Collins Concise Revision Course: CSEC® Physics

Answers to revision questions

1 Scientific method FR = 121 N

1. a) The calculator gives 4653.376 80 N

The least number of significant figures of any of the (8.0 cm)
items is TWO.
The answer is best represented to TWO significant N Scale: 1 cm ≡ 10 N
figures i.e. 4700.
62°
b) The calculator gives 21.32
The least precise item is represented to one resultant force
45°
magnitude, FR = 121 N
decimal place. 50 N direction = N 62° E
The answer is best represented as 21.3. (5.0 cm)
2. a) Random errors are those which have equal chance of 3. Since the vectors are at right angles to each other, it may
causing the result to be greater or lesser than the true be easier to tackle this problem by a sketch and simple
value. An example is a parallax error. calculation.
b) Systematic errors are those which make the result
always too small or always too large by the same VR
amount due to some inaccuracy in the system. An resultant velocity
example is a zero error on an ammeter. 10.0 m s–1 magnitude, VR = √7.52 + 10.02
0 − 10.0 A−1 (VR = 12.5 m s−1)
3. gradient = = −2.5 A−1 V−1
4.0 − 0 V θ
4. a) micrometer direction, θ = tan−1
7.5
= 37°
b) metre rule 7.5 m s–1 10.0
c) vernier caliper N 37° E
5. a) 7.50 mm + 0.47 mm = 7.97 mm 4. y
sin 30° = y = 25 sin 30°
b) 2.50 cm + 0.04 cm = 2.54 cm 25
25 m s–1 (y = 12.5 m s–1)
6. mass/kg, length/m, time/s, current/A, temperature/K y
7. a) pressure/Pa 30° cos 30° =
x x = 25 cos 30°
b) work/J x 25 (x = 21.7 m s–1)
c) force/N 5. Taking north as + and south as – 25 N − 40 N = −15 N
d) power/W Taking east as + and west as – 50 N − 30 N = 20 N
8. a) 555.22 = 5.552 2 × 102 resultant force
b) 0.000 123 = 1.23 × 10−4
20 N magnitude, FR = √202 + 152
9. a) 55 000 000 J = 55 MJ (FR = 25 N)
θ
b) 0.033 3 mA = 33.3 μA 15 N FR
20
c) 400 mW = 0.000 4 kW direction, θ = tan−1 = 53°
mass 15
10. density = volume S 53° E
density × volume = mass
2 g cm−3 × 4 cm3 = mass
8 g = mass 3 Forces, mass and weight
1. Gravitational, electrostatic, magnetic, nuclear
2 Scalars and vectors 2. A frictional force is a mechanical force which opposes the
1. Vectors: displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, relative motion of the surfaces of bodies in contact with
momentum each other.
Scalars: distance, speed, mass, time, energy
3. a) The mass of a body is the quantity of matter of the body.
2. This could be done by constructing a scale diagram. b) The weight of a body is the force of gravity on the body.
The same scale must be used for both vectors.
4. a) W = mg
0.80 = m × 2.0
0.80
2.0
=m
(0.40 kg = m)
b) W = mg
W = 0.40 × 10
(W = 4.0 N)

1
4 Moments 5 Deformation
1. a) A moment about a point is the product of a force and the 1. a) Hooke’s law states that the force applied to a spring is
perpendicular distance of its line of action from the point. proportional to its extension.
b) The following conditions hold for a system of coplanar b) The elastic limit (E) is the point beyond which any
forces in equilibrium: further increase in the load applied to a spring will
1. The sum of the forces in any direction is equal produce a permanent stretch.
to the sum of the forces in the opposite direction c) Elastic deformation is the change in size and shape
(translational equilibrium). of a material due to a load which is insufficient to
2. The sum of the clockwise moments about any point produce a permanent stretch.
is equal to the sum of the anticlockwise moments 2. a)
about that same point (rotational equilibrium).
c) This second rule is known as the principle of moments.
2. a) The centre of gravity of a body: The point through

force
which the resultant gravitational force on the body acts.
b) Stable equilibrium: A body is in stable equilibrium if,
when slightly displaced, its centre of gravity rises and a
restoring moment is created which returns it to its base.
0
c) Unstable equilibrium: A body is in unstable extension
equilibrium if, when slightly displaced, its centre of
b)
gravity falls and a toppling moment is created which
removes it from its base.
3. The lamina is hung so that it swings freely from a pin

force
loading unloading
placed through a small hole near its edge as shown. A
plumbline is suspended from the pin and the position
where it passes in front of the lamina is marked by small
crosses. A line is drawn through the crosses. The procedure
is repeated twice by suspending the lamina from other 0
extension
points near its edge. The point where the lines cross is the
centre of gravity of the body. 3. a) F = ke
pin in small hole 80 = k × 0.020
80
=k
0.020
line through crosses (4000 N m = k) −1

b) F = ke
irregularly 40 = 4000 e
shaped lamina 40
=e
4000
(0.010 m = e)
plumbline length of spring = 0.40 m + 0.010 m = 0.41 m or 41 cm
c)
4. Factors affecting the stability of an object: F/N
1. Height of its centre of gravity
2. Width of its base
area represents
3. Its weight 80
potential energy
5. Taking moments about the fulcrum:
∑ anticlockwise moments = ∑ clockwise moments 80 × 0.020
60 × 0.20 = 1.2 W E=
2
60 × 0.20 (E = 0.80 J)
=W
1.2
(10 N = W) 0
e/mm
∑ upward forces = ∑ downward forces 20
R = 60 + 10
(R = 70 N) 6 Kinematics
R
1. a) Distance is the length between two points.
b) Displacement is distance in a specified direction.
0 0.20 m 1.4 m 3.0 m c) Speed is the rate of change of distance.
d) Velocity is the rate of change of distance in a specified
60 N direction.
e) Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.
fulcrum w

2
2. a) i) d ii) d Ex: A rocket, with its engines off, moves through outer
space at constant velocity in a straight line. The
resultant force on the rocket is zero; there is no
forward force since the engines are off and there is
no opposing force since there is no atmosphere to
0 t 0 t create friction with its surface.
iii) d Law 2 The rate of change of momentum of a body is
proportional to the applied force and takes place in
the direction of the force. FR = mv − mu
t
Ex: As a car crashes into a wall, a force acts against its
motion for a particular time, causing it to quickly
0 t
decelerate to rest.
b) i) v ii) v
Law 3 If body A exerts a force on body B, then body B
exerts an equal but oppositely directed force on
body A.
Ex: As a child springs upward from a trampoline, a
0 t 0 t force acts on his/her feet. The force exerted by the
3. a) v/m s−1 child on the trampoline is equal in magnitude but
opposite in direction to the force exerted by the
trampoline on the child.
20 3. There is a resultant force if the velocity changes.
a) The resultant force is zero since the velocity remains at
zero (is constant).
b) The resultant force is zero since the velocity is constant.
0 t/s
5.0 9.0 12.0 c) There is a resultant force since the magnitude of the
velocity is changing.
b) i) 1st stage acc. = 20.0 − 0 (acc. = 4.0 m s−2) d) There is a resultant force since the direction of the
5.0 − 0
2nd stage acc. = 20.0 − 20.0 (acc. = 0 m s−2) velocity is changing.
9.0 − 5.0
0 − 20.0 4. a) The momentum of a body is the product of its mass
3rd stage acc. = (acc. = −6.7 m s−2)
12.0 − 9.0 and velocity.
The negative sign indicates that the acceleration b) kg m s−1 and N s
and associated force are opposite in direction to c) The law of conservation of linear momentum states
that in the 1st stage. that, in the absence of external forces, the total
Since the velocity decreases, it can be said that the momentum of a system of bodies is constant.
deceleration is 6.7 m s−2 d) Momentum is a vector quantity.
ii) distance = 20.0 × 5.0 + 20.0 × 4.0 (d = 130 m) e) If the magnitudes of the momentums of two bodies are
2
the same but they are moving in opposite directions,
iii) Since the motion is in a straight line, the then their total momentum will cancel to zero.
magnitude of the displacement is the same as the 5. 0 m s−1 +
0 m s−1 −5.0 m s−1
distance. Average velocity = disp. = 130
time 9.0 v
(average velocity = 14.4 m s−1) + = +
20 kg 40 kg 20 kg 40 kg

7 Newton’s laws and momentum total momentum before = total momentum after
(20 + 40)0 = (20 × −5.0) + 40v
1. a) Aristotle believed that the force applied to a body was
0 = −100 + 40v
proportional to its velocity. (F ∝ v).
100 = 40v
b) His argument
100
• To pull a chariot at a greater speed required more =v
40
horses, which provided a greater force. 2.5 = v
• A moving body comes to rest when the force on it is (magnitude of Rikita’s velocity = 2.5 m s−1)
removed. 6. 4.0 m s−1 0 m s−1 +
c) If friction is negligible, a trolley will accelerate when v v
pushed along a level surface by a constant force. There
50 kg + 30 kg = 50 kg + 30 kg
is no force which results in a unique velocity for the
trolley and, therefore, Aristotle’s ‘law of motion’ cannot
be correct. total momentum before = total momentum after
2. Law 1 A body continues in its state of rest or uniform (50 × 4.0) + 0 = 50v + 30v
motion in a straight line unless acted on by an 200 = 80v
external force. 2.5 = v
(magnitude of vel. = 2.5 m s−1)
(direction of vel. = same as initial direction of Omorade)
3
7. a) + d) W = Fd
u = 40 m s−1 1600 = F × 0.12
v = 10 m s−1 1600
=F
FR = ? 0.12
(1.3 × 104 N = F)
a = v − u = 10 − 40 = −1500 m s−2 5. a) Problems associated with the use of fossil fuels
t 0.020
deceleration = 1500 m s−2 • Limited reserves: Supplies are rapidly diminishing.
b) FR = ma • Pollution: Burning of fossil fuels contaminates
FR = 0.500 × (−1500) the environment with several pollutants, including
FR = −750 N greenhouse gas emissions.
• Falling oil prices: This has highlighted the high risk
The negative sign indicates that the force on the BALL
of investing in crude oil companies.
is opposite to its direction of motion (using the sign
b) Four alternative sources of energy
convention above). From Newton’s third law, the force
• Solar
of the hands ON THE BALL is equal but oppositely
• Hydroelectric
directed to the force of the ball ON THE HANDS. The
• Wind
magnitude of the force on Akib’s hands was therefore
• Biomass
also 750 N.
6. efficiency = useful power output × 100%
power input
Po
8 Energy 20 = 500 × 100
1. a) Work is the product of a force and the distance through 20 × 500
= Po
which its point of application moves in the direction of 100
(100 W = Po)..... rate of energy supplied to water = 100 W
the force.
b) Energy is the ability to do work.
c) Power is the rate of doing work (the rate of using energy). 9 Pressure and buoyancy
d) Potential energy is the energy a body has due to its 1. P= F
position in a field of force or due to its state. A
e) Kinetic energy is the energy a body has due to its motion. P = mg
A
2. a) Energy cannot be created or destroyed, but can be 40 × 10
P=
2(0.0140)
transferred from one type to another.
(P = 1.4 × 104 Pa)
b) i) Chemical potential energy kinetic energy +
thermal energy and sound energy 2. pressure on atmospheric pressure
= +
ii) Chemical potential energy thermal energy base of pool pressure caused by water
and sound energy P = 1.1 × 105 + (hρg)W
iii) Gravitational potential energy kinetic P = 1.1 × 105 + (2.0 × 1000 × 10)
energy gravitational potential energy (P = 1.3 × 105 Pa)
kinetic energy… 3. a) The principle of Archimedes states that when a body
iv) Gravitational potential energy kinetic is completely or partially immersed in a fluid, it
energy electrical energy experiences an upthrust equal to the weight of the fluid
v) Chemical potential energy kinetic displaced.
energy electrical energy b) The following equations can be applied when an object
vi) Chemical potential energy electrical floats:
energy gravitational potential energy weight of object = upthrust on object
3. a) Chemical potential energy gravitational potential weight of object = weight of fluid displaced
energy 4. a) upthrust on raft = weight of raft … since it floats
b) E = Fd upthrust on raft = 500 N
E = 400 × 4.0 b) weight of water displaced = weight of raft … since the
(E = 1600 J) raft floats
c) P=E mw g = 500
t ρw Vw g = 500
P = 1600 1000 × Vw × 10 = 500
2.5
(P = 640 W) 500
Vw =
1 (1000 × 10)
4. a) EK = mv2 (Vw = 0.050 m3)
2
1 5. As the balloon is heated, the air in it expands and the volume
EK = (0.020 × 4002)
2
(EK = 1600 J) of air it displaces increases. According to Archimedes’
b) The kinetic energy was transformed in boring the hole. principle, the upthrust is equal to the weight of the air
Therefore 1600 J was used in boring the hole. displaced. When the weight of the air displaced (upthrust)
c) work done = energy transformed is greater than the weight of the balloon and its contents, the
work done = 1600 J resultant upward force will cause the balloon to rise.

4
10 Nature of heat 11 Temperature and thermometers
1. a) The caloric theory of heat is an obsolete theory from 1. a) Temperature is the degree of hotness of a body.
the 18th century. Heat was believed to be an invisible b) The upper fixed point on the Celsius scale is the
fluid called ‘caloric’ which could combine with matter, temperature of steam from pure boiling water at
raising its temperature. standard atmospheric pressure.
b) Arguments for the caloric theory 2. Liquid-in-glass thermometer – the volume of liquid
• Objects expand when heated since the increased increases as the temperature increases.
caloric they contain causes them to occupy more space. Constant-volume gas thermometer – the pressure of
• Heat flows from hotter to cooler bodies since a fixed mass of gas at constant volume increases as the
‘caloric’ particles repel each other. temperature increases.
Arguments against the caloric theory
3. Two advantages of a liquid-in-glass mercury thermometer.
• When bodies are heated so that they change state
• Mercury is a metal and therefore has a high conductivity
(solid to liquid or liquid to gas), an increase in
and a low specific heat capacity. Its temperature quickly
caloric cannot be detected.
adjusts to the temperature it is measuring.
• When different materials are given the same amount
• Has a linear scale which is easy to read.
of heat, their temperatures increase by different
amounts indicating that they have received different Two disadvantages of a liquid-in-glass mercury
quantities of caloric. thermometer.
c) Count Rumford realised that the thermal energy • Mercury is poisonous.
produced when a cannon was being bored was • Cannot be used to measure very cold temperatures since
inexhaustible and depended only on the work done mercury freezes at −39 °C.
in boring the hole. If caloric was a material substance, 4. Three ways in which a laboratory mercury thermometer
there would be a time when all has left the cannon. differs from a clinical mercury thermometer:
2. a) Kinetic theory • The range of the laboratory thermometer is much larger
b) According to the kinetic theory, the particles of than that of the clinical thermometer.
matter (atoms, molecules, etc.) are in constant • The precision of the laboratory thermometer is not
motion of vibration, translation or rotation, and the generally as high as that of the clinical thermometer.
kinetic energies they possess are responsible for their • There is a narrow constriction in the bore of a clinical
temperatures. There are spaces between the particles, thermometer but there is no constriction in the
as well as attractive forces which pull them together laboratory thermometer.
when they are near to each other. 5. a) Thermocouple used as a thermometer
3. Joule’s experiment A thermocouple is simply two wires of different
Two bodies, each of mass, m, and attached to the ends metals, A and B, connected as shown in the diagram.
of a string, were allowed to fall through a height h, as On heating one of the junctions, an emf is produced
shown in the diagram below. As they descended, a spindle which varies with the temperature difference between
mechanism caused the strings to turn paddles in the water. the junctions. By connecting a voltmeter between the
On reaching the lowest point, the masses were quickly junctions, the emf can be detected. The scale of the
wound up to the starting position using a slip ratchet voltmeter can be calibrated in units of temperature.
system and then were allowed to fall once more. This was Since the thermometer depends on temperature
repeated several times (n times). difference, the reference junction must always be at
The work done by the paddles in churning the water was the same temperature it had at calibration. The cold
equal to the gravitational potential energy of the falling junction is generally the reference junction.
masses which transformed into a rise in thermal energy
voltmeter calibrated with
of the water. respect to the cold junction
n(2mgh) = mcΔT

A A
pulley B
thermometer

mass, m

warm junction cold junction

fixed vane (in liquid) (in pure, melting
water ice at 0 °C)
moving
paddles

5
 b) Two advantages of a thermocouple 2. At room temperature, the hammer is just able to fit into
• Thermocouples can withstand very low and very the space. However, when it is heated, the fit is no longer
high temperatures and are, therefore, useful for possible.
measuring temperatures in freezers and in furnaces. hammer
• Since they are electrical, they can be connected to
digital displays and computer systems.
Two disadvantages of a thermocouple
space
• The measuring instrument used with a
thermocouple must be sensitive to small changes 3. Dealing with problems of expansion
in emf and, therefore, these thermometers can be • Power lines must be laid slack in summer so that strong
expensive. tensions are not produced when they contract in winter.
• The scale is non-linear and is, therefore, difficult • Concrete surfaces are laid in slabs, the spaces between
to read. them being filled with pitch. During expansion of
the surface, the soft pitch is compressed, relieving the
concrete of the strong forces which would otherwise
12 States of matter produce cracks.
1. Solids 4. A simple fire alarm is shown in the diagram. Heat from
The attractive forces between the particles of a solid are the fire causes the bimetallic strip to bend and closes the
strong, bringing them very close together. However, at contacts. This completes the circuit and sounds the alarm.
even closer distances, these forces are repulsive. The atoms
electric bell
or molecules, therefore, constantly vibrate about some battery
mean position and are bonded in a fixed lattice.
Liquids
invar graphite
The forces between the particles of a liquid are weaker fixed contacts
than in solids. The molecules have more energy and the end
brass
weaker forces are not enough to make the bonds rigid.
They separate slightly more than in solids and are able to
translate relative to each other.
insulating mount
Gases
Except at the time of collision, the particles of a gas are far
apart and the forces between them are negligible. They 14 The ideal gas laws
therefore translate freely, filling the container in which
they are enclosed. 1. m.p. of ice b.p. of water

2. Properties of a liquid absolute zero

a) Density
0 273 373 K
Liquids have fairly high densities since their particles
are packed almost as close as in solids. –273 0 100 ºC
b) Shape
The bonds between the particles are not rigid and 2. To verify Boyle’s law
therefore liquids take the shape of their container. Boyle’s law can be verified using the apparatus shown in
However, the weaker forces existing between the the diagram below. The pressure, P, and volume, V, are
particles still cause liquids to have a fixed volume. measured and recorded. The pressure is increased by use of
c) Ability to be compressed the pump and the new pressure and volume are taken. This
Liquids are not easily compressed since the particles is repeated until a total of 6 pairs of readings are obtained
are tightly packed and it is difficult to push them closer. and tabulated.
1
d) Ability to flow is calculated and recorded for each V and a graph of P
V
The weak intermolecular forces existing between the versus 1 is plotted.
V
particles of a liquid cannot form rigid bonds and, Precaution Increasing the pressure will also increase the
therefore, liquids can flow. temperature. Before taking readings, a short period should
be allowed after increasing the pressure for the air to return
13 Expansion to room temperature.
1. When matter is heated, the energy supplied converts to
kinetic energy of its particles. The molecules of a solid
vibrate faster and with greater amplitude; those of a liquid
or gas, translate faster, spreading out more as they do so.
The extra kinetic energy, therefore, results in expansion of
the material.

6
 The straight line through the origin of the graph verifies 2. Specific heat capacity J kg−1 K−1
the law. Heat capacity J kg−1
3. mc ΔT
cm3 volume 0.400 kg
0.250 0.250 kg
0
air trapped in glass tube 15 °C 65 °C
1 EH = mcΔT
pressure gauge EH = 0.250 × 2400 × (65 − 15)
2
(EH = 3.0 × 104 J)
3
4.
4 air from pump mwcw ΔTw mccc ΔTc
0.400 kg
0.400 kg 0.400 kg 0.300 kg 0.300 kg
5
x
oil 20 °C 22 °C
heat gained by water = heat lost by lead
Pressure, P Volume, 1 −3 0.400 × 4200 × (22.0 − 20.0) = 0.300 × 130(x − 22)
Pa V cm3 V
cm
3360 = 39(x − 22)
3360 = 39x − 858
4218 = 39x
4218
P =x
39
(108 °C = x)
5. To determine the specific heat capacity of a metal by an
electrical method
• The mass, m, of the metal block is measured and
recorded.
0 1 • The apparatus is then set up as shown in the diagram
V
and the heater is switched on.
3. a) The molecules of mass, m, of a gas, bombard each • After a short while, the initial temperature, T1, of
other and the walls of their container. As they rebound the block is measured and the stop watch is started
in a short time, t, their velocity changes from u to v simultaneously.
and they impart forces, F, in accordance with Newton’s • The current is kept constant by adjusting the rheostat.
second law of motion. Readings of the current, I, and the voltage, V, are
F = m(v − u) measured and recorded.
t • When the temperature has risen by about 20 °C the
Since this force acts on the area, A, of the walls, it
new temperature, T2, is measured and recorded and the
creates a pressure.
heater is switched off.
P= F
A Assuming that all the electrical energy is responsible for
b) As the temperature of the air in the tyre rises, the average the increase in thermal energy of the block, the specific
speed of the molecules increases and, therefore, the force heat capacity, c, can be calculated from the equation below.
exerted by the molecules on the walls of the container
electrical energy = heat transferred to block
becomes greater. This increased force per unit area on the
VIt = mc(T2 − T1)
inner walls of the tyre implies that the pressure increases.
4. Since the vessel is freely expanding the pressure remains
constant.
V1 V
T1
= T2 A
2
V
40 V2
=
ºC

(273 + 27) (273 + 227)

100
90
80

40 V
70

= 5002 insulating material

60
50

300
40
30

(40 × 500) heating element

= V2
20
10

300
0

(67 cm3 = V2) thermometer

15 Heat and temperature change metal block

1. a) Heat is a form of energy which flows from places of polished outer jacket
higher temperature to places of lower temperature.
b) The specific heat capacity of a SUBSTANCE is the heat Oil, placed around the thermometer and
needed to change unit mass of the substance by unit heater, improves conduction with the block.
The block is surrounded by an insulating
temperature.
material to reduce outward conduction.
c) The heat capacity of a BODY is the heat needed to A polished silver jacket (foil paper) surrounds
change the body by unit temperature. the insulator to reduce radiation to the air.

7
16 Heat and state change
1. a) Latent heat is the heat necessary to change the state of a
substance without a change of temperature.
A
b) The specific latent heat of fusion of a substance is the
heat needed to change unit mass of the substance from
solid to liquid without a change of temperature. V
2. A beaker of water is heated from room temperature until
about one quarter of it boils away. Several readings of
temperature and corresponding time are measured and ice chips in funnel
recorded. It will be observed that there is no change in heater element
temperature as the water boils.
3. T/°C
105 beaker collecting
ΔEP ΔEk
100 melted ice

g electronic scale
ΔEk

ΔEP
0 17 Evaporation and boiling
ΔEk time
–4 1.
Evaporation Boiling
4. mc ΔT mllv
2.0 kg 2.0 kg 2.0 kg Occurs only at the surface of Occurs throughout the body
a liquid of a liquid
90 °C 100 °C 100 °C
Occurs over a range of Occurs at one temperature
EH = mlv + mcΔT temperatures for a given pressure
EH = (2.0 × 2.3 × 106) + (2.0 × 4200 × 10) Does not require an external Requires an external heat
EH = 4.6 × 106 + 8.4 × 104 heat source source
(EH = 4.7 × 106 J)
5. To determine the specific latent heat of fusion of ice by 2. Factors affecting the rate of evaporation explained
an electrical method by kinetic theory
• The mass, mb, of the empty beaker is measured and • Temperature: Molecules move faster at higher
recorded. temperature and therefore possess more kinetic energy.
• The apparatus is set up as shown in the diagram and the They have a better chance of overcoming the attractive
heater is switched on. forces of the neighbouring molecules so that they may
• Ice chips are packed around the heating element so that it escape as a gas.
is completely immersed and a stop watch is simultaneously • Humidity: If the humidity is high, evaporating
started. The melted ice is collected in the beaker. molecules are more likely to crash into particles above
• The readings of voltage, V, across the heater, and the surface and rebound to the liquid, thereby reducing
current, I, through it, are measured and recorded. the rate of evaporation.
• Before all the ice has melted, the funnel is removed, the • Wind: This removes molecules from above the surface
watch stopped and the time, t, measured and recorded. allowing the evaporating molecules to have a better
• The mass, mbw, of the beaker and water is taken and the chance of escaping completely, without colliding and
mass of water, mw, calculated from mw = mbw − mb. rebounding to the liquid.
Assuming that all the electrical energy is used in melting • Surface area: Evaporation is a surface phenomenon
the ice, the following equation can be used to calculate its and therefore the larger the surface area the greater the
specific latent heat of fusion. chance for molecules of the liquid to escape.
electrical energy = heat to melt ice 3. A volatile liquid used as the refrigerant is pumped to
VIt = mw lf an evaporator where it changes to a gas. The latent heat
VIt needed to produce the change in state is absorbed by
= lf conduction from the air in the room, which is circulated
mw
around the tubes of the evaporator by means of a fan.

8
 The gas is then pumped to a condenser outside the
building where it is compressed and condensed back to a
liquid, releasing the latent heat energy that was previously
absorbed. This heat conducts into an aluminium grill and
then radiates to the surroundings. A fan is used to produce
forced convection of the hot air away from the unit.
EVAPORATOR CONDENSER
(latent heat absorbed) (latent heat released)
refrigerant
expansion valve
(liquid)

air sucked
in by fan fan air sucked hot air blown
in by fan out by fan
partition
radiator
(aluminium
cool air out grill)
through vents
refrigerant
refrigerant (gas)
pump (compressed
gas)

18 Thermal energy transfer 3. a) Convection currents in a liquid

1. a) Conduction is the process of thermal energy transfer A crystal of potassium permanganate is added to a
between two points in a medium by the relaying of beaker of water. The beaker is heated from below the
energy between adjacent particles of the medium with crystal and the purple-coloured solution that is formed
no net displacement of the particles. shows the path of the convection current.
b) Convection is the process of thermal energy transfer b) Black surfaces are better absorbers of radiation than
between two points in a medium by the movement of white surfaces
the particles of the medium due to existing regions of The apparatus is set up as shown in the diagram with
different density. a cork stuck by means of wax to the outer surface of
c) Radiation is the process of thermal energy transfer by each plate. The wax melts first from the plate which has
means of electromagnetic waves. its inner surface painted black, indicating that it is the
2. a) Conduction in metals better absorber.
When one end of a metal bar is heated, the thermal reflection absorption
energy supplied converts to kinetic energy of its wax melts
cations, causing them to vibrate faster and with greater
amplitude than before. They bombard their neighbours
with greater force and frequency than before, passing cork
on the increased vibration.
Metals also contain a ‘sea’ of free electrons which
translate freely between the cations. When these white or silver black
electrons are warmed, the thermal energy supplied
gives them more kinetic energy, causing them to c) Thermal radiation can propagate through a vacuum.
translate faster. On collision with cations, they transfer The apparatus is set up as shown in the diagram. The
the energy to them. jar is first evacuated by means of the pump and the
The temperature of a substance is proportional to heater is then switched on. The coil begins to glow, and
the kinetic energy of its particles and, therefore, the shortly after, the walls of the jar become warm. The
temperature at the cooler end of the bar increases. energy has therefore radiated through the vacuum, is
b) Convection in liquids absorbed by the glass, and is conducted through it to
On warming a liquid or gas from below, the heat the outer surface.
energy gives the molecules more kinetic energy, causing
bung of poor
them to translate more vigorously and to take up more conducting
connecting leads
space. The region, therefore, becomes less dense and to power supply
material
rises above the cooler, denser region, which falls in to
take its place. The cooler region in turn is heated and glass jar
heater coil
rises, effectively creating a circulating current.
pressure air pumped out
gauge stop cock

9
4. a) i) A vacuum surrounding the storage compartment d) Period: The time for one complete vibration.
ii) An insulating case e) Wavefront: A line perpendicular to the propagation of
iii) A silver outer surface a wave through which all points are in phase.
b) i) The vacuum prevents thermal energy transfer by 4. a) Increases
conduction and convection. b) Decreases
ii) The insulating case prevents thermal energy c) Decreases
transfer by conduction. d) Increases
iii) The silver outer surface prevents thermal energy
5. The speed of a sound wave decreases when moving from
transfer by radiation.
air to a denser gas since the particles of the denser medium
5. The greenhouse effect have greater mass and, therefore, respond with a lesser
The Earth’s atmosphere behaves like the glass of a average speed to the vibrations.
greenhouse. High frequency radiation is emitted from the The speed of a sound wave increases when moving from
very hot surface of the Sun. This is mainly visible light, air to water since the particles of water are much closer and
but also consists of infrared and ultraviolet radiation (IR can, therefore, more readily pass on the vibrations.
and UV). The high frequency waves including some of
6. v = λf
the more powerful IR waves easily penetrate the Earth’s
3.0 × 108 = 4.0 × 10−7 f
atmosphere and warm the planet.
3.0 × 108
The Earth’s surface then emits its own radiation, but of =f
4.0 × 10−7
longer wavelength, mainly in the longer wavelength IR (7.5 × 1014 Hz = f )
band. These waves are absorbed by certain gases in the 7. a) f= 1
= 1
atmosphere, particularly carbon dioxide (CO2), water T 0.40
vapour (H2O) and methane (CH4). ( f = 2.5 Hz)
v 40
When the gases are warmed, they emit their own IR b) λ= =
f 2.5
radiation, much of it returning to Earth to produce global (λ = 16 m)
warming. v 32
c) λ= =
(note that frequency remains constant
f 2.5
6. a) i) radiation ii) conduction iii) radiation when the medium is changed)
iv) convection v) conduction vi) radiation (λ = 12.8 m)
b) i) The glass traps most of the outgoing infrared sin θ 2 v
radiation, which is of longer wavelength. d) sin θ1
= v2
1
ii) Copper is a good conductor and transfers the heat sin θ 2 32
=
rapidly to the water in the tubes. sin 30 40
iii) A matt black surface is a good absorber, allowing 32
sin θ2 = sin 30
40
solar radiation to be readily collected. (θ2 = 24°)
iv) Placing the tank above the heater panel allows hot
water to rise to it by natural convection. 8. a) period = 50 ms or 0.050 s
1 1
v) The lagging is of a good insulating material, b) f= =
T 0.050
preventing conduction of thermal energy from the ( f = 20 Hz)
hot water in the tank to its outer surface. c) amplitude = 5.0 cm
vi) Since silver is a poor emitter of radiation, the silver v
d) λ = = 4.0
outer surface of the tank reduces the amount of f 20
radiant energy being lost to the atmosphere. (λ = 0.20 m)

19 Wave motion 20 Sound waves

1. a) A longitudinal wave is one which has vibrations 1. As a source vibrates within a material medium, it
parallel to its direction of propagation. repeatedly compresses and then decompresses the region
b) A transverse wave is one which has vibrations adjacent to it, causing the particles of the medium to
perpendicular to its direction of propagation. vibrate with the same frequency. These oscillations are then
c) Progressive waves (or travelling waves) are those which relayed through the medium in a direction parallel to the
transfer energy from one point to the next. direction of vibration of the source.
2. Transverse: electromagnetic wave, water wave 2. Note A has a lower pitch but a higher volume than note B.
Longitudinal: sound, slinky spring vibrated parallel to its 3.
Infrasound Audible range Ultrasound
length from one end
< 20 Hz 20 Hz –20 kHz > 20 kHz
3. a) Wavelength: The distance between successive points in
phase in a wave. 4. Ultrasound is used in diagnostic imaging, such as pre-natal
b) Amplitude: The maximum displacement of a vibration scanning.
from its mean position. It is also used by ships to find the depth of the ocean by
c) Frequency: The number of vibrations per second. measuring the time for the return of an echo from the
sea bed.

10
5. v = 2x ... (x = depth of water) b) Range of wavelengths of visible spectrum: 4 × 10−7 m to
t 7 × 10−7 m.
2x
1500 = c) Violet has the shortest wavelength.
0.20
1500 × 0.20
=x d) Radio waves have the longest wavelength.
2 e)
(150 m = x)
Group Source Use
6. v=d
t
d Radio and Radio transmitters – metal Radio and
350 = microwaves rods (aerials) which emit television
3.0
350 × 3.0 = d radio waves due to electric broadcasting
1050 m = d currents oscillating within
7. Sounds are more audible at night. The air in contact with them
the ground is cooler at night. A sound wave travelling Infrared All bodies from temperature Infrared
upwards will increase in speed as it enters layers of warmer 0 K (−273 °C) upward cameras
air. The wavefronts therefore separate more, taking up Light Bodies above 1100 °C, such Photography
the shape shown in the diagram. Since rays are always as the flame of a candle
perpendicular to wavefronts, the sound ray refracts along
a curved path, returning to the surface of the Earth and Ultraviolet Very hot bodies, electric Fluorescent
allowing more sound energy to reach the observer. sparks such as lightning lighting
X and X − High-speed electrons Imaging of
less dense / warmer NIGHT gamma bombarding metal targets dense materials
faster, therefore
longer wavelength Gamma − nuclei of such as bones
denser / cooler slower, therefore unstable atoms or tumours
shorter wavelength within flesh
source near observer
ground level

8. A signal generator, connected to speakers as shown in the 22 Light waves

diagram, emits a note of constant frequency. S1 and S2 are 1. Huygens’ wave theory of light
coherent sources, emitting waves in phase or with some Huygens suggested that light was a longitudinal wave
constant phase difference. capable of propagating through a material called the aether
An experimenter walking along the line AB will observe which he believed fills all space. This material medium
alternate points where he hears no sound and then a justified why light can pass through a vacuum despite the
loud sound. Where the waves from S1 and S2 meet the fact that it was supposedly a longitudinal wave, as is sound.
experimenter in phase, a loud note is observed, and where He proposed that each point along a wavefront, such as A,
they meet exactly out of phase, nothing is heard. Sound acts as a source of new wavelets. After a short time, t, each
waves, therefore, exhibit the phenomenon of interference. of these secondary wavelets advances by the same amount
B and a new wavefront, B, is formed from the envelope of
the individual wavelets from sources on wavefront A.
After a time, 2t, the wavefront, C, is the envelope of all
S1
the wavelets produced from sources on wavefront B. The
signal
generator
advancing wavefront is therefore always perpendicular to
the direction of propagation of the wave.
wavefronts A B C
vol freq
S2

21 Electromagnetic waves
1. Four properties of electromagnetic waves
wavelet
• They are all transverse waves.
• They travel at the same speed of 3.0 × 108 m s−1 through source of
a vacuum or through air. wavelet
• They can propagate through a vacuum.
2. Newton proposed a particle theory of light.
• They consists of varying electric and magnetic fields.
2. a) Radio and microwaves, infrared, light, ultraviolet,
X-waves and gamma waves.

11
3. a) The wave theory was supported by Young’s experiment. 23 Light rays and rectilinear propagation
b) Young’s experiment produces an interference pattern 1. a) A ray of light is the direction taken by light.
of bright and dark fringes from two coherent sources b) A beam of light is a stream of light energy.
of light. Interference is a phenomenon of waves. The
bright fringes occur where the waves meet in phase 2. Shadows are produced due to the rectilinear propagation
and the dark fringes occur where they meet exactly out of light.
of phase. 3. a) Shadow produced by a point source of light
4. a) The wave theory was supported by Foucault’s white screen
experiment. B
b) Foucault’s experiment proved that light travels faster in A
air than in water. This is contrary to the expectations
of particle theory, which suggest that it should travel object
faster in water. front view
point source
5. a) Planck and Einstein are the scientists responsible for of light of screen
the quantum theory.
b) The quantum theory suggests that light can be A: umbra – total shadow of uniform obscurity and
considered as being particle and wavelike in nature. sharp edge, indicating that light travels
in straight lines
Each wave pulse can be considered as a packet B: bright
(particle) of energy.
b) Eclipse of the Moon
6. a) Diffraction is the spreading of a wave as it passes
EARTH MOON
through a gap or round a barrier.
b) Strong diffraction occurs when the wavelength of the eclipsed Moon
diffracting wave is about the same size as the width of SUN
the gap through which it diffracts.
c) The wavelengths of light waves are extremely small – umbra
approximately 5 × 10−7 m for yellow light travelling in Moon’s orbit
Diagram not to scale
air. This is much smaller than most gaps commonly
encountered and, therefore, the diffraction of light is c) Eclipse of the Sun
not usually observed. umbra penumbra
7. a) Interference is the phenomenon which occurs at a
point where two or more waves superpose on each SUN EARTH
other to produce a combined vibration of amplitude MOON
lesser or greater than any of the individual waves.
Diagram not to scale total eclipse partial eclipse
b)
4. a)
D
C
focused, real,
source1 inverted image
object

b)

source2 image brighter

but blurred
c) Amplitude at C = 4 mm
object
Amplitude at D = 0 mm
8. a) Since each lamp emits waves randomly, the sources
c)
will not be coherent and a fixed pattern cannot be
formed on the screen.
b) A source of white light emits waves of several smaller
wavelengths. There would be no place on the screen image
object
where the light intensity for all the various waves
cancels to zero.
d)
c) The optical path difference between rays producing a
bright fringe is always a whole number multiple of the
wavelength.
larger image

object

12
24 Reflection and refraction from the normal as it enters the hotter, lesser dense air,
1. Laws of reflection below. This continues until it is totally internally reflected
• The incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal, at the just above the hot road and is then continuously refracted
point of incidence, are on the same plane. towards the normal as it enters the cooler, denser, air above.
• The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. An observer receiving this ray will see a virtual image of the
sky above and may interpret it as a pool of water.
2. image object
blue sky cool air

less dense hot air

hot road surface

virtual image
of blue sky
eye
mirror 10. eye

3. Four characteristics of the image formed in a plane mirror: AIR pencil

• same size as object appears
crooked
• same distance perpendicularly behind the mirror as the
object is in front
image
• virtual WATER object
• laterally inverted.
4. Laws of refraction
• The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal at the 11. narrow beam visible spectrum on
of white light a white screen
point of incidence are on the same plane.
sin i
• The ratio sin r is a constant for a given pair of media
where i is the angle of incidence and r is the angle of double slit red
collimator orange
refraction.
sin θ w η
yellow
5. = ηa source of green
sin θa w
white light GLASS PRISM blue
1
sin θw = × sin 40 indigo
1.3 violet
(θw = 30°)
6. a) Reflection 12. Rainbows are produced as light from the Sun is refracted
b) Refraction and dispersed by water droplets in the sky.
v l ηa
7. =
va η1
13. Newton concluded that white light is composed of several
vl
colours.
1
= 1
3.0 × 108 1.4 14. sin cg =
1 ηg
8
vl = × 3.0 × 10 1
1.4 sin cg =
(vl = 2.1 × 108 m s−1) 1.5
(cg = 42°)
8. 1
x 15. ηm =
AIR sin cm
1
ηm =
sin 35
d1 (ηm = 1.7)
TRANSPARENT
MEDIUM sin θg ηw
16. sin θw
= ηg
sin cg
sin 90
= 1.3
d2 1.5
D = d1 − d2 = 0
sin cg = 1.3
1.5
(cg = 60°)
The net deviation, D, is zero since the clockwise deviation,
d1, is equal in magnitude to the anti-clockwise deviation, d2. water
There is, however, a lateral displacement, x.
9. The mirage c
glass
During the day, the temperature of the air directly above
the surface of a road increases due to conduction from the
asphalt. A ray of light from low in the sky will refract away

13
 sin θ m vm 25 Lenses
17. sin θa
= va
sin cm 8
1. a) A convex or converging lens is one which is thicker at
sin 90
= 1.8 × 108 its centre and is capable of converging parallel rays of
3.0 × 10
8
sin cm = 1.8 × 108 ... (the smaller speed is in the numerator) light to produce a real image.
3.0 × 10 b) A concave or diverging lens is one which is thinner at
(cm = 37°) its centre and is capable of diverging parallel rays of
air light to produce a virtual image.
c) The focal length of a lens is the distance between its
optical centre and its principal focus.
c
medium, M d) The principal focus, F, of a lens is the point on the
principal axis through which all rays parallel and close
to the axis converge, or from which they appear to
diverge, after passing through the lens.
1 e) The optical centre, O, of a lens is that point at the
18. sin cw =
1.3
centre of a lens through which all rays pass without
(cw = 50°)
deviation.
r
tan 50 = 2. a) focal plane
2.0
2.0 tan 50 = r
2.38 = r
diameter = 2r = 2 × 2.38
(diameter = 4.8 m) principal axis
r AIR O
F

c c
2.0 m convex lens

WATER b)
c c
focal plane
light bulb
19. Uses of optical fibres
• Fibre optic bundles are used to direct light beams into
and out of cavities such as the stomach and intestines. principal axis
O
A video camera connected to the system produces the F
image of the region under investigation.
• The internet and telephone systems are particularly
dependent on the use of fibre optic cables to transmit convex lens
digital information.
I v
20. a) 3. a) =
turning through 90° O u
I 50
=
5 20
50
I= ×5
20
(I = 12.5 cm)
b) m = 50 = 2.5
20
4. a) Real images are those produced at a point at which
light rays converge.
b) Examples are the image formed on the screen at the
turning through 180°
cinema and the image formed on the retina of the eye.
b) Virtual images are those produced at a point from
which light rays appear to diverge from.
Examples are the image formed in a mirror and the
image formed by a concave lens.
5. When the object is further from the convex lens than its
focal length, the image is real and inverted.
When the object is closer to the convex lens than its focal
length, the image is virtual and erect.

14
6. Scale Vertical: 1 cm ≡ 1 cm
Horizontal: 1 cm ≡ 10 cm
a) The image is real and is 1.3 cm tall. It is inverted and is 33.3 cm from the opposite side of the lens to the object.

2.0 cm
O F
50.0 cm 20.0 cm
I
1.3 cm

33.3 cm

b) The image is virtual and is 4.0 cm tall. It is erect and is 1 1 1

9. + =
20.0 cm from the same side of the lens as the object. u v f
1 1
+ = 1
5.0 v −12
1
= − 17
v 60
v = −3.5
I The image is virtual, erect and 3.5 cm from the lens, on the
same side as the object.

4.0 cm O 26 Static electricity

2.0 cm 1. a) When a glass rod is rubbed with a cloth, electrons
20.0 cm F transfer from the surface of the rod onto the cloth,
10.0 cm
leaving the glass with excess positive charge and the
20 cm cloth with excess negative charge.
b) If the rod is brought near to a small piece of paper,
electrons in the paper will move to the side nearest to
the rod, leaving an excess of positive charge on the far
side. The strong attraction between the positive glass
and the nearby negative region of the paper causes the
7. Scale Vertical: 1 cm ≡ 1 cm paper to stick to the rod.
Horizontal: 1 cm ≡ 2 cm 2. a) Induction method
The image is virtual and is 1.8 cm tall. It is erect and is
−
4.1 cm from the same side of the lens as the object. −
− + −
+ −
− + −
− + −
− + −
−
−
−

O
Neutral metal The negatively charged rod
3.0 cm dome on an brought NEAR to the dome repels
I
insulating stand. electrons, leaving excess positive
1.8 cm charge on the side closest to it.
F 4.1 cm
− −
− + − +
7.0 cm − − +
+ + +
− + − + +
− + − + +
− + − + +
10.0 cm
1 1 1 − −
8. + = − e− −
u v f − −
1 1 1
+ =
5.0 v 12
1 1 1
= − The dome is grounded, The earth wire is The rod is removed
v 12 5.0
v = −8.6 allowing electrons to flow removed without allowing the positive
to earth. The excess positive moving the rod. charge to be
The image is virtual, erect and 8.6 cm from the lens, on the
charge remains on the side distributed uniformly.
same side as the object. nearest to the rod.

15
 b) Contact method
+ + + + +
− − − − − − − − +
− −
− − −
− −−
− −
− charged thunder
− − cloud

+ + + air ionised by high

− + concentration of
− −
charge at spikes
−
Neutral metal dome on The negatively charged rod is rolled + + + +
+
an insulating stand. over the dome. The repulsive force metal spikes
between the electrons within it causes
them to transfer onto the dome. thick copper
strip on side
− of tall building
−
− The contact method
− − produces a charge of e−
similar in sign to the
charge producing it.

EARTH + + + + + + + +
thick metal
The rod is removed. plate
3. a) Lightning
4. a)
Clouds become charged due to friction between layers
+ −
of air and water molecules rising and falling within + −
it. The base of the cloud usually becomes negatively + −
charged and the top positively charged. Sparks occur + −
+ −
between opposite charges within the cloud. + −
The negative charge on the base of the cloud repels + −
electrons further into the ground below, resulting in
a net positive charge accumulating at the surface of oppositely charged plates
the Earth. When the potential difference between b)
the base of the cloud and the surface of the Earth is
sufficiently large, electrons and negatively charged ions
−
will rush from the cloud to the ground. These high
speed ions crash into air molecules, knocking electrons
out of them. The result is an avalanche of positive and
negative ions being produced which rush to the cloud isolated negative charge
and Earth respectively. The discharge current can be
c)
as high as 20 000 A! Electrical energy transforms into
thermal energy and light energy, which transforms
further into sound energy as the air rapidly expands,
increasing the pressure and producing a sonic shock
+ −
wave – thunder.
b) How lightning conductors can protect buildings
The diagram shows a lightning conductor protecting
a tall building from the dangers of lightning strikes.
The negative charge on the base of a nearby cloud
induces opposite charge at the spikes by repelling oppositely charged particles
electrons down the copper strip and into the ground. d)
The positive charge at the spikes is very concentrated
due to the sharp curvature and it ionises nearby
air molecules by ripping electrons from them. The
positive and negative ions produced rush to the base of − −
the cloud and to the spikes respectively, cancelling the
charges there and reducing the potential difference to
a safe value. Even if the cloud did spark to the rods, the
discharge will be less violent and would pass readily to
the ground through the thick copper strip, instead of
similarly charged particles
through the building.

16
27 Current electricity b) Four ways to become more energy efficient in
1. a) Conductors are materials through which electrical our homes:
charges can flow freely. • Install photovoltaic panels to convert solar radiation
b) Insulators are materials in which electrical charges do to electrical energy.
not flow freely. • Install solar water heaters instead of using gas or
c) Current is the rate of flow of charge. electric heaters.
• Prevent solar radiation from easily entering our
2. a) Examples of conductors: copper, iron homes, so that our air conditioning cost can be
b) Examples of insulators: rubber, plastic reduced. Two ways of doing this are by placing
c) Examples of semiconductors: silicon, germanium hoods over windows and by installing thick
3. a) An alternating current is one which changes direction reflective curtains.
with time, whereas a direct current flows in one • Use certified energy-efficient refrigerators and other
direction only. certified energy-efficient appliances.
b) Conventional current flows in the direction in which
a POSITIVE charge would move if free to do so.
Electron flow is the movement of NEGATIVE charge 29 Circuits and components
and is, therefore, opposite in direction to the flow of 1. +
conventional current.
4. a) V b) V

0 0 A
t t
V

ac output from dc output from battery 2. a) A primary cell is one which cannot be recharged,
ac generator
whereas a secondary cell is rechargeable.
1 1
5. f= = b)
T 16.7 × 10−3
( f = 60 Hz) + protective metal cap
3 insulating seal graphite rod
6. I=Q= 8.0 × 10
prevents (positive pole)
t 4.0 × 10−3
evaporation
(I = 2.0 × 106 A) of electrolyte ammonium
chloride paste or
mixture of jelly – electrolyte
28 Electrical quantities manganese zinc case (negative pole)
1. a) The electromotive force of a cell is the energy used oxide and
carbon, cardboard or metal case
(or work done) in transferring unit charge around a enclosed with advertising label
complete circuit, including through the cell itself. by a paper
separator −
electromotive force = energy
charge
b) The potential difference between two points is the c) The powdered mixture of manganese oxide and carbon
energy used (or work done) in transferring unit charge around the carbon anode reduces the hydrogen bubbles
between those points. which would tend to form there.
d) Advantages of the zinc-carbon dry cell relative to the
potential difference = energy lead-acid accumulator
charge
2. a) V=E= 20
• Small and light, whereas the accumulator is large
Q 80 × 10−3
(V = 250 V) and heavy.
80 × 10 −3 • Unlike the accumulator, batteries of various voltages
b) I=Q=
t 5.0 × 10−3 can easily be made by packing the cells in series or
(I = 16 A) in parallel.
c) P = VI = 250 × 16 • Less costly than the lead-acid accumulator.
(P = 4.0 × 103 W) Advantages of lead-acid accumulator over zinc-
d) Q = Nq carbon dry cell
80 × 10 −3
N=Q= = 5.0 × 1017 • Can produce much larger currents than the zinc-
q 1.6 × 10−19
carbon dry cell, since the electrolyte is liquid and the
3. a) Two reasons why electricity is important in our
electrode plates have large surface areas for reaction.
everyday lifestyles:
• Has a much lower internal resistance than the zinc-
• It can readily be transformed into other types of
carbon dry cell.
energy such as thermal, light, sound and kinetic.
• Can be recharged, unlike the zinc-carbon cell.
• It can be transmitted easily over long distances.

17
 e) iii) I forward bias
Zinc-carbon Lead-acid
dry cell accumulator
Terminal voltage 1.5 V 2.0 V −V V
Maximum current a few amps – > 400 A reverse bias
works well when −I
delivering up to semiconductor diode
about 1 A
b) A conductor obeys Ohm’s law if the current, I, through
Internal resistance high (0.5 Ω) low (0.01 Ω) it is proportional to the potential difference, V, across
Portability small and light large and heavy it. This is verified by the straight line through the
Rechargeability not rechargeable rechargeable origin in graph (i). The metallic resistor is, therefore,
the only one of the three which obeys Ohm’s law (and
Electrolyte ammonium dilute sulfuric acid so is an ohmic conductor).
chloride paste c) The resistance of the lamp rises as the potential
difference across it is increased.
3. 12 V battery As the voltage is increased, the electrons are pulled
to be charged
+ with greater force and collide more vigorously with the
cations of the metallic filament. Their kinetic energy
transforms into thermal energy, causing the vibration
mains of the cations to increase. The increased vibration
supply 15 V R
blocks the path of the electrons to a greater extent than
120 V
previously and, therefore, the resistance rises.
A 7. emf. = 5.0 V

4. a) Q = It RY = 10 Ω
60 A × 1 h = 60 A × 3600 s = 216 000 As = 216 000 C RX = 5.0 Ω
b) Q = It
RZ = 10 Ω
t = Q = 216 000
I 5.0
(t = 43 200 s)
R ×R
(t = 43 200 h = 12 h) a) R = RX + RY + RZ
3600 Y Z

5. a) The resistance of a resistor is an electrical quantity R = 5.0 + 10 × 10

10 + 10
which is a measure of the opposition provided to an
R = 5.0 + 5.0
electrical current flowing through it.
(R = 10 Ω)
b) The resistance, R, of a resistor is proportional to its
length, l, and inversely proportional to its cross- b) I = V = 5.0
R 10
sectional area, A (I = 0.50 A)
l c) VX = IX × RX = 0.50 × 5.0
R∝
A
(VX = 2.5 V)
c) i) R = R1 + R2 = 8 + 8
d) p.d. across bulbs = e.m.f. − p.d. across X
(R = 16 Ω)
R ×R p.d. across bulbs = 5.0 V − 2.5 V = 2.5 V
ii) R = R1 + R2 = 8 × 8 e) PX = VX IX = 2.5 × 0.50
1 2 8+8
(R = 4 Ω) (PX = 1.25 W)
VY2 2
iii) 1
= 1
+ 1
+ 1
+ 1
= 2
f) PY = RY
= 2.5
R 2 2 2 2 1 10
(PY = 0.63 W)
(R = 1
2
Ω ) VZ2 2

6. a) i) ii)
(P Z
= RZ
= 2.5
10 )
I I (PZ = 0.63 W)
8. a) Advantages of parallel connection of domestic
appliances
−V V −V V • Appliances can be switched on and off without
affecting each other. If connected in series, switching
off one would switch off all.
−I −I
• Appliances can be designed to operate on a single
metallic resistor filament lamp
voltage. If appliances were connected in series, they
would have to share the voltage and would each
obtain a smaller p.d. across their terminals.

18
 b) Fuses and circuit breakers are components placed in a 2. a) AND
circuit in series with a device in order to protect it from
excessive currents. When the current is too high the input output
circuit disconnects. 0 0 0
c) Fuses should always be placed in the LIVE wire. 0 1 0
d) Switches should always be placed in the live wire.
e) A short circuit can occur if a piece of metal bridges the 1 0 0
gap between a circuit and its metal case. If there is no 1 1 1
EARTH wire and the case is touched, current may pass
b)
from it through the person to the ground. Since some OR
of the resistance is now bypassed, the current is larger input output
than before, the person will receive an electrical shock,
and the fuse will blow. 0 0 0
To avoid electrical shock, an EARTH wire is connected 0 1 1
between the case of the appliance and the ground in 1 0 1
the yard. As soon as the short circuit occurs, the high
current will flow from the case through the earth wire 1 1 1
to ground and the fuse (or breaker) will blow (or trip).
c)
f) Appliances are normally designed to operate on NAND
frequencies of either 50 Hz or 60 Hz. If the frequency input output
of the supply voltage is incorrect they are likely to
0 0 1
malfunction or even be damaged.
If an appliance is supplied with a voltage which is 0 1 1
higher than it is designed for, overheating due to 1 0 1
excessive current may destroy it.
1 1 0
If a motor is supplied with a voltage which is too low,
the current in its coils will rise (due to reasons which d)
are beyond the scope of this syllabus) and the device NOT
can be damaged due to overheating. input output
0 1
30 Electronics 1 0
1. a) Half-wave rectification is the process of converting ac
to dc by preventing one half of each cycle from being 3. I
L
applied to the load.
b) Alternating current can be rectified to direct current
through a device by connecting a semiconductor diode P
in series with it as shown in the diagram. Current can O X
only flow in one direction through the diode.
I AND (P OR O) = L

Ignition Tyre pressure Oil Level Light

device I P O X L
0 0 0 0 0
c) 0 0 1 1 0
V V V
0 1 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0
t t t
1 0 0 0 0
i) domestic supply ii) domestic supply ac-rectified iii) dc output from 1 0 1 1 1
ac voltage to dc using a diode battery
1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 1

4. Electronic and technological advances have impacted

positively and negatively on society today.
Positive impact:
• Businesses get a competitive edge when they use
advanced technologies.
• The global pooling of information increases the rate of
research and development.

19
 • Improved transport through airplanes, trains, etc. as well 7. The field is uniform where the lines are parallel.
as better communicating devices such as cell phones
and the computer, has led to more efficient business
transactions and to an increase in social contact. S N S N
• Better machinery leads to increased and improved
productivity.
• Electronic banking has facilitated the process of financial
transactions.
8. If a magnet is hung from a string it will align itself with the
Negative impact:
Earth’s magnetic field as shown. It behaves as a compass,
• Incorrect information is common on the internet.
with its N-pole facing north.
• Individuals can be addicted to social networking to such
an extent that their productivity decreases.
• Excessive virtual communication leads to lack of real string
communication and to a fall in social skills.
• Exposure to movies with immoral sexual content and
violence can eventually lead to persons accepting these N S
acts as the norm.
• Hackers can intrude on computers and manipulate Earth’s magnetic field
information such as bank accounts etc.
• More efficient machinery can result in a decrease in
available jobs.
32 Electromagnetism
1. Electrical circuits are set up as shown in the diagrams. The
31 Magnetism
horizontal pieces of card are tapped gently as iron filings
1. Magnetic materials may be identified by their attraction to are sprinkled onto them. The filings arrange in the patterns
or repulsion from a nearby magnet. of the magnetic fields.
2. X is either: key: = current into plane of paper
a) an unmagnetised piece of magnetic material whose = current out of plane of paper
nearby end has been magnetised by induction with
opposite polarity to the inducing pole of the magnet a) Field of a straight current-carrying conductor
attracting it.
b) a magnet whose nearby pole is of opposite polarity to
that of the magnetic pole of the magnet attracting it.
card with hole allowing
3. X is a magnet whose nearby pole is of similar polarity to
wire to pass through
that of the magnetic pole of the magnet repelling it.
4. Temporary magnetic materials: stalloy, mumetal
Permanent magnetic materials: alnico, alcomax iron filings showing
5. a) A magnetic field is the region in which a body pattern of magnetic field
experiences a force due to its magnetic polarity.
b) The direction of a magnetic field is the direction of
motion of a free N-pole placed in the field.
6.

F F

S N S N

plan view of card showing the

N S direction of the magnetic field
S N
F F

Attracting force, F Repelling force, F

20
 b) Field of a long current-carrying coil (solenoid) 4. The direction of the thrust on each current-carrying
conductor is found by using Fleming’s left-hand rule.
card with slots
allowing wires
a) down to bottom of page
to pass through b) perpendicularly out of plane of page
5.

iron filings showing

pattern of magnetic field
S N

6. rectangular coil
F axle

magnet
N S

graphite
brushes + F
plan view of card showing the commutator
direction of the magnetic field (split-ring)
2. The electromagnetic relay
The diagram shows an electromagnetic relay. When S1
is closed the current in the coil creates a magnetic field The current through the magnetic field produces forces,
which magnetises the soft iron reeds. The adjacent ends of F, in accordance with Fleming’s left-hand rule. Since the
the reeds obtain opposite magnetic poles and attract each current flows in opposite directions on either side of the
other, completing the circuit connected to terminals, T1 coil, the forces are also in opposite directions and the coil
and T2. The reeds are protected from the environment by rotates about the axle.
the inert gas in the glass enclosure. The commutator ensures that the current through any
T1 T2 particular side of the coil (left or right in the diagram) is
inert gas in always in the same direction by switching connection with
glass enclosure
the battery every half revolution. The force on the coil
is, therefore, always in the same direction and it rotates
N S continuously.
N
7. Moving the horizontal rod within the magnetic field
S soft-iron induces an emf which drives a current through the circuit
reeds in accordance with Fleming’s right-hand rule.

metal rod
S1 centre-zero
galvanometer
3. The diagram shows a stiff wire hanging from a metal loop
N S
and immersed in a magnetic field. When the current flows, +
a force (F) acts on the wire in accordance with Fleming’s motion
left-hand rule which pushes it out of the mercury and
breaks the circuit. The current then diminishes to zero, the field
wire falls back into the mercury, and the process repeats. N S
support
motion
stiff wire plan view of magnetic field
8. a) magnet pushed into coil

N S N S S N N S

F
mercury
in dish

21
 b) magnet at rest in coil 12. Advantages of using ac for transferring electrical energy
over long distances:
• Alternating voltages can be stepped up by a transformer
N S
to be transferred from the power station at small
currents. This results in minimum energy being wasted
as heat in the resistance of the transmitting cables.
• By stepping down the transmission current from the
power station, thinner cables can be used and, therefore,
c) magnet pulled out of coil
the material cost is reduced.
13. NP = 4000 NS = 200
N S N S

VP = 120 V VS 4.0 Ω

9. The induced current may be increased by any of the

following: VS N
• increasing the number of turns of the coil a) VP = NS
P

• increasing the strength of the magnet VS 200

120
=
• increasing the speed at which the magnet moves relative 4000
to the coil. 200
VS = × 120
4000
10. rectangular coil (VS = 6.0 V)
axle b) VS = IS RS
6.0 = IS × 4.0
6.0
= IS
4.0
magnet (1.5 A = IS)
N S IP N
c) IS = NS
P

IP 200
graphite 1.5
=
slip rings - 4000
brushes 200
IP = × 1.5
external 4000
circuit (IP = 0.075 A)
d) PS = VS IS
PS = 6.0 × 1.5
(PS = 9.0 W (power output))
This ac generator is connected to a lamp. Since the transformer is ideal, no power is lost and therefore:
(PP = PS = 9.0 W (power input))
11. The primary coil is connected to an ac supply and the
secondary coil is connected to the device to be operated.
The changing current in the primary coil produces a 33 The atom
changing magnetic field which repeatedly grows into and 1. Joseph John Thomson viewed the atom as a positively
diminishes from the secondary coil, thereby inducing an charged sphere with smaller, negatively charged, fixed
alternating voltage within it. The soft iron core allows particles (electrons) interspersed within it, the resultant
the magnetic flux to pass readily between the coils. The charge being zero. This is known as the ‘plum pudding’
alternating voltage induced in the secondary coil supplies model of the atom.
the energy used by the device in the external circuit. Ernest Rutherford proposed that most of the atom is
secondary coil empty space and that the nucleus has a very concentrated
primary coil
(output) positive charge. He suggested that small negatively charged
(input)
particles existed in a surrounding ‘electron cloud’, making
the net charge zero.
Vp Vs device Niels Bohr suggested that negatively charged particles
orbit the nucleus in particular ‘shells’. A unique energy
value is required by an electron to exist within any shell.
James Chadwick discovered the neutron, an uncharged
particle within the nucleus of an atom.
magnetic flux passing from SOFT-IRON CORE
primary to secondary coil

22
2. a) Geiger and Marsden shot α-particles through a 4.
thin sheet of gold foil and observed the scintillations
Proton Neutron Electron
they produced on striking a zinc sulfide screen. The
1
experiment was performed in an evacuated chamber, Relative mass 1 1 1840
since alpha particles are stopped by just a few cm of air.
Relative charge +1 0 −1
The zinc sulfide screen could be rotated to observe the
scintillations received for any angle of deflection of the a) If the electron has a mass of 1 unit, the proton has a
particles. mass of 1840 units.
gold foil b) The number of protons is equal to the number of
vacuum (1 μm thick) electrons in a neutral atom.
scintillations seen
on zinc sulfide screen 5. a) The atomic number (proton number) of an element is
the number of protons contained in the nucleus of an
atom of the element.
alpha source in eye
b) The mass number (nucleon number) of an element is
lead castle
the SUM of the protons and neutrons contained in the
nucleus of an atom of the element.
microscope c) Isotopes are elements having the same atomic number
rotates but different mass numbers.

gold atoms
34 Radioactivity
1. a) Since no environmental conditions could alter the
intensity of radiation from the uranium, Marie Curie
concluded that the rays emitted must be due to the
atomic structure of the element.
b) In 1903 Marie and Pierre, her husband, shared the
Nobel Prize in Physics with Henri Becquerel for their
work on radioactivity.
The arrows indicate the paths of the
In 1911 she was awarded another Nobel Prize for the
alpha particles. Very few were deflected.
isolation of polonium and radium.
b) Observations c) Her work has opened the field of radiotherapy and
1. Most of the α-particles passed through the foil nuclear medicine.
without deflection. 2. a) Radioactivity is the spontaneous disintegration of
2. Very few were deflected, but those that were, unstable atomic nuclei.
travelled with extremely high velocities, even at b) The activity of a sample of radioactive material is the
large angles of deflection. rate at which its nuclei decay.
Conclusions c) The becquerel, (Bq), is the rate of one nuclear
1. Most of the atom is empty space. disintegration per second.
2. The nucleus is extremely dense, and consists
3. a)
of positive charges which repelled the positive
α-particles.
c) The neutron was difficult to detect since, unlike
protons and electrons, it has no charge, and is therefore
unaffected by electric and magnetic fields.
α–tracks β–tracks γ–tracks
3. a)
2e b) α-tracks: An α-particle has a mass of more than 7000
2e 8e times that of a β-particle. They are strongly ionising on
8e 8e 7e
collision with other particles and, therefore, produce
2e
12p 20p
2e
9p
2e thick tracks. The tracks are straight since α-particles
14n 20n 10n are not easily deviated by collision with other particles.
β-tracks: β-particles are only weakly ionising due to
their relatively small mass and, therefore, produce
weak tracks. The tracks are randomly directed since
26 40 19 these particles deviate readily on collision with other
12 Mg 20 Ca 9F particles.
b) 41
20 Ca γ-tracks: These tracks are extremely weak and
1 1 0 dispersed. The ions in this case are produced when a
c) 1p proton 0 n neutron −1 e electron
γ-wave is absorbed by an atom, thereby energising it
and resulting in the ejection of an electron.

23
4. a) i) α-particle: Positively charged particle ejected from iii) If the count rate falls and only returns to
an atomic nucleus consisting of two protons and its initial value when the detector is shifted
two neutrons. towards the negative plate, then the source is
ii) β-particle: Negatively charged particle (an electron) an α-emitter. The negative plate will attract the
ejected from an atomic nucleus. positive α-particles.
iii) γ-wave: An electromagnetic wave.
b) i) alpha
ii) alpha
iii) gamma + + ++++++
iv) gamma source in
lead castle β γ GM detector
v) beta
vi) beta
− − −−−−−− α
vii) alpha
viii) beta
ix) alpha
x) alpha c) Magnetic field detection test
5. a) Background radiation is the ionising radiation within • The count rate is taken in the absence of the
our environment. magnetic field.
b) Radioactive elements in the Earth’s crust and its • The magnetic field is then directed perpendicular to
surrounding atmosphere the path of the rays as shown in the diagram.
X-rays from medical equipment i) If the count rate is unaffected, the source is a
High-speed charged particles from the cosmos γ-emitter.
ii) If the count-rate falls, the detector should be
6. a) Absorption test
shifted until it returns. Current is a flow of
• The background count rate is measured.
charge and therefore α and β particles will
• The source is then placed in front of the GM tube
experience forces in accordance with Fleming’s
and the activity is again measured.
left-hand rule.
• A thin sheet of paper is placed between the source
The direction of the current is the direction of flow
and detector and the count rate is measured. If the
of positive charge. Conventional current, therefore,
activity is reduced to the background count rate,
has the same direction as α-flow but is opposite in
then the source is an α-emitter.
direction to β-flow.
• If the activity is unaffected, then the source is either
a β-emitter or a γ-emitter. The paper is replaced
by an aluminium sheet of thickness 5 mm. If the
activity now returns to the background count rate,
source in α
then the source is a β-emitter; otherwise, it is a
lead castle
γ-emitter.
absorber (paper γ
source in
or aluminium) represents GM detector
lead castle
magnetic field
into plane of paper
β
GM detector
α-particles are readily stopped by air and, therefore,
for experiments where there is the possibility of
α-emission, the source must be placed very close to the
214 4
detector or the apparatus should be set up in a vacuum. 7. a) 84 Po 2α + 210
82Pb
210 0
b) Electric field deflection test b) 82 Pb −1 β + 210
83Bi
• The count rate is taken with the electric field c) 99m
Tc γ + 99
43 43Tc
switched off.
• The electric field is then switched on. 8. a) The half-life of a radioisotope is the time taken for the
i) If the count rate is unaffected, the source is a mass (or activity) of a given sample of it to decay to
γ-emitter. half of its value radioactively.
24
ii) If the count rate falls and only returns to its b) =3
8
initial value when the detector is shifted towards i.e. three half-lives
the positive plate, then the source is a β-emitter. 4.0 g 2.0 g 1.0 g 0.5 g
The positive plate will attract the negative After three half-lives 0.5 g of the sample remains.
β-particles.

24
 c) 13. a) Sources given to patients orally or by injection should
4.0
have short half-lives so that they are not in the patient
at dangerous levels for long periods. The half-life,
half-life = 8 days however, cannot be too short, since time is needed for
the radioisotope to be transported by the blood to the
mass/g

2.0 target site.

b) Gamma radiation is least absorbed by the body.
1.0 14. a) ΔE = Δmc2
0.5
b) ΔE = energy released Δm = mass defect
c = speed of light in a vacuum
c) Albert Einstein
0 8 16 24
d) ΔE = 0.001 × (3.0 × 108)2
time/days
(ΔE = 9.0 × 1013 J)
9. a) The activity falls by 75% and, therefore, to 25% of its
15. Power = energy
original value. time
100% 50% 25% 2.0 × 108 (3.0 × 108)2
P= 1
Decays through two half-lives in 30 hours and,
(P = 1.8 × 1025 W)
therefore, the half-life is 30 = 15 hours.
2
16. 21H + 21H = 32He + 10n + Δm
b) The half-life would still be 15 hours.
c) The half-life would not be affected. 3.345 × 10−27 + 3.345 × 10−27 = 5.008 × 10−27 + 1.675
Half-life is not affected by factors external to the × 10−27 + Δm
nucleus of the atom. 6.690 × 10 = 6.683 × 10−27 + Δm
−27

(7.0 × 10−30 kg = Δm)

10. a) A radioactive source can be placed in front of the
window of a Geiger detector which has been connected ΔE = Δmc2
to a loudspeaker. The ‘clicks’ produced by the speaker ΔE = 7.0 × 10−30(3.0 × 108)2
will be observed with irregular timing, demonstrating (ΔE = 6.3 × 10−13 J)
the random nature of the decay. 17. Advantages
b) A smooth curve drawn through an experimental plot 1. In the absence of natural disasters, they do not
of count rate against time will not fall on all of the contaminate the environment if carefully managed.
plotted points and, therefore, demonstrates the random They do not produce greenhouse gases such as methane
nature of the decay. or carbon dioxide, or other hazardous gases such as
11. a) 20 min−1 10 min−1 5 min−1 sulfur dioxide or carbon monoxide.
Since it has decayed through two half lives, the age of 2. A small amount of nuclear fuel produces an enormous
the relic is 2 × 5700 years = 11 400 years amount of electricity and, therefore, delivery and
b) In natural carbon there is only ONE atom of C-14 in storage of the material is relatively cheap.
every 8 × 1011 atoms of carbon! Due to this very small Disadvantages
proportion of C-14 in a sample of carbon from even a 1. Nuclear radiation can destroy or damage living
living organism, the count rate obtained from very old organisms. It can alter the DNA of cells and can produce
specimens is very low. This type of dating is, therefore, cancers and other abnormal growths.
not useful for determining the age of samples which 2. Used radioactive fuel still contains radioactive material
have been dead for over 60 000 years (i.e. about and is, therefore, hazardous.
10 half-lives). 18. a) Ionising radiations can
12. a) i) A radioactive tracer is a chemical compound in • produce radiation burns
which one or more elements have been replaced by • alter DNA, producing cancer or genetic mutations.
radioisotopes, and which can be used to investigate b) The kinetic energies of alpha and beta particles are
chemical reactions by tracking the path it follows. heavily absorbed by body cells. Gamma radiation,
The tracer is given to the patient orally or as an however, is not as dangerous since much of it
injection and a detector is used to follow its path passes through the body and only a portion of the
through the body. Iodine-123, is used as a tracer electromagnetic energy is absorbed.
to investigate the function of the thyroid. c) Precautions which can be taken as protection from
ii) Gamma radiation from cobalt-60 placed outside ionising radiations:
the patient can be used to destroy malignant • Never consume food or drink when in a location
growths. The treatment is only useful if the cancer where there is radioactive material.
is localised in a small region, since the radiation • All radioactive material should be labelled as being
also destroys healthy cells. radioactive and dangerous.
b) Problems associated with external beam radiotherapy: • The use of tongs, robotic arms or gloves should be
• Normal tissue around the tumour is irradiated and employed when working with radioisotopes.
damaged.
• Bone may shield the tumour from the radiation.

25
19. a) i) Nuclear fusion is the joining of two small, atomic b) Atoms undergo nuclear fission in order to obtain a
nuclei to produce a larger nucleus, resulting in a more stable nucleus.
large output of energy and a decrease in mass. c) The Sun liberates energy by the process of nuclear
ii) Nuclear fission is the splitting of a large atomic fusion.
nucleus into two nearly equal parts, resulting in a d) Nuclear power stations generate electricity by the
large output of energy and a decrease in mass. process of nuclear fission.
20. 235 1
92U + 0n
139
Ba + 94
56
1
36Kr + 3 0n + energy

26
 Collins Concise Revision Course: CSEC® Physics

Exam-style questions – iii) distance = area under the graph to t = 10 s

d = 20 × 4.0 + 20 × 6.0
Chapters 1 to 9 2
(d = 160 m) (3 marks)
STRUCTURED
c) An object moving at uniform speed in a circle is
1. a) i) A scalar quantity is one which has only magnitude. constantly changing direction. Its velocity is therefore
(2 marks) constantly changing and it is accelerating.
ii) A vector quantity has magnitude and direction.
a = Δv (1 mark)
(2 marks) Δt
Total 15 marks
b)
Scalar Vector 3. a) i) The moment of a force about a point is the product
energy force of the force and the perpendicular distance of its
line of action from the point. (2 marks)
pressure displacement
ii) The centre of gravity of a body is the point
power momentum through which the resultant gravitational force on
(3 marks)
c) i) Since the vectors are at right angles, a sketch the body acts. (2 marks)
can be made and the solution obtained from b) i) The principle of moments states that for a system
application of Pythagoras’ theorem and simple of coplanar forces in equilibrium, the sum of the
trigonometry. clockwise moments about any point is equal to
the sum of the anticlockwise moments about that
same point. (2 marks)
ii) N m (1 mark)
c) i) W = mg
VR
8.0 m s–1 W = 2.0 × 10
(W = 20 N) (2 marks)
ii) Taking moments about point C:
θ ∑ anticlockwise moments = ∑ clockwise moments
20 × 0.15 = 0.40 P
6.0 m s–1
P = 20 × 0.15
0.40
Resultant velocity
(P = 7.5 N) (4 marks)
magnitude VR = √8.02 + 6.02 d) If the height of the cone is doubled, the force (P)
(VR = 10 m s−1) required is halved, in order to provide the same
direction, θ = tan−1 8.0 = 53° (6 marks) clockwise moment as before. (2 marks)
6.0
ii) distance = speed × time Total 15 marks
d = 10 × (5.0 × 60) EXTENDED RESPONSE
(d = 3000 m) (2 marks) 4. a) (Law 1) A body continues in its state of rest or uniform
Total 15 marks motion in a straight line unless acted on by a
2. a) i) Displacement: The distance measured in a specified resultant force.
direction from some reference point. (2 marks) (Law 2) The rate of change of momentum of a body
ii) Velocity: The rate of change of displacement. is proportional to the applied force and takes
(2 marks) place in the direction of the force. F = mv − mu .
t
iii) Acceleration: The rate of change of velocity.
(Law 3) If body A exerts a force on body B, then body
(2 marks)
B exerts an equal but oppositely directed force
b) i) v/m s−1
on body A. (6 marks)
b) i) FR = ma
20 FR = 4.0 × 104 × 3.6
FR = 1.44 × 105
(FR = 1.4 × 105 N) (2 marks)
0
ii) The acceleration is proportional to the resultant
4.0 10.0 18.0 t/s (3 marks) force on the jet. The forward thrust of the engines
must be greater than the resultant force by an
ii) acceleration = Δv amount equal to the opposing forces of friction. The
Δt
a= 20 − 0 resultant force will then be 1.44 × 105 N. (2 marks)
4.0 − 0 iii) W = F × s = 1.44 × 105 × 500
(a = 5.0 m s−2) (2 marks)
(W = 7.2 × 107 J or 72 MJ) (3 marks)

27
 c) Constant velocity implies that the acceleration is zero. ii) P = mcΔT
Since FR = ma, the resultant force must also be zero. A t

forward thrust equal but oppositely directed to the t = mcΔT

P
opposing force of friction will produce a resultant force t = 0.500 × 4200 × (100 − 30)
of zero. (2 marks) 600
Total 15 marks (t = 245 s) (2 marks)
5. a) There is a definite need to use alternative sources of iii) EH = ml
energy in the Caribbean. The region depends heavily EH = 0.200 × 2.3 × 106
on the use of fossil fuels for its energy. These fuels are (EH = 4.6 × 105 J) (2 marks)
EH
diminishing in availability and the sudden drop in iv) P= t
oil prices has highlighted the high risk of investment EH 5
t= P
= 4.6 × 10
in crude oil companies. Fossil fuels are also polluting 600
the environment, increasing global warming, and are (t = 767 s) (2 marks)
contributing to increased medical expenses caused c) i) Temperature is a measure of the degree of hotness
particularly by respiratory illnesses. of a body. (1 mark)
The Caribbean can take advantage of the excellent solar ii) Liquid-in-glass thermometer – the volume of
radiation available throughout the year by using it as liquid increases with increased temperature.
an alternative energy source. Many homes are already Resistance thermometer – the resistance increases
using solar water heaters to heat water directly. These with increased temperature. (4 marks)
are relatively cheap to install and require very little Total 15 marks
maintenance. Photovoltaic panels are also becoming 2. a) Relation Law
popular. These convert solar energy into electrical
V ∝ T (P constant) Charles’ law
energy which is stored in batteries for later use or
1
returned to the electrical grid supply. P∝ (T constant) Boyle’s law
V
Biogas is another useful alternative source of energy.
P ∝ T (V constant) Pressure law
Gases produced from decayed animal wastes are now (3 marks)
being used to power electrical generators on farms. b) i) P1 V1 = P2 V2
(6 marks) 8.0 × 104 × 10 = P2 × 5.0
b) i) max. EP = mgΔh 8.0 × 10 4 × 10
= P2
max. EP = 0.500 × 10 × 30 5.0
(max. EP = 150 J) (2 marks) (1.6 × 105 Pa = P2) (2 marks)
ii) The 150 J of potential energy transforms completely ii) As a gas is compressed at constant temperature,
to 150 J of kinetic energy as the stone falls. (2 marks) the speed of its molecules is unchanged and
iii) The 150 J of kinetic energy does 150 J of work as it therefore the force, F, exerted by its molecules
bores into the soil. (1 mark) remains constant. However, since the volume
iv) Whenever work is done, an equal amount of decreases, the collisions are on a smaller area, A.
energy is transformed. The 150 J of work done The force per unit area therefore increases,
results in a transformation of 150 J of kinetic resulting in an increase in pressure, P.
F
energy into 150 J of thermal energy and sound P= (2 marks)
A
energy. (1 mark) iii) The molecules of mass, m, of a gas, bombard
v) work on boring hole = force × distance moved in each other and the walls of their container. As
direction of force they rebound, their velocity changes from u to
150 = F × 0.20 v in a short time, t, and they impart forces, F, in
150
=F accordance with Newton’s second law of motion.
0.20
(750 N = F) (3 marks) F = m(v − u) (2 marks)
t
Total 15 marks
c) i) P = mcΔT
t
Pt
=m
Exam-style questions – cΔT
300 × 200
=m
Chapters 10 to 18 4200 × 70
(0.20 kg = m) (3 marks)
STRUCTURED ml
ii) P =
t
1. a) The heat capacity of a body is the heat required to ml
raise the temperature of the entire body by one unit, t=
P
whereas the specific heat capacity of a substance is 0.400 × 3.4 × 105
t=
the heat required to raise the temperature of only unit 300
(t = 453 s) (3 marks)
mass of the substance by one unit. (2 marks)
Total 15 marks
b) i) C = mc = 0.500 × 4200
(C = 2100 J °C−1) (2 marks)

28
EXTENDED RESPONSE Exam-style questions –
3. a) The heater is switched on and the water is brought to
boiling point. The initial mass, m1, is measured and Chapters 19 to 25
recorded and the stop watch is started. The readings of STRUCTURED
voltage, V, across the heater, and current, I, through it, 1. a) i) X-rays, ultraviolet waves, light waves, radio waves.
are taken. After a few minutes, the new mass, m2, and (2 marks)
the time, t, are measured and recorded. ii)
Assuming that all the electrical energy is used in
boiling the water, the following equation is used to Type of wave Source Use
calculate the specific latent heat of vaporisation, lv. Radio Radio transmitter Radio broadcasting
electrical energy = heat to boil water Gamma Cobalt-60 Sterilisation
VIt = mw lv
(4 marks)
VIt = (m1 − m2)lv
VIt iii) Gamma diffracts least. (1 mark)
= lv (6 marks)
(m1 − m2) b) v = λf
b) i) If P is the power of the heater, then 3.0 × 108
=λ
electrical energy = heat to boil water 1.5 × 1017
−9
Pt = mw lv (2.0 × 10 m = λ) (2 marks)
1
Pt
= lv c) i) η= = 1 = 1.59 (3 marks)
mw sin c sin 39°
1000(10 × 60) sin θa ηg
= lv ii) sin θg = ηa
0.250
6
(2.4 × 10 J kg = lv)−1
(3 marks) η
sin θa = ηg sin θg
ii) EH = ml = 0.250 × 2.4 × 106 = 6.0 × 105 J (3 marks) a

c) i) A portion, H, of the energy supplied by the heater sin θa = 1.59 sin33°

1.0
was radiated to the surroundings. (1 mark) (θa = 60°) (3 marks)
ii) The calculated value is greater than the true value. Total 15 marks
The true value of lv can be found from 2. a) i) Laws of reflection:
Pt − H • The incident ray, the reflected ray and the
= lv (2 marks)
mw
Total 15 marks normal, at the point of incidence, are on the
4. a) During the day, the Sun’s radiation warms the land same plane.
more than it warms the sea. The air over the land is, • The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of
therefore, heated by conduction to a greater extent than reflection. (2 marks)
is the air over the sea. As the temperature increases, ii) Characteristics of the image formed in a plane
so does the kinetic energy of the air particles; the mirror:
molecules take up more space and the region becomes • It is the same size as the object.
less dense. Warm air then rises from over the land and • It is virtual.
cooler breezes blow onshore from over the sea to take • It is laterally inverted. (3 marks)
its place. Coastal regions, therefore, do not experience b) i) amplitude = 2 m (1 mark)
extremely high temperatures during the day. (6 marks) ii) period = 8.0 s (1 mark)
b) i) A = 8 × 0.50 iii) f = 1 = 1
T 8.0
(A = 4.0 m2) (1 mark) ( f = 0.125 Hz) (2 marks)
ii) PT = 800 × 4.0 iv) λ= v
= 4.0
(PT = 3200 W) (2 marks) f 0.125
60 (λ = 32 m) (2 marks)
iii) Pw = 3200 × v) The diffraction would be extensive since the
100
(Pw = 1920 W) (2 marks) wavelength is greater than the size of the gap.
iv) Pw = mcΔT (2 marks)
t
t = mcΔT c) ii) progression
Pw
250 × 4200 × 40
t= i) particle
1920
t = 21 875 s vibration
(t = 6.1 h) (4 marks)
Total 15 marks
(2 marks)
Total 15 marks
EXTENDED RESPONSE
3. a) Monochromatic light from a sodium lamp is allowed
to diffract through a narrow slit, S, and then to further
diffract through two other narrow slits, S1 and S2 about
0.5 mm apart. The distance between the primary slit

29
 S and the secondary slits S1 and S2 is about 1 m. A I
v) m=
translucent screen positioned approximately 2 m in O

front of S1 and S2 displays the interference pattern 3= I

5
of alternate bright and dark fringes. The experiment (15 cm = I) (2 marks)
should be performed in a poorly lit laboratory. Total 15 marks
translucent
screen
2nd bright fringe
S1
Exam-style questions –
1st bright fringe
Chapters 26 to 32
sodium S 0.5 mm central bright fringe
STRUCTURED
lamp
1st bright fringe 1. a)
S2
2nd bright fringe Zinc-carbon cell Lead-acid
1m 2m accumulator
Electrolyte ammonium chloride dilute sulfuric
(6 marks)
distance
jelly acid
b) i) speed =
time Rechargeability not rechargeable rechargeable
20(2 × 60)
v= Terminal voltage 1.5 V 2.0 V
7.0
(v = 343 m s−1) (5 marks) Maximum current a few amps – works >400 A
ii) The result would be the same since the speed of well when delivering
sound is not affected by its volume. (1 mark) up to about 1 A
iii) v=d
t Internal resistance 0.5 Ω 0.01 Ω
d
343 =
6.0 (4 marks)
343 × 6.0 = d
b) i) Conventional current flows in the direction in
2058 = d
which positive charge would move if free to do so.
(2.1 × 103 m = d) (3 marks)
This is opposite to the direction in which electrons
Total 15 marks
would flow, since electrons are negatively charged.
4. a) A converging lens is mounted as shown in the diagram
(2 marks)
below. The distance between the lens and the object
ii) An aqueous solution of sodium chloride contains
(small gap with crossed wires) is altered until a
both positive and negative ions which move
sharp image of the crossed wires is observed next to
freely in opposite directions when subjected to an
the source. The rays of light would then be almost
electric field. (1 mark)
retracing their paths after reflection from the mirror. −6

The distance between the centre of the lens and the c) i) I = Q = 480 × 10−3
t 12 × 10
object is measured. It is the focal length of the lens. (I = 4.0 × 10−2 A) (2 marks)
source (small gap with ii) V = IR = 4.0 × 10−2 × 500
image of (V = 20 V) (2 marks)
crossed wires)
crossed wires
iii) Q = Nq
−6
N = Q = 480 × 10−19 = 3.0 × 1015 (2 marks)
q 1.6 × 10
−6
iv) E = QV = 480 × 10 × 20
lens mirror
(E = 9.6 × 10−3 J) (2 marks)
Total 15 marks
2. a) i)
focal length
(6 marks)
1 1 1
b) i) + = + −
u v f
1 1
= −1
v f u
1 1
= − 1
v 15 20
1 1
=
v 60 i) and ii)
(v = 60 cm) (3 marks)
ii) real since v is positive (1 mark)
iii) inverted (1 mark)
v N S
iv) m = = 60 cm = 3 (2 marks)
u 20 cm

F (7 marks)
30
 b) i) RXY = 5.0 × 5.0 soft iron core
5.0 + 5.0
(RXY = 2.5 Ω) input terminals of output terminals of
primary coil
RPQ = 4 + 2 × 2 = 4 + 1 secondary coil
2+2
(RPQ = 4 Ω + 1 Ω = 5 Ω) (4 marks)
ii) From part (b) above the resistance across the (3 marks)
parallel section was found to be 1 Ω. ii) THREE advantages of using ac for transferring
Therefore the p.d. across the parallel section is electrical energy:
V=I×R=1×1 • Consumer appliances operate on several voltages
(V = 1 V) which can easily be obtained from an AC mains
Alternatively, the 1 A flowing in the 4 Ω resistor supply connected to a transformer.
splits into branches carrying only 0.5 A. The p.d. • Transformers step up and down ac with
across any of these branches is minimum energy loss.
V = IR = 0.5 × 2 • ac can be transferred from the power station at
(V = 1 V) (2 marks) small currents, resulting in minimum energy
iii) P = I2 R = 12 × 5 being wasted as heat in the resistance of the
P=5W (2 marks) transmitting cables. (3 marks)
Total 15 marks b) i) and iii)
EXTENDED RESPONSE
3. a) i) filament lamp metal rod
I

N S
−V V
+
motion
−I (3 marks)
ii) semiconductor diode i) and ii)
I
N S magnet pulled out of coil

N S
−V V

(5 marks)
−I (3 marks)
VP N
c) i) VS = NP
iii) The resistance of the component is constant. VP
S
6000
(1 mark) 20
=
1000
b) i) I = V = 5.0 VP = 6000
× 20
R 10 1000
(I = 0.50 A) (2 marks) (VP = 120 V) (2 marks)
ii) I = 5.0 ii) P = VI
10 + 10 P
(I = 0.25 A) (2 marks) =I
V
iii) VA = IA RA = 0.25 × 10 100
=I
(VA = 2.5 V) (2 marks) 20
iv) PA = VA IA = 2.5 × 0.25 (5.0 A = I) (2 marks)
(PA = 0.63 W) (2 marks) Total 15 marks
Total 15 marks
4. a) i) An ac supply is applied to the primary coil. The Exam-style questions –
changing current it creates produces a changing
magnetic field, which repeatedly grows into Chapters 33 and 34
and diminishes from the secondary coil via the STRUCTURED
permeable soft iron core. As the field repeatedly 1. a)
cuts into and then out of the secondary coil Mass number 14
it induces an emf which repeatedly reverses Atomic number 6
direction. The emf produced in the secondary 12
An isotope represented in a similar manner 6 C
coil is proportional to the number of turns it has
relative to that of the primary coil, and therefore Number of electron shells in its atom 2
by varying the ratio of turns, the secondary voltage Number of electrons in its neutral atom 6
can be altered. (5 marks)

31
 b) Proton Neutron Electron b) i) 131
53 I e + 131
0
54Xe (3 marks)
−1
40 days
Relative mass 1 1 1 ii) =5 (It decays for five half-lives)
8 days
1840
160 g 80 g 40 g 20 g 10 g 5g
Relative charge +1 0 −1 (Therefore, 5 g remains after 40 days) (3 marks)
(2 marks) iii)
17 100 y 160
c) i) = 3 (decays for 3 half-lives)
5700 y
100% 50% 25%
12.5% (12.5% remains) half-life = 8 days
(2 marks)

mass/g
ii) In natural carbon there is only ONE atom of C-14
in every 8 × 1011 atoms of carbon. 80
After a period of 60 000 years, the percentage of
any given sample remaining would be much too 40
small to provide a result with acceptable accuracy. 20
(2 marks)
iii) The half-life is unaffected. (2 marks) 0 8 16 24
iv) 146C 0 14 (3 marks)
−1e + 7N (2 marks) time/days
Total 15 marks Total 15 marks
2. a) 4. a) Advantages of nuclear generators
1. In the absence of natural disasters, they do not
Property Type of emission contaminate the environment if carefully managed.
Tracks produced in a cloud chamber are alpha They do not produce greenhouse gases such as
thick and straight methane or carbon dioxide, or other hazardous
gases such as sulfur dioxide or carbon monoxide.
Travels at the speed of light in a vacuum gamma
2. Many radioactive materials used in medicine are
Strongly ionises the air it passes through alpha made available at the power plants.
Penetrates up to a few mm of aluminium beta 3. A small amount of nuclear fuel produces an
enormous amount of electricity and, therefore,
Is deflected most by magnetic fields beta
delivery and storage of the material is relatively cheap.
On emission, produces an element one beta Disadvantages of nuclear generators
place ahead in the Periodic Table 1. Spent radioactive fuel still contains radioactive
Is electromagnetic in nature gamma material and is hazardous. Proper disposal of
radioactive waste is a problem that has not yet been
(7 marks) overcome.
210
b) 82Pb 0
−1 e + 210
83Bi 2. Nuclear power stations have to be discarded
210
83Bi 0
−1 e + 210
84Po after several years since the plant and machinery
210
84Po 4
He + 206
82Pb (4 marks) become heavily contaminated. To shut down these
2
operations is very costly and hazardous.
c) The background count rate remains constant. Only the
3. There is the possibility of a catastrophic effect if
count rate of the source diminishes.
there is a critical malfunction at the plant. Huge
Initial count rate of source = 85 Bq − 5 Bq = 80 Bq
explosions can spread the radioactive material over
1 hour is the time of 3 half-lives. (3 × 20 min. = 1 hr)
large areas and the radiation could impact heavily
80 Bq 40 Bq 20 Bq 10 Bq (count rate
on the planet. (6 marks)
from source = 10 Bq after 1 hour)
b) i) 21H + 21H = 32He + 10n + energy
Count rate received by detector including background
2.015 u + 2.015 u = 3.017 u + 1.009 u + Δm
rate = 5 + 10 = 15 Bq (4 marks)
4.0 × 10−3 u = Δm
Total 15 marks
E = Δmc2
EXTENDED RESPONSE
E = (4.0 × 10−3 × 1.66 × 10−27)(3 × 108)2
3. a) i) α-particles were shot through a thin sheet of gold E = 6.0 × 10−13 J (5 marks)
foil in an evacuated chamber. The paths of the ii) examining mass: 235 + 1 = 148 + 85 + x
particles were detected by a moveable eye-piece. 3 = x (3 neutrons emitted)
ii) Most of the particles passed through the foil (1 mark)
without deflection. 2 9 8 2
c) P = Δmc = 5.0 × 10 (3.0 × 10 )
A few were deflected at large angles and with very t 1
high velocity. (P = 4.5 × 1026 W) (3 marks)
iii) Most of the atom is empty space. Total 15 marks
A small concentrated positive nucleus existed in
the atom which caused the strong deflections of
the alpha particles of similar charge. (6 marks)

32