covering the Bell's Sports Centre in Pert
which is the largest laminated timber dome structure in the UK. It has a diameter af 67 m providing a hal
floor area of 2973 sq.m. The dome consists of 36 laminated whitewood arched ribs, each 35 m long.
“The dome covering Piscine Tournesol in France with a diameter 44 m is an example of a tubular stee
ribbed dome. Iis an all welded structure with a dead weight of only 25 kg/m’.
‘Another example of a ribbed dome is the Swindon dome. This structure consists of 48 ribs stiffene
by seven horizontal rings and four rows of diagonal members forming a fully triangulated network a
to approximately mid-height. This 45 m diameter dome hus a.rise to the span ratio of 1/5 and js covere
with pve glazing sheets, The horizontal ribs and horizontal rings are formed from extruded aluminiu
alloy elliptical tubing 200 mm deep by 115 mm wide having an average wall thickness of 7.5mm. Fe
the diagonal members, straight lengths of aluminium alley round tubing were used, These component
have an outside diameter of 100 mm and a wall thickness of 6.35 mm. To facilitate the connectio
of the meridional ribs at the crown of the dome, a diametrically braced circular apex-ring was pr
vided.
This dome is supported by a reinforced concrete ring beam whieh is propped at 16 equal interva
around the circumference by slender columns and stiffened in the tangential direction by in fill wal
spanning between the columns. This dome is an example of the Roper IBG International Super Dom
system developed by an American firm which has constructed numerous structures of this type in t
USA.
Ref.l gives full details of the design and construction of the dome. The Swindon dome has bes
checked against general buckling, local buckling and member buckling. The formulae derived are bas
on Buchert’s original paper. The formulae given in the above reference are not only of direct applicabil
Page 100/687 SPACE STRUCTURES BRAM:
es 83
ro the Swindon dome but could be used as a useful Compression ring
approximation for other types of braced domes in
the investigation of their instability, In the case of
the Swindon dome a factor of safety against [
general buckling is 2, and against local buckling iy
ethe node snap through) is 5. The latter one takes imi
into account the joint continuity, :
Intermediate ring
Elevation Tension ring
_3.6.2 Solid Rib Domes
Solid-rib domes are. similar to braced arch domes
in spdtial arrangéiient, except that (i) the
meridional ribs are composed of shallower(gplid-J
console, blk up, boxed, or even dia-
‘mond box shaped, (ii) The meridional space sys-
tem is additionally integrated by ‘intermediate
rings’ between the upper compression ring and the
jower peripheral ring, and (ii) all the ribs gener- Ps
ally terminate upper {quem ion ring in-
stead of some being carried through. Because it Fig. 34 Solid ribbed dome with a circular base
presents a neat appearance from underneath, eon-
siderable dead load and cost may be saved by digy dispensing with the ceiling, Fig. 3.4 illustrates a dome
Raving, siraightribs. The ribs iacaabes s can be made from timber, steel, concrete or aluminium.
It is possible to build a solid ribbed dome on a base other than a circle such as an octagon. In this
instance any single unit of the dome (between two ribs) will followa curve in only one direction from the
base upward creating a decidedly different effect. Ribbed domes may be designed as rotated parabolas
or ellipses. Diagonal tic rods are generally used between steel or aluminium ribs (but in one level only
versus two levels for braced ribs),
43.6.3 Practical Considerations of Solid Ribbed Domes.
In practice the rigidity of the connection of all the ribs at the apex depends upon the method of construc-
tien, If the connections are welded, the apex joint is fully rigid, introducing fixing moments which make
the analysis of these domes very tedious. (of course with computer methods the rigid ribbed dome could
he analyzed without any difficulty). Many attempts have been made in practice to bolt all the ribs to-
gether in such a way a8 to avoid the rigid connections, This was done by the introduction of a hinge,
allowing free rotation in certain directions. Its also advisable to pin the ends of the ribs at their founda-
tion
[tis to be noted that a ribbed dome, even if the ribs are pin-connected at the ground, but fixed rigidly
atthe apex can resist a perfectly general system of loading. But if the hinge is introduced at the top also,
the dome will be able to resist only the loads applied in the vertical planes and passing through the
neutral axis of the ribs, Thus in practice, it is usually assumed that the lateral loads are resisted by the:
roofing skin, and that the applied external loads-are radial.
Page 101/687 SPACE STRUCTURES - SUBRAMANIAN N.
siete
Principles of Space Structures
& we ge
on Splice $m @eompression ring
Splice 75mR 2) wom mS
lenge 5 50% 150 mmoimberntler Sy
J i
17 4|
450 mm wide flange ns,j —" "7 |
(a) Crass section Meu}
a connector /
Giuiam rib
Flat metal bracing i
SE 4
3
Flat metal
strip
Arch cib
Bracing she
welded to
Ej
250 mm deep.
Purlin rib connection Bracing connection wide flange
rs.
(b) Connection details (©) Details at crown compression ring
Fig. 3.5 Timber ribbed dome
Often, in addition to the roof covering stiffening the structure, the three-pinned domes have diagonal
members connecting two adjacentribs together. The three pinned ribbed domes can be prefabricated and
speedily erected at site using litle seaffolding.
‘The connection details of a timber ribbed dome are shown in Fig.3.5. This type of timber dome can be
used to cover spans of over 90 m and can be covered with woodwool slabs. Smaller, lighter ribbed domes
ed ribs covered with plywood or layers of tongued and grooved board-
may be constructed with laming
ing.
Fig. 3.6 shows the ribbed dome used as a cover over the oil tank at Brunsbilttelkoog.
Erection af the ribbed structural member may be accomplished very quickly by using a crane to
position members it place. The dome too may be supported as additional ribs are added by a crane, by a
gin pole. or by inflated compressed dome structure balloons. The individual ribs then become self sup-
porting, After the intermediate rings have been added, the assembly process is completed by bolting,
riveting or welding.
Page 102/687 SPACE STRUCTURES - SUBRAMANIAN N.
digitalis@udsy ling 35
Fig. 3.6 A ribbed dome at Brunsbiittelkoog (Courtesy: Michael Joseph Ltd)
_3.7 SCHWEDLER DOMES
The Schwedler dome is a form of braced ribbed dome and is named after its inventor. It consists of a
number of straight o | bars called ribs lying, in general, on some surface of tévolution and con-
fected by means offpolyg Swhich divide the surface with trapezia a vays }These bay's may carry
either one or two diagonal =
Tider the assumption of’pin jointsand under unsymmetrical loading, the Schwedler dome without_
diagonals is unstable and forms a mechanism. With one set of diagonal itis s(atically determinate if open
at the top. (As the designers of this type of dome made every attemptin early days ta.avoid redundaney in
Ge structure, any extra members were compensated for by releases at the supports. These supports were
provided in the form of either roller bearings with two releases or direction fixed supports with one
telease).
As the Iength of diagonals is very great and since it is inadvisable to have long members in compres-
wo slender diagonals are provided in each bay, Under loading, when one of these diagonals i
tension, the other is in compression. It is assumed that the compression member falls under load and
inactive. Thus for analytical purposes, the dome is left with only one set of tension diagonals.
The arrangement of bracing members described above, was first introduced by J.W. Schwedler and is
shown in Fig. 3.7. The first Schwedler dome was erected by him over a gas tank in Berlin, Schwedler
Page 103/687 SPACE STRUCTURES - SUBRAMANIAN N_
86 Principles of Space Structures
Fig, 38 Main types of Schwedler domes
also built a number of domes of this type, the largest being the one built in Vienna in 1874: this had a
maximum span of 63 m.
These domes built by Schwedler are usually of the “open type’, Le., the meridional ribs terminate at
the lantern ring and do nat form crown joints. There are various different types of arrangement of the
bracing at the apex for dames consisting of a large number of ribs. These arrangements are shown in
Page 104/687 SPACE STRUCTURES - SUBRAMANIAN N.
igiital Preaek pars C87
Tube welded
f We cleat
Welded spider cn &
Same ecih
Fig. 3.10 Details of the connections of a Schwedler dome
3.7a, b and ¢, It is also possible to change the arrangement of bars of the basic type. The main types
are shown in Fig. 3.8. The largest dome of the Schwedler type was built in 1955 over the Civic Centre at
Charlotte, North Carolina, U.S.A. It is 100 m in diameter with a rise of 18 m, It has 48 radial ribs
supported on a circular tension ring which rests on 48 reinforced concrete columns and a further nine
radial rings. The tension ring is 50.mm thick and 800 mm wide whereas the central compression ring has
adiameter of 14 m. The entire dome surface is covered by a convex latticework of aluminium sheet. Fig.
3.9 shows a Schwedler dome over a Church in Oakland, California, U.S.A. The details of the double
cing are shown in Fig. 3.10. Note that the slender diagonals are fitted with tumbuckles, so that each
onal can be post tensioned. The details of the crown connector are also shown in the figure.
Another example of the Schwedler dome is provided by the Dane Country Memoria Coliseum at
Madison, Wisconsin. This 10,500 seat Coliseum is covered by a 95 mdome. The dome rises 14m to the
erown on 32 ribs that are fabricated from rolled steel beams of height 450 mm.
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88. Principles of Space Structures digitalised by RLC
The horizontal concentric rings are of beams (size 400 mm) and the tension ring at the base is a plate
700 mm by 62.5 mm, The unit weight of the steel framing is 86 kp/m*of plan area and represents onc of
the lightest Schwedler domes ever constructed.
During 1968-69 two schwedler type domes were built at the Notre Dame University, each measuring
100m diameter. The Schwedler type of bracing is of welded constructions. There arc thirty six ribs in
each dome spanning from the tension ring to the compression ring, The ribs were fabricated in two pieces
and bolted together in the field with high strength bolts. Erection was simple, a temporary steel tower
being used to support the crown compression ring, while the ribs were placed in tandem across the dome
sith two cranes. The convention centre at the Ohio University, erected in 1968 is onc of the lightest
Schvwedler domes in the U.S. The dome has a diameter of 110m and is supported on 48 columns
Soare and Raduica® investigated four geometries of braced domes namely, ribbed domes, Schwedler
type domes with simple diagonals, Schwedler domes with alternate diagonals and Schwedler domes with
crossed diagonals. The effect of using hot -rolled and rectangular hollow sections has also been investi-
fated, The main conclusions from this study are : 1. the snow loading on half the dome is the mest
‘unfavourable loading: 2. the hollow section is more advantageous than the (open. hot rolled section; 3.
Schwedler type domes are more advantageous than the ribbed ones {among the three variants of
Schwedler domes there are no important differences); 4. a cyclic configuration of the braced dame en-
sures the best statical behaviour of the dome.
‘Asimilar study was done by Pakandam and Sarshar"* on three types of single layer braced domes of
som diameter ; geodesic, Schwedler and three-way grid domes, They studied the height to diameter
ratios (1/3 and 1/5) and two types of boundary conditions.
3.8 STIFF-JOINTED FRAMED DOMES
This type of dome consists. ofbontinuouseridional Fibsandtpolygonal horizontal tinggirigidly con-
nected by welding at their intersections. In Jayout and form tis identical to the Sewedler dome andl for
this reason it is afso called rigidly jointed Schwedler dome. It is also known as a three dimensional
equivalent of the Vierendee! truss. Two types of stiff jointed framed domes used in practice are shown in
Fig3.11. Several domes of this type have been built in the United States mainly as astronomical observa.
tories, These dorhes are not amenable to modern\prefabrication methodsjas they require substantial eon-
nections, often of the double bracket type and, therefore, are not often used in practice.
“The basic differences between the Schwedler dome and the stiff-jointed framed dome are us follows:
1. The Schwedler dome-carries the external load byfaxial stressésjin the members of the dome with
campleie absence of moments. The stiff-jointed framed dome has ‘both axial forces and bending
moments over the structure. a
“The Schwedler dome without diagonals.and under unsymmetrical loading is unstable and forms a
mechanism, whereas the stiff-jointed framed dome is highly redundant. In the Schwedler dome
the diagonals are provided for stability. But the stiff jointed framed dome is stable without the
diagonals. The diagonals only add to the redundancy of the dome.
3, ‘The hand calculation methods available for the analysis of the Schwedler dome are inadequate for
the analysis of stiff-jointed framed dome, The solution to these domes requires the use of mattis
algebra and eomputer programs.
3.9 PLATE TYPE DOMES
This type of dome is also a type of Schwedler dome, with a small number of sides, their side planes filled
in by several bars, all of them in the same plane, ‘amin Ba isiangular network bracing. Various types of SPACE STRUCTURES - SUBRAMANIAN N_
Gig) itaisreaed MonbbL 69
LF BY ‘Etevation ‘
’ Fig. 3.11 Types of stiff-jointed framed domes
these domes are shown in Fig. 3.12. The type of arrangement shown in Fig, 3.12b is suitable fr any:
layout and is highly economical in the use of material, + sc
‘The plate-type dome has the advantage that it can be used toleover rectangular areas, The preliminary
analysis of these domes can be carried out assuming that the structure is a Schwedler dome with fictitious
Fig. 3.12 Types of Plate Type Domes
Page 107/687 SPACE STRUCTURES - SUBRAMANIAN N.
90 Principles of Space Structures digitalised by RLC
ED LER.
Elevation
Plan rf PRR
@ a)
1 Fig. 3.13 Types of network domes
diagonals and further assuming that the loads are applied at the nodes, The stresses in the ribs, rings and
diag an then be obiained. Then, the diagonals can be removed and the panels may be analyzed
separately as Warren girders. -
3.10 NETWORK DOMES
Network domes.can be derived from Schwedler domes by the rotation of each{palygonal ring)through an
angle offen} respect to the ting below where 2 = number of sides, During this rotation each trape-
zium transforms intoltwo triangles lying in different planes. The difference between, the meridional db
bare and rns ie ng 3 istinct in Schwedler domes, fro longer exists in the network domes ire
373), Thus all the members of the dome are stressed under any point load. Hence, they are theoretically
better than Schwedler domes. They are, however much more icult to erect.
“The peculiarity of network domes is that they are stable only under an'pdd numberof sides,
ical. This is true only if they consist of pin connee!
members, In practice the rigidity of ices additional stiffness and|makes it feasible to use thi
~Gystem alse for even sided configurations] These domes ean also be used to cover Teclangular areas (see
Fig.3.13b). -
‘A number of steel network domes were constructed in Germany before the 1st World War. Their
popularity increased mainly through the work of Prof.Lederer in Czechoslovakia who hus developed a
system forthree-way grid dome, which has been adapted for a number of large span structures. Lederer's
domes consist of curved tubes forming three groups of grid ribs. The inclined tubing is reduced in diam-
eter in several steps from perimeter to crown and fillet welded into the necessary lengths. These tubes
form a series of open lozenges which are stiffened by the horizontal tubular tings. The imtersection of the
three groups of tubes forms a triangular space lattice. The dome in Bo, Czechoslovakia, has a clear
span of 93.5m and consists of circular tubular tings interconnected with curved diagonal tubular mem-
bers which are placed one on top of the other. The connections between the three intersecting layers of
tubes are made by means of U-shaped rods and specially shaped bars which are placed respectively
beneath and over the tubes and which are drawn together by means of two nuts screwed onto the threaded
Page 108/687
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