High Explosives Technology

and Applications
Stephen Miller M.I.Exp.E.

An introduction to High Explosives, their use in Decommissioning

Operations and the Mitigation of their effects on the Marine
Environment.
 2

Contents
1 What is an Explosive?
High Explosives
Primary Explosives
Secondary Explosives
Video Demonstration
2 The Shaped Charge Phenomenon
The Munroe Effect
Configuration of a Shaped Charge
Shaped Charge Detonation & Jet Formation
Target Impact/Penetration
Efficiency of Shaped Charges (mass reduction)
 3

Contents
3 Linear Cutting Charges
Different Types/Configurations
Their Application
Demonstration Video
4 Shockwave Mitigation
The Problem
A Solution
Demonstration Video
Conclusion
Any Questions?
Section 1
What is an Explosive?
 5

What is an Explosive?
A substance, that when subjected to a suitable stimuli,
undergoes a violent chemical decomposition with
the evolution of heat and gas.

Or, in simpler terms:

A material containing stored chemical energy,

which can be rapidly released in the form of
heat and high pressure gas,
when triggered to do so.
 6

Explosives do not necessarily contain a lot of chemical energy;

it is more their ability to release this energy rapidly
that make explosives such a useful tool.
If we take two items of the same size, both of which
contain stored chemical energy, we can illustrate this fact:

Candle Plastic Explosive

 7

Explosives do not necessarily contain a lot of chemical energy;

it is more their ability to release this energy rapidly
that make explosives such a useful tool.
If we take two items of the same size, both of which contain
stored chemical energy, we can illustrate this fact:

The Candle releases far more energy than the Plastic Explosive,
but takes approx. 50,000 times as long to do it!

8 x Heat 1 x Heat
4 x Gas 1 x Gas

Candle Plastic Explosive

 8

High Explosives

The distinguishing feature of a High Explosive (HE), is that

it will Detonate under its normal conditions of use.

A Detonation is a specific type of explosion, where the

chemical decomposition occurs so violently that it produces
a shock wave.
 9

High Explosives
The shock wave passes through the HE at or faster than the
speed of sound of the material (sound travels faster through
dense materials than it does through air).

As the shock wave meets unconsumed HE, the energy within the
shock wave causes the explosive to Detonate,
thus feeding and sustaining the shock wave.

As such, once a Detonation within an HE has been

initiated,it will propagate through the entire charge
until all available explosive material has been
consumed.
 10

High Explosives
HEs are divided into two sub groups:

Primary Explosives

&

Secondary Explosives
 11

Primary Explosives
There are many examples of materials within this
sub-set of High Explosives, including:
N N+ N-
Lead Azide Pb
N N+ N-

Silver Azide Ag N N+ N-
2-
O
N2O NO2
Lead Styphnate Pb2+
O H2O
NO2
 12

Primary Explosives
The characteristic that groups these materials as
Primary Explosives, is that they are all easily
initiated by one or more common stimuli such as:

Heat
Impact
Stabbing
Percussion
&

Friction
 13

Primary Explosives

Primary Explosives are listed as Very Sensitive.

Since these materials are so easily initiated, they tend to be

used in very small quantities as the initial elements
of Detonators - which are used for initiating
Secondary Explosives.
 14

Secondary Explosives
As with Primary Explosives, there are many different materials
within this sub-set of High Explosives, including:
N O2 CH 3

O2N
N O
TNT
N 2

CH
RDX
H2C 2

N N
O2N N O2 N O
CH 2 2

NH 2

OH O N
2 N O 2

DATB
O2N
N O
2

Picric Acid NH 2

N O
2

NO 2
CH 2 .O N O 2

CH 2 .O N O 2
PETN O2 N O.CH 2 C CH 2 .O N O 2

CH 2 .O N O 2
Nitroglycerine CH .O N O 2

CH 2 .O N O 2
 15

Secondary Explosives
The common characteristics that differentiates Secondary Explosives
from Primary substances is that in general, they are relatively difficult
to initiate and require a shock wave donor, such as a Detonator in
order to establish a sustainable Detonation.

Secondary Explosives are generally listed as Comparatively Insensitive,

although some fall into the range of Sensitive materials

Since most Secondary Explosives are difficult to initiate

by accident, they can be transported and used
reasonably safely. It is for this reason that
Secondary Explosives are by far the most
common explosive tool used.
 16

Video Demonstrations

Hollywood High Explosives & Real High Explosives

Section 2

The Shaped Charge

Phenomenon
 The Shaped Charge Phenomenon 18

Shaped Charges are a means of focusing the stored chemical energy

that is found in explosives to perform efficient and useful
work by rapidly penetrating or cutting tough materials.

Military Shaped Charges are often referred to as HEAT rounds, which

has lead to the common misconception that they, somehow melt
a hole through their target.

H.E.A.T. stands for High Explosive Anti-Tank and has nothing to do

with the temperature at which it penetrates.

In fact a copper jet formed by a shaped charge only

reaches about 400 C. Jets are simply the liner
metal behaving as a Newtonian viscous fluid.
They are not plasmas.
 Basic Types of Shaped Charge 19

Many industries use Shaped Charges for different applications,

there are two main configurations that are used:

Conical Shaped Charges

Used to create single deep circular holes.
Their uses include; Anti-Tank Weapons
and Oil Well Perforators .
Linear Cutting Charges
Used to create a cutting effect as the
name suggests. Their uses include; the
severance of structural members, pipes,
plates, re-enforcing, etc. - often used in
Demolitions and Bomb Disposal.
Blade Photographs
Copyright RO Defence
 Basic Types of Shaped Charge 20

Both of these configurations share the

same cross-sectional features:

A Triangular Liner
Backed with Explosive

Blade Photographs
Copyright RO Defence
 The Munroe Effect
21

As you might expect, detonating an explosive charge against

the metal surface of a solid target will form a dent or crater:
 The Munroe Effect
22

While experimenting with compressed charges of Nitro-cellulose

in 1888, Charles Edward Munroe noticed that the manufacturers
name which was pressed into the block, was reproduced on
the targets surface:
 The Munroe Effect 23

Further experimentation lead him to discover that a raised oint

instead of a depression in the end of an explosive charge
created a crater with a similar raised point at its centre:
 24

The Munroe Effect

His investigations revealed that the larger the cavity,
the larger the cutting effect:
 25

The Munroe Effect

Putting a metal liner inside the cavity increases
the depth of penetration:
 The Munroe Effect
26

And moving the charge away from the surface

further increased the cutting effect:
 Basic Detonation 27

Theory
Unimpeded an explosive detonation front will propagate
in
all directions at the same rate:

Therefore a detonation front travelling through an

explosive charge will spread in a spherical pattern
(Huyghens Principle) with the point of initiation at its
epicentre.
Basic Detonation Theory 28
 Basic Detonation Theory
29

Here, we see the same effect from the side:

An extremely long explosive charge can be used to generate

a detonation front that is (for all intents and purposes)
flat: i.e. a Plane Wave.
The Configuration of a Shaped Charge 30

Firstly we take a solid explosive charge:

The Configuration of a Shaped Charge
31

A hollow void is formed in one end of the charge:

The Configuration of a Shaped Charge
32

A close fitting metal liner is inserted into the void:

The Configuration of a Shaped Charge
33

Well change the colour scheme, to make the following

examples clearer:
 Detonation of a Shaped Charge 34

For simplicity, these examples will show a Plane Wave

detonation.
The detonation front travels down the charge:
 35

Detonation of a Shaped Charge

The detonation front meets the metal liner:
 36

Detonation of a Shaped Charge

The detonation front meets the metal liner:
Detonation of a Shaped Charge
37

And forces the metal towards the centre of the hollow:

Detonation of a Shaped Charge 38

And forces the metal towards the centre of the hollow:

 Detonation of a Shaped Charge
39

Forming a Jet that can travel as fast as 10 Km per second:

 Detonation of a Shaped Charge
40

Forming a Jet that can travel as fast as 10 Km per second:

 Detonation of a Shaped Charge
41

Energy from the explosive imparts momentum to the liner

material
Detonation of a Shaped Charge 42

Energy from the explosive imparts momentum to the liner

material
 Detonation of a Shaped Charge 43

Making the liner flow into the Jet, even after all of the explosive
has been consumed:
 Detonation of a Shaped Charge 44

Because the tip of the Jet is travelling faster than the rear;
the Jet stretches, becoming longer:
 45

Shaped Charge Jet Formation

And longer:
 46

Shaped Charge Jet Formation

This is a Flash X-Ray of a Shaped Charge Jet:
 Shaped Charge Jet Formation 47

This image was created by a high powered laser illumination technique that
allows the light produced by the explosive detonation, to be filtered out.

The U. S. Government retains the non-exclusive, royalty-free license to these images: Credit must be
given to the University of California, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, and the U.S. Department
of Energy under whose auspices the work was performed, when this information or a reproduction of it is
used.
 48

Shaped Charge Jet Formation

The Jet continues to stretch:

Shaped Charge Slug & Jet Formation
49

The slowest moving, rear portion of the Jet is called the

Slug or Carrot and only travels at a few hundred meters
per second and contributes nothing to the penetration
process
 50

Shaped Charge Slug & Jet Formation

As the Jet continues to stretch, the Slug breaks off and
falls behind the main part of the Jet:
Shaped Charge Target Penetration 51

The Jet approaches the Target

target at approx. 10 Km
per second:
 Shaped Charge Target Penetration 52

Target
The fast moving tip of the
Jet hits the target forcing
the target material aside:
Shaped Charge Target Penetration 53

Target
The Jet is used up and
coats the inside of the
hole as it penetrates:
 Shaped Charge Target Penetration 54

Target
The Jet is used up and
coats the inside of the hole
as it penetrates:
 Shaped Charge Target Penetration 55

The slower rear end of the Target

Jet delivers less energy
into the target, making a
narrower hole:
 Shaped Charge Target Penetration 56

The whole Jet is gradually Target

used up as it penetrates the
target:
 Shaped Charge Target Penetration 57

Until the whole of the Jet Target

has been used up and
penetration stops:
Shaped Charge Target Penetration 58

This is a Flash X-Ray Showing A Jet Penetrating A Target

 Shaped Charge Target Penetration 59

This is a picture of a sectioned steel block which has been

attacked by a shaped charge Jet - It clearly shows the smooth
central portion where the Jet has penetrated cleanly:

0mm 50mm 100mm 150mm 200mm

Shaped Charge Explosive Mass Reduction 60

As we know, a detonation front propagates in a spherical

pattern with the point of initiation at its centre:
Shaped Charge Explosive Mass Reduction 61

The shape of the detonation wave as it comes into contact

with and travels down the liner is important, but any explosive
that does not contribute to this, is redundant and can be
removed:
 Shaped Charge Explosive Mass Reduction 62

Forming a Shaped Charge in this fashion is referred to as

Beehiving or the charge itself may be called a Beehive, as it
apparently looks like a beehive!
Shaped Charge Explosive Mass Reduction 63

The explosive mass can be reduced quite significantly, if we can

simultaneously initiate the detonation wave around
the edge of the the charge:
Shaped Charge Explosive Mass Reduction 64

This is a sectioned view of the same effect.

Firstly a considerable amount of explosive can be removed:
 Shaped Charge Explosive Mass Reduction 65

This can be achieved through Peripheral Initiation which is a

more efficient, but more technically demanding alternative means
of reducing the charge mass than using Beehive charges:
A Peripherally Initiated Shaped Charge 66
A Peripherally Initiated Shaped Charge 67
A Peripherally Initiated Shaped Charge 68
A Peripherally Initiated Shaped Charge 69
A Peripherally Initiated Shaped Charge 70
A Peripherally Initiated Shaped Charge 71
A Peripherally Initiated Shaped Charge 72
A Peripherally Initiated Shaped Charge 73
A Peripherally Initiated Shaped Charge 74

*
Section 3

Linear Cutting Charges

 Types of Linear Cutting Charge
76

As weve seen, there are two main configurations of Shaped Charge:

Conical Shaped Charges - These penetrate, creating single, deep,

narrow, circular holes.

Linear Cutting Charges - That can cut through structural members,

pipes, re-enforcing, etc.

Linear Cutting Charges can be sub-divided into a number

of different types including:

Cutting Cord/Tape
Continuous Cutting Charges

Boxed Cutting Charges

 Cutting Cord/Tape 77

Cutting Cord/Tape can be applied to a structure to be cut,

either internally or externally.

An example of the
internal
configuration of
a silver sheathed
cutting cord. As
used in a missile
break up system.
 Cutting Cord/Tape 78

Examples of tubes cut by internal arrangements of Cutting

Cord/Tape:

250mm 75mm tube

tube
 Continuous Cutting Charge 79

Continuous Cutting Charges come in long lengths that can be

cut down or joined together to create a suitable charge to
produce the required length of cut.

An example of this is Blade from Royal Ordnance

Blade Photographs Copyright RO Defence

 Boxed Cutting Charge 80

Boxed Cutting Charges, as the name suggests, consist of a

box like body fitted with a shaped charge liner and filled with
high explosives.

An example of this is Charge Demolition No. 14 Or Hayrick

 Boxed Cutting Charge 81

Boxed Cutting Charges, as the name suggests, consist of a box like body
fitted with a shaped charge liner and filled with high explosives.

Hayrick Charges can be joined together by inserting pins through the fittings
on each end, to form a necklace around the structure to be cut.
Boxed Cutting Charge 82

Arrangement of Boxed Cutting Charges

around a large pipe/leg structure:
Boxed Cutting Charge 83

Arrangement of Boxed Cutting Charges

around a large pipe/leg structure:
 84

Video Demonstrations

Application & Use of Linear Cutting Charges

Video Footage Copyright RO Defence

Section 4

Shockwave Mitigation
The Problem of Explosive Shock Waves 86

Shock waves travel 4 times faster and considerably further in

water than they do in air.

As such, massive safety cordons must be established around

sub-sea blasting operations to ensure that divers, equipment,
shipping and other structures are not put at risk.

Example:
In the Gulf of Mexico a 1000 ton platform was cut 6 feet below
the mud line in 40 feet of water using tri-plate cutters.
The entire fish population perished in the vicinity
including protected green turtles!
A Solution to Explosive Shock Waves
87

Experiments have been done with different shock mitigation

materials, with a view to developing an effective means of
mitigating both air and water born shock waves in the marine
environment.

To date considerable successes have been recorded and

reductions of peak overpressures in excess of
one order of magnitude have been achieved!
A Solution to Explosive Shock Waves
88

Example:
100kg of High Explosive was detonated in air.
the peak overpressures were recorded.

This was directly compared with a firing of the same size

surrounded by a mitigating curtain.

The pressure measured at 15 metres from the charge

was so small that a person could have stood
there and suffered no ill effects!
 89

Video Demonstrations

Shock Wave Mitigation Experiments

 90

Experimental Results
Unmitigated Mitigated
Fired in Air By Material X

1Kg Plastic Explosive (PE4) 270 kPa (39 PSI) 27 kPa (4

PSI)
6Kg Plastic Explosive (PE 4) 1106 (160 46 kPa
kPa PSI) (7
12Kg Plastic Explosive (PE4) 64 kPa PSI)
1659 (240
kPa PSI) (9
PE4 = Plastic Explosive Mk 4
PSI)
 Conclusion 91

When considering options for Decommissioning Operations

explosive cutting is recognised as an option and is
for some components, the only one available.

Unfortunately, the wider use of explosives in marine

decommissioning is often not considered, as it is often
regarded as an over the top and excessively destructive
method.

However, we have seen that the proper application of

explosive cutting technology can be used
effectively for micro surgery.
 Conclusion 92

Those that consider the use of explosives for

decommissioning are rightly mindful of their effect on the
Marine Environment.
A great deal of energy has to be expended to cut metal or
concrete components and this must be contained and
controlled.
The research into Shock Mitigation has shown that the
environment can be protected from the effects of peak pressure
and pulse duration.

The use of explosive cutting charges is fast and efficient,

where as mechanical means can be painfully slow.

Remember that even conventional cutting methods,

like milling, produce a great deal of debris
that will effect the environment.
Any Questions? 93
 Stephen Miller
94
M.I.Exp.E.

Explosives Consultant
152, Ayelands,
New Ash Green,
Longfield,
Kent.
DA3 8JU

Tel: 01474 874127 Mobile: 07947 835347

Fax: 01474 874127

E-Mail: [email protected]
Website: WWW.LiveActionFX.Com