PLANNING, DESIGN CRITERIA Economies STRUCTURAL COKS 1DERATIONS IMPEDeACE, FAULT CURPENT CLLCULATIONS. VOLTAGE OROF AND REGULATION, LOSSES, CONDUCTOR SELECTION SHORT-CIRGUIT PROTECTION, LIGHTNING FROTECTION AADIAL PRIMARY, SYSTEMS TRANSFORMERS, CAPACITORS AKD OTHER EQUIPHENT AND DEVICES NEUTRAL SYSTENS AND GROUNDING RouDWAY LiGHT ING UTILIZATION EQUIPMENT AND LOAD CHARACTERISTICS JOINT USE, INDUCTIVE COORDINATION, RADIO AND TY INTERFERENCE STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS, CODES, REGULATIONS seerion section section seerion section secrion seerion section SECTION seeTion section section section woePLANNING, DESIGN cRITERIA Econouies STRUCTURAL Cons loeRAT IONS IPEDANCE, FAULT CURRENT eALCULATIONS NOLTAGE OROP AND REGULATION, Losses, CONDUCTOR SELECTION SHORT-CERCUIT PROTECTION, LIGHTKING PROTECTION RADIAL PRIMARY, SYSTERS TRANSFORMERS, CAPACITORS” AND OTHER EQUIPMENT AND DEVICES NEUTRAL SYSTEMS AND GROUNDING ROADWAY LiaHT NG UTILIZATION EQUIPMENT AND LoAD CHARACTERISTICS JOINT USE, INDUCTIVE COORDINATION, 8ADIO AND TW INTERFERENCE STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS, CODES, REGULATIONS seerion section section seers section section secTiOn section section seeTioK Section SECTION SECTION twee 2 a 7 " 2 a900 901 902 £903 £904 905 15906 E907 9088 9085 9086 E91. E912 2913 E914 E915 920 E9214 59218 Es 52a £925 £926 £928 9st 2932 £933 E934 £935 £936 E901 SECTION © ‘TRANSFORMERS, CAPACITORS AND OTHER EQUIPMENT AND DEVICES, Transformers, Capacitors and Other Equipment and Devices - General Transformers’ - General ‘Transformer Cheracteristies Transforser Loading Industry Standard Transformer Loading Guides, Present and Proposed Transformer Load cheek Oil-innersed Trans{olner Insulation Classes and Dielectric Tests Transferser Lightning Protection Mechanics! Features of Pouer and Distributton Transformers Transforeer Installations ‘Teens former Sound Levels, Completely Self-Proteeted Transformers Three Winding Transformers Three Single-Phase Versus One Three-Phase Transformer for lye ‘Connected Loads buat Voltage Transformers Corrosion of URD Transforaers Electrical and Mechanical Features of Shunt Capacitors Uses of shune Capacitors Shunt Capacitors for Voltage Regulation Overvoltage Protection of Series Capacitors Application Problens at Series Cepacitors Usefel Formules for shunt capacitor Installations Useful Formula for Series Capaciter Installations Connection Arrangewents for Shunt Capacitors Fusing shunt Capacitors Lightning Protection fer Shunt Capacitors Harmonie Current Considerations Control of shunt Capacitor Banks Capacitor switching pany 7) ‘Transforer SpecificationsHistory of Development of Transformer Loading Guides 2913 Tenpersture Limit of 55C rise was eetablished for transfomers. 970 Development of the "8 degree rule" theory for cellulose insulstion. For each degree C increase in temperatre the rate of aging of the Snsulation doubles. (Converse also tre.) Based on tensile strength of mantle paper in the range of 8% to 90H of original tensile strength and aging tenperstures between fC and 1100. Test date for proposed theory vas obtained in 1921 and substantiated by MIP. from tests made on cable paper. 930 t0 1940 Vast anount of data was presented to establish loading practices versus Lige expectancy. Basie data vas based on aging manila paper in oll in test tubes fand using tensiie strength as the end of Life exsteria. Data adged confidence to ‘the "8 degree rule" over a vider range of tenperature. 39! ‘The first Loading Guide was introduced by the AIEE Traneformer Subcommittee For trial use and vas based on: Daily loading vith no loss of Life st 300 anbient. Lguivalent 950 hottest spot tespersture for each 2h hour period. For congerratien, at other temperatures, the b degree rule was used instead of the "8 degree rule", that 13, for each 4 degree C increase in tenperatare the rate of aging of insulation’ doubles. aphe Line Loscing Guide becaue an ASA standard labeled 057.3. ous World War IZ crystallized the need for overloading with moderate sacrifice of lize. AIEE Transformer Subcomnittee subsitted complete revision of C57.3 including tables for short tine loading with moderate lost of Life. agky First time controlled aging tests vere made on a cogperative basis. Manufacturers working as comittee made aging tests on manila paper in of1 sealed in glass tubes. Results vere reported by the AIEE Transtormer Subecmittee. ashe ‘The revisions and additions recomended in 1945 becane part of the ASA ‘Standard labeled 057.32 and included both distribution and power transformers. Tables for daily. loading with no loss of life renainea the sane. Tables for short loading with noderate sacrifies of life were based on: 24 hours operation at 1130 would result in less than 1f loss of Life. Other points in table vere based on the "S degree rule", oss of life calculations vere based on assunption that the transfomer rperated at its hottest spot temperature for all of the peak load period. ‘The sacrifice in lite expectancy curves vere based on a loss of life in sasttion to the loss of lite per day resulting from daily overloads. (This fact ‘ius not mentioned in the revision, or in aubsequent revisions) « Curves were drawn to discourage extrapolation to determine life expectancy at 950. Hovever extrapolation shoed the minimin Life st rated load continuous (950) ‘was about 7 years, ‘ioka First time theory was proposed that the chemical reaction rate of cellulose deterioration can be expressed es a logarithmic fuietion of the reciprocal of the absolute temperature. Chemical approsch to analysing paper aged in ofl in test tubes at elevated temperatures. ‘Theory tended to be more accurate than the "8 degree rule” and becene the relationship for expressing Life expectancy curves. (Log of Life = A + B/2). 1998 ‘The Loading Guide was revised, primarily for edétorial reasons, and vas re- beled Appendix: 37-92. 1958 Fornation of the AIEE Subgroup (since changed to working group) on Tert Pro cedures for Thermal Evaluation of Oil-innersea Transformers. Six manufacturers participates in the original program and testing began in 1991. First time controlled teats, on actual production Line distribution trans~ formers, were wade on & cooperative basis through committer. ‘Test unite vere 15 kva, 7200, no tap units as then being manufactured by the participeting companies. Unite were aged by short cireult developing* hot-spot temperatures of 200, 180, and 1600. End point teste consisted of short cireult, tupulse, applied and induced potential tests. Provision was made for thermal cycling and the ofl tenperature Limit vas set ae 1200. p Tos Gouding Satie 077.90 wee saviaed og Endhaly losaing On tacts or anbient venpersuure. ‘The 1956 voriking group presented a progress report reviewing the Life tests arter 2 yours of testing. 3961 ‘The duration of the Life tests of the vorking group reached 5 years. Coanit- ‘fee decide on new approach and agreed that the relationsaip between life-expectancy and hot-spot temperature follow the chesieal reaction rate theory. (Log of Lire = A+ B/2). ‘D denonstrated Life curve was selected at about ten tines the Life curve in= Gieated in the existing loading guide. ‘The minima life curve vas selected at five tines the desonstrated curve and ‘the comittee required that all test transformers fail beyond the minim test level. “Ail participating manufacturers turned in anonymous test report showing the tine and tenperature at viich the firet failure occured. All failea units exceeded ‘the minim test level. Based on the test results, the working group recomended @ nev loading guide for modern $90 rise distribution units based on thelr denonstratea life curve. ose ‘The Loading Guide Appendix 057.92 was again revised for editorial reasons. There were no more revisions through 1968. 962 Manufacturers shipped the first production Line Gistribution transformers detigned for 650 rise Unite utilized new thermally upgraded paper and higher flash of, The new matersals bed not ‘been involved in the Previous comittee aging tests. Manufacturers started aging tests on the nev materials, and on 63 rise ‘transformers. . sticte: Voltage on transformer Limited to IZ drop.1963 ‘The 1956 vorking group subitted "Proposed Test Procedure for Thermal Evalus- Hon of Oi1-Inersed Distribution Transformers" fer trial use 2964 ‘The WRIA Technics] Comittee on Pover Transformers published a leading guide For 6)0 rise pover transformers labeled NEW TR-98. 965 ‘The NDIA Technical Comittee on Distribetion Transformers proposed a loading Guide for 650 rise distribution units which vas rejected. ‘The committee produced tvo guides; one Tor modern 950 units (built since 1953) ‘and one for presen day 650 vise unite. The Lite curves used by this comittee were based on the vork done by the 1936 vorking group. The "denonstraved” curve becane the 1ife curve for 550 units; and the "ninimm teat” curve becane the Life curve for 690 unite. 196, ‘The Loading Guide for modern 550 and 650 rise distribution transformers ‘Should vecone @ USAST Standard, labeled Appendix: C37-91, during this year. REFERENCES 1. Losding Transformers by Temperature, V.!. Monteinger, AIEE “Transactions, Vol. 49, 1950, P. T1o. 2, Pyrothanteal ‘Behavior of Cellulose Insulation, Fl. Clark, AIEE Transections, Vou. 5h, 1935, Bs 1000. 2. Pome ize Ovesioats tor 0 Recttors ana svansvorsere, Vs tontrirger, AIBE Sranensvions, Vous 9(2 1008, 3.39. 4, Ebtdine trunefomnere by Copper enporetare, H.¥. Futon end Why Dani,” AIRE freaae actions, Vol. 38) 1939) pe sobs 5. Temperature Linits Set by 011 and Celiutose Insulation, VoL. 38,1939) 7. 3h. : 6. Factors Argecting the Mechanical Detertorstion of Cellulose Tnssdation, F. AIEE Gransactions, Vol 61, 1982, p- Tide 1. Teterim Report on Guides or Overloading Trenaforners end Voltage Regubtors, AEE Brenstorner Subcom tee, AEE Transactions, Yol- ly 1582, 9. 632+ 8. Guides for Operation cf transformers, Regulacors, and Reactors, ALE Transformer Subcommistee, AIEE Transactions, Vols Oby 1949, Ps 197> 9. Preliminary Report on Laboratory Agice Tests on Glass A Insulation, AIEE trans former Sutconmi tise, Als Branatctions, Vols 64, 294s, be 197 20, Hlectricel insulation Deterioration déaved ss & Cheacel Rate Phenomenon, 2, Dakin, AIEE Transactions, Vol. 6f Pert i, 2948, p. 123. a, Progress Report on Test Procedures for Thermal Evalustion of OfleImnersed Distrib tion Sranaforsers, IEEE Transactions, Vol. 605, 1503 Supplenens, p- 38. 22, Proyored IEEE eet Procedure for Thermal Hvalustson of Ofl-imersed Bistrihution Sretsforaers, IEEE Arensections, Vol, 823, 1963 Supplement, p. 6T- 35, Guide for Loading Oii-iamersed distribution and Power Branstorners, ASK C5T.92, 1962. 18. Guiae Zor Londing Ofl-tmersea Power Traneformers with 656 Average’ Winding, Bide, NEW TR 98, 1968, C.F, HIM, ATE transactions, ciark,SECTION 9 ‘TRANSFORMERS, CAPACITORS AND OTHER EQUIFMENT AND DEVICES Section 9 contains inforestion on transformers, capacitors and other ‘equipsent vhich ig not included in Sections 5 to 8 inclusive. These data are useful when considering the application of such equipsent in plansing, design, and operation. Transformers are one of che most expensive units of electric distri- bution equipment fron the standpoint of fixed charges on investment and operating expenses per unit of load, Accordingly, it is necessary to load thom properly so esto mininize these annual charges. ‘The deternination of proper loading of distribution transforners is one of the more compli- cated engineering procedures. It's importance can easily be overlocked Since the consequence of doing so is not readily apparent. Shunt eepeettors are unique in that they are corrective devices affecting pover factor and voltage without carrying any of the load energy. Their application is an engineering function which should evsluace the effect of their sagnitude and location. Even though shunt capacitors are considered to be lov cost itens, their economic benefits for power factor and voltage correction can be considerable. Standards for distribution and pover transformers are covered by USA Standard 057.12 series. This series consists of severat divisiont as Lated in Section 14 of this anual, ‘Transformers conforaing £6 this standard shall bes ation ot thelr eeted iva procthd that, (frm G3712,00) able for 1) If air cooled, the tenperature of the cooling air (ambient) does not exceed 40 Cand the average for any 24 hour period does not exceed 30 ¢. 2) If water cooled, the tenpereture of the cooling water does not exceed 30 C'and the average for any 24 hour period does ok exceed 25 C. 7 : 3) ‘The altitude does not exceed 1300 feet. 4) Loading under other temperature and altitude conditions shall be in accordance with guides approved by USASI Comittee C57. 5) Secondary voltage does not exceed 5 percent above rating. ‘Transformers are designed so as not to exceed’ Limits of temperature rise above ambient as shovn in the following table vhen delivering rated kva at Fated secondary voltage without taps or rating of tap when used. Limits of Teaperature Rise* Average Winding Hot Spot Winding type Degrees Cx* begrees C 55¢ Rise, Of1 Immersed 35 65 65C Rise, O11 Imnerced 6 80 55C Rise, Dry-Type 35 65 80c Rise, Dry-Type 80 10 1500 Rise, Dry-Type 150 + 10 4% From Table 14 of €57.12.00 4% Measured by increase in resistance (ise oun 900 (GENERAL, £90 ‘TRANS FoneRs CCENERAL902 TRANS- ‘ORNER, = 903 TRANS FORMER {OAD The exciting current of dictribution transformers at rated impressed voltage may be v2 lov as 1.0 percent of full Load current or as high as 5:0 percent. In large pover transformers, the percent exciting current (s much lover and generally is approxinately 0.6 percent. The variation of txeiting current with impressed voleage cannot be expressed in simple Sathematiosl tems, Tt may be as high at 250 percent of its rated voltage Value at 110 percent of rated voltage and as lov as 60 percent of its rated voltage value at 90 percent rated voltage we ‘the effictency of distribution transformers at rated load ranges fron 98.5 percent to 97.5 percent. Pover transformers are generally of shor efficiency and sometimes reach 99.5 percent. ‘The percent regulfcion of a transformer may be calculated fren the Following: 2 = Bet (oma [rateose + nxsioe + zusso)"] Ree. ~ ya" (eransForear) 200 See 8407 for meaning of above terms and for oquation to deteraine percent resistance and rosceance for single phase and thee phase €Fane~ Eomners. in general, the third tern of the above equation sey be onitted —~ for disteibution tratsfornere but may be of substantial proportion in power anita. The folloving examples desonstrate the significance of this 1A 50 iva distribution exenaforner has percent restatasce and Teaccance of 1-1 and 1.3 respectively with 150 percent. Loed 20.85 power factor Treg = ts Loose aes com |e ai = : ; 4 3 1A 1500 va pover transtolmer has percent resistance and Feactance of -8 and 7.0 respectively with 150 percent 1osé at 9 pover factor. reg. = 15 [7243.05 + 22 ] = 5.80 Fron these exanples it {5 seen that for thé power transformer the third term of the above equation contributes about percent of cotal regulation, while for the distribution unit the third term contribution is negligible: ‘The otal annual cost of a given transformer, of K kva rated capacity, carrying « load of P kva is, Teted at ae . 105 ate sive sy where: 1 = Cost Snataltec of @ transformer of K kva rated capacity. 1 * Pixed charges in percent based on the transformer 1ife as estimated for the load cycle and anbient temperature to which the transformer is subjected. © ve£903 ¢) = Naintenance and operation cost in percent. esas Bi = Yearly core loss cost Powe Toapite = Yearly restetance lose cost at P kva peak load and applicable x Sele : a coxr'D) ‘The most economical load P 1s obtained by expressing the above equa tion in cout per P kva and letting the derivative with respect to P equal ko sero, obtaining aa He +e) F, ito) ‘] © The tots) annua] cost of carrying # load of P kva on s transformer rated at Kkva is ke, kek 1, Rest >,’ sie. ve yy tp tae EE 1B = Base cost that does not vary with transformer size. K = Incremental installed cost, t.e., the installed cost that vorice vith trancfomer live rating. primary voltage rating, design, and limited range in size. 2 and b are constants ‘the most economical size K of transformer for a given load 12 ob- tained by letting the derivative of above equation vith respect to K equal €0 zero and solving for K The result is: x ‘The second term in the denosinator is the core loss cost. For any Load P, the core loss cost of the most economical size transformer vill be -epprorinately abt"! therefore, the sbove equation may be vritter: . a3 ‘ost Economical size = x =| ——28 ___ 2 Toke, + abe in equations (1) and (2) the fixed charge rate cy is based on actual transfomer Life, See Section ? for computation of fixed charge: Equation (1) uill give peak load considerably in excess of rating which vould shorten nomal life of transformer except for winter loading in cold Elinates. Econcaie loading considering transformer life may be obtained by iteration using equation (1), procedure for determining transformer © 1909E903 TRANS- FORER Loar (cont'd) Life, and fixed charge rate based on transformer life Equation (2) generally gives transformer of such @ size that che Loading will result io normal cransforner Life at the wsval residential Toad eyeles with 30¢ ambient cenperature. IE the losd P is expected to grow at a constant rate for m years and then renain fixed for yum yours, a multiplying factor may be applied to equation 2. Thia multiplying factor is the cube root of the factors that odify A, in the last equation of £222. Beanple Using Equatéon (1) Solve for approximate economical peak load of a 25 kva, 7620 volt, 65 ¢ transformer with aabient Cenperature that will pemit 30 year life, Assume loss factor of 17.6 percent. Solution: T= $369 ¢, = 12.42 €) = 5.0% copper loss = 3120 core loss = 110 B, = core loss x cost per ku = .110 x $68 = $7.48 Ri = copper loss x cost per kar at .176 loss factor = 312 x §29 = $9.05, a2 we” = 281% Losding, epee Tae aro Problen: Determine the nost economical vault type, single-phase, 7620 volt, 65 C transformer to carry a losd of 100 kus with a lose Factor of 17.6 percent and ambient tenperature of 30 C. Solutio P = 100 kva Full 1oaé copper loss = 1080 watts “R= 1,08 x 29 = $31.30 = $7.5 per kos b= 0.6) a= 1b.le £, = 361 x 10-> x $68 = $.232 eyr i2.an 7 1007, = 133% Loading “a and b are determined by plotting the core loss of 25 to 100 kva vault ‘type transformers on log paper and draving the best straight line to represent the points. In the above exanple, the equation for core loss as determined in this manner is: ‘core loss = 14.1 x-°57 Whether the transformer can or cannot carry 133% peak without loss in mormal Life depends on vault design which will determine maximum anbient enperature at peak load. ; © 1968Studies indicate that che cotal yearly cost per kva of Load (not Ancluding extra cost of Loss in Life expectancy) for residential trans formes may not vary appreciably becueen 135 percent load and 220 percent Toad. One study on a 37.5 kva overhead type transformer shows that annual cost per kva decreases only 10 perceat as che load increases from 133 per~ Gent £0200 percent, ‘These costs do not include the increase in deprecta- tion which would occur if the hottest spot Cenperature caused accelerated insulation deterioration. ‘The kva load chat a eransfomer can carry is 2 function of its thermal ehavacteristics and thermal environment. The accumulated effects of tenperature and tine in causing deterioration of transformer insulation Gre not thoroughly established. It ig not possible co predict with any Ereat degree of accuracy the length of 1ife of a transformer even under Constant oF controlled conditions, much less under varying service condi tions. The industey 4s now working on new guides for loading oil inmersed transformers which ere to replace the existing guide USA C5792 (1962). At the tine of this writing (Yay 1, 1969) it is expected that such guides will not be adopted a2 USA standards for several months. However, {ets expected that the presently proposed guide USA C57.91 (6/6/68) for 55c and 652 average vinding rise will be adopted for distribution trans~ formers. This guide ha been officially approved by the FEI T&D Cormittee, the EEF Transformer Coumittes and the NEMA Tranaformer Section. The inimum Life expectancies of transformers for various hot-spot Cenperatures s'given in these guides are represented by curves shown in NOLL. developing procedures and cables for uetesminingg expected luvs im Loans: former life with various asbient temperatures and load cycles. curve D in MSIL is the Life expectency curve on which the guide 057.92 {2 based. ‘This curve is based upon Insulation life as determined by test tube results which have been found to be inadequate. Hovever 57.92 is still the standard guide for 55C power transformers. Curve A in MOLL is the 16fe expectancy curve oh which che guide 657.91 for 65¢ distribution transformers is based. The increased Life expectancy 4a the result of the use of improvenents in transformer in- Sulocing materials, including the ofl. The new theory of insulation Geteriorscion with tine and cenperatures states that the logarithm of in gulation Life is a funetion of the reciprocal of absolute cempersture. Hence the straight Line on log paper. The parameters are based on factory tests of production line distribution transformers Curve B in M9LL is the Iife expectancy curve on which the guide NEMA TR 98 for 65¢ Power Transformers is based, NEMA La mor conservative, probably because of lack of information of effect of voltage as vell as Eine and tenperature on insulation deterioration. curve € in M911 is the 1ife expectancy curve on which che guide 057,91 for 35C distribution transformers is besed. This curve is based on the new theary of insulation deterioration and che factory tests of pro- duction Line ¢istcibueson transformers, In the period 1950-53, manufac turers inproved masufacturing procedures, used better tank sealing designs and ofl inhibitors, The teste were made on these transformers. Sone Engineers prefer to wie transformer loading guides ds given in C57.92. for Gisteibution transformers manufactured before 1953 for these reasons. is» © 1969 903, TTRANS- FORE LoaDIc «con't E904 Inpuste sTaNoAR TRANS- FORMER LOADING ‘cUIDES, PRESENT a0 PROFOSE90% ‘DUSTRY TTAXDARD 2aNS = °ADTNG HOES, 2ESENE OPOsED. oNT"D) The USA proposed guide for loading distribution transforaers con tains the folloving principal sections: Beste Loading for Minimum Life Expectancy Short-Time Loading With Moderate Sacrifice of Life Expectancy Method for Coaputer Calculation of Loading Capability Tebles Calculations for Short-Tine Loads Above Transformer Rating, The NENA guide for loading pover transformers with 65C average winding tise contains the following principal sections: Basie Loading fom Normal Life Expectancy short-Time Losding With Moderate Sacrifice or Life Expectancy Tenperature and Lose of Life for Short-Tine Loading Both guides have loading tables for normal Life expectancy and nod~ erate sacrifice of life expectancy based on the average characteristics of 2 range of teaneformer catings. The cables shoving eoderate sacrifice of life expectancy show percent lose of 1ife uhich should be added to normal lose in life. ‘the characteristics on which the losding tables are based ar Table 1 Assuned Transformer Characteristic ee 4 7 Voit oud, “bottascsspor rise," B75 he we 0 (above ambient) Full load, top-ofl rise, °C (above ambient) apres see ss) 50 45 Time constant at full load, hours 3.0 3.5 3.0 esis Ratio of load to core losses 3.0 2.71 t03.2 1 tous 6.5 Aabient tenperature, °C fade es07 $0 30 30 nt 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 1.0 + Mo ts the exponential pover of tenperature rise versus loss. |1 Distribution 550 average winding tenperature rise ot rated load, 2 Distribution 64C average winding temperature rise at rated load. 204 oF OW (self-cooled or water-cooled) 65¢ Power ‘Transformer. OK/FA (Forced air-cooled, 133 percent or less of the self-cooled rating) 5 FOA, FOW, O&/FOA/FOA and OA/FA/FA (forced-ot1 and air cooled, forced-oil and water-cooled, two stages of forced@oil and air-cooled and evo stages of Forced airecooled). Second stage rated more than 133 per~ cent of self-cooled rating. Gis» © 1960 wdThe tables of the loading capabilities of eransformers for normal 1ige expectancy and for moderate sacrifice of Life expectancy are too voluminous to include in this manial, The loading capabiliey 1s a function of the initial load and peak losd, and their duration. Each loading com bination in the tables consists of @ constant initial load of either 50, 70 or 90 percent of rating folloved by 2 constant peak of 1, 2, 4, 8 or 24 hours durations, The allowable aagnitude of the peak loads are given for anbient temperatures of 0, 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50 degrees Centigrade. The gutdes show how the equivalent rectangular load shapes are obtained from actual Load cycles. ‘The characteristics @£ a particular transformer may vary appreciebly fram those upon which the loading tables are based, or che actual losd cycle is not adequately represented by the equivalent rectangular lead Cycles, Also a more accurate determination of losding capabilities may be Gesised, “In these situations, basic equations may be used to determine the hot-spot temperatures. USA C57.91 gives these equations and explains how this may be done by hend or computer. Both guides contain curves that may be used ¢o calculate tempersture land loss of Life for ahort-tine loads above transformer rating. These cueves are reproduced in MPIZA end 9128. Tn NOL2A Pégures 1, 2, and 3 are curves with which the cop ofl ri: ay be deternisied for transformers where n (the expocential power of ten perature rise versus loss) {# equel to 0.8. Figure 4 vill give che hottest~ Spot conductor rise over top oil rise. Je informacion fo teu In WL2B Fiyuces 5, 6, 7 and 8 give tint tn order to use the curves of M9124 oF M9I2B it ds necessary co heve the following informecion: Poll load hottest-apot riae over top ofl (or value shown in Table 1 if not given) Equivalent rectangular loads, .e., magnitude and duration. Ratio of load loss to core loss at rated load (R). Full load ofl rise over ambient. Thermal tine constant at rated full Load. ‘A self-cooled (OA) transformer with a load of 167 percent for 2 hours: following a 33 percent load has the folloving characteristics: Full loed hottest-spot rise over top ofl = 30¢ Ratio of losses (R) = 3.2 0c Pull Load of1 rise over anbient 3.5 ‘Time constant Instructions ‘On Figure 1 start at initial percent kvi of 33 percent, move hori~ zontally to curve of ratio of losses (R= 3.2). Go down to full load oil Hise (50C). Move horizontally to read initial oil rise (21C) isn 2) iene E904 Inpusa ‘STANDAR TRANS- FORMER Loans curves, PRESENT AND PROPOSE! (coxr'D)904 TrousTRY "TAXDARD rans FORMER LOADING uLDes, PRESENT PROPOSED (cont'p) on Figure 3 locate 167 pevcent on right side of graph and aove horizontally seross co ratio of Losses curve at 8 ~ 3.2. Move doun to the full load off rise curve (50C). Move horizontally and read ultinate off > rise (990) at Left of graph, ‘The vitinate ofl rise ie the rige that would Be Feached 1f the peak load is on the transformer until the temperature has reached its maximum value, On Figure 2 sete straight edge at the initial oll temperature rise on left scale (21¢) and at the ultimate of rise on right scale (99C). At the intersection of the Line so determined and the vertical line through the intersection of line for the desired Eine (2 hours)’ and the fine constant (3.5 hours), determine the Eop oil Eenperature rise (S&C) at the end of the peak period (2 hoves Figure Uy stare at peqgent losd (16) percent) on the hoFlsoneal seate and g0 up the curve for fAil-losd hottestespot rise (30c).. Go to the lefe and read hottest-spot rise (680) for che percent losd iu question. Obtein the hottese-spot conductor tepersture by adding? Aubient temperature 30¢ ‘Top ofl tenpersture rise at end of pesk load suc Hottese-spot rise over top ofl 88 Nottest-spot conductor tenperature 1sze : Fros HOLL, the Life expectancy of a 65¢ distribution transformer with a hottest-apot tenpersture of 152C is 5000 hours, Tt should be noted that the hottestespot tenperature does not reach waxinum until the end of the peak period. ft 14 esounad that the temperature is constant at the tnaximm for the peak period and because of this assumption any added Lo: te normal Iife need not be considered during the cooling period. Bice the mantinm HOtFSRHASE ARGENT be FHSS 2 hours the percent loss of Life expectancy per day {8 nam OD 2x 100 3000 0.06 percent per day ‘and days for 100 percent loss in Life under these conditions would be 2500 500. 6.85 years 2500 days or 400 10 or Life expectancy 18, 24 x 5000 » 60,000 hours’ or 6.85 years . © 368‘The method co ust for detemmining the Loud ona ccanefommer at a BIOS. tiven Tecan ta dependent upon the Slee and mest of eraefereetes_ the TMs Etsater the investeote ae any iestallation, the nove cetined shoei be Che tou Seto or neatureaents he seana ay fenge’ oem spot suarurenance by an AD Thdteating inseranené co's continuoes aesturceent by curve seating de bore refined recording device. In distribution vhere a large nuaber of cooparatively small trans- fomers are located over large area, the work of obtaining accurate load measurenents is difficule and eime consuming. This is particularly true for single phase residential installations for uhich it is desirable te establish peak Loads and igad factors for engineering and operacing purposes. « In the early fifties Ebasco participated in the conception and evelopment of # method of peak load checking using the kvh meter readings of customers connected to each transformer. This method was based on the availability and use of data processing and coaputing machines vhich vere coming into general use at that tise. Tt has proven to bea very satis factory wethod of load checking which wany companies have adopted. The Program is generally known as "Transformet Load Management” (FLM), Beeter load sanagenent has led to nore effective use of transformers by increas. ding the average loading and reducing the nuuber of overloaded transformers. One operating company Tepores in IEEE paper JITP67-50 chat a savings of $1 ill{oa arnually vas realized on an investment in distribution transformers ‘of 56 million dollars. here are theae baste re in the use of coupucers for uit 1. Each customer must be associated with his supply transformer. 2. Bach transformer must be dentified and located. 3! Kilowatt-hours must be translated co kva demand, ‘The {iret two requirenenis can be accomplished by means of a grid iocation ‘system of # aad y coordinates. ‘The third requirement is folfilled by testing a number of typical ‘transformer installation so as to obtain sufficient information te corre- Jace ksh and kw demand. ‘This same systen may be extended to include stall commercial and ves dential custoners with three phase Gwire wye service without demand metering. ‘The problem of correlating energy consuaption vith demand for ‘these custoners! is nore couplex because of the many different types of Businesses involved. Usually, it requires classifying as tostype? of business and testing a certain number of each type to establish typical -eorrelating equations. Gorrelating kwh and kw deasad to determine load on each transformer is not possible where one or more customers receive service fren a thres phase G-vire delta system through one meter. Load checking of a three ‘Phase wire delta bank of transformers usually requires ‘separate tests ‘on each transformer at the peak load.3905 omL-1H- HERSED TTRANS- FORER INSULATION CLASSES. Ax DIELECTRIC ‘TESTS A trausformer insulation level is a voltage level expressed in ems of its withstand voltage, t.e., the voleage at pover Frequency and a Specified crest value of an inpulze wave of 1.2% 50 microseconds. (An impulse wave of 1.2 x 50 microseconds is a wave of such shape that the crest value is reached in 1.2 microseconds and trails off to 50 percent of exest value in 50 microseconds.) Equipment is required to withstand these specified valuer without failure or disruptive discharge. ‘The basic impulse Levels and ineulation classes for ofl-tnmersed trans formers ate ahovn in Table 1. This table is from USA Standard C57.12.00-1968. See E126, 2655. £657, £906 and M943. for additional equipeent BILs. Table 1, Insulation Classes and Dielectric Tests for OL1- Lararsed Transformers. Impulse (1.2 x 50 picrosec. Chopped wave Power nas Ingulation Frequency BUL and Time to Claes Test Fall Wave w Flashover ev wv KV crest Crest’ —_(uderosec. 128 20 30 36 1 12 10 45 3a Ls 25a 15 45 54 us 25 15 60 8 us 5:08 ww 60 9 us 2 » 3 Ve oa 2 2 98 es 37 26 35, 10 us 154 3e 95 uo vs 3 34 n10 30 20 38 40 125 14s 228 25 50 130 vs 3 36.5 70 200, 230 3 ry 95 250 230 - 3 60 120 300 345 3 63 uo 350 400 3 ote 1. ‘The letter "A" under sngulation class refers specifically ‘fo distribution levels for distribution apparatus. Note 2. “Single phsse distribution and pover transformers for voltage ratings between terminals of 8.7 ky ad belor aze designed for both wye and deita connections and are insulated for the test volt~ ges corresponding to the we connection, $0 that @ single Line of apparatus serves for the ye end delta applications. The test voltage ‘Yor such transformers when operated delta con nected are, therefore, one step higher than seeded for their voltage rating. ‘the insulation class of a transforser is stated in tems of 1 basic impulse insulation Level. Any given BIL may be suicable for use at fone of more operating voltages depending upon the rating of the protective devices that can be uted. The protective device in turn is dependent upon (Er Om uathe operating volvage and che method of system grounding. 906 ott For example, if @ system 1s solidly grounded so that an 80 percent of MEESED maximus phase voltage arrester can be used, an inaulation level correspond TRANS~ ing to the arrester is normally used insted of a level corresponding to. FOR'ER the system voltage. See E6553, INSULATIO cases ‘The impulse test, when required, is made with a 1.2 x 50 microsecond AND wave of either positive or negative polarity. The chopped wave is obtained DIELECTR by flashover of a bushing or external rod gap. The standard impulse test TESTS. consists of one application of a reduced voltage full wave, two applications (CONT'D) Of a chopped wave, folloved by one application of a full wave, Either, but not both, positive or negative waves can be used. The low frequency test! is made by applying voltages between each winding end all other windinge, and between each winding and ground in turn, for a period of one minute, The minimum voltage rating of Lightning arresters to be applied for e907 the protection of a transformer depends upon the maxinum syaten voltage TRANS and systen characteristics, especially systen grounding. The lover the FORMER Eating the sore econoaical is the protective systen and the greater is che LIGHTNING protective mirgin afforded by the arresters, The protective margin i PROTECTIO Considered to be the difference betueen the crest value of tke 1.2% 50 voltage wave which establishes the basic insulation level (BIL) of the transformer inculation and the voltage drop across the arrester on inpulse A valve arrester as reecea sien £1.22 50 voltege wave to cetermine gap sparkover and a 10x 20 current vave to determine the crest value of Voltage drop across it for a given crest value of current. Whichever Of the two is greater, 1s the one used in determining the protective argin. ‘The voltage drop across the valve element is dependent upon the crest value of the test current and the resistance of the element. The test Values are 5000, 10,000 and 20,000 anperes crest. Data obtained in the Fleld on arrester Lightning surge discharge as indicated by @ review of technical articles on the subject Ss summarized as follows: Arrostore on Rural Unshielded Lines Lightaiog Surge amperes Discharged Percentage 30,000 or sore 0.5 18,000 or sore 10,000 or wore 41000 oF more x 13/000 or more 2 1600 oF more 5 200 or more 3 Arresters in Shielded Substattone Lightsing Surge Anperes Discharged Percentage 12,000 or more as 91000 or more 10 5,000 oF more 5.0 E180 © 1988 .e907 TRANS vom LIGHTNING PROTECTION (conr'D) Arcesters tn shielded substations Lightning surge Axperes Dischacped percentage : 3,000 oF sore 10.0 2 S00 or nore 50:0 5300 oF sore 30:0 In determining whether the protective margin of an arrester shouldue based upon ite sparkover oF its IR drop, it is common practice to assume a maximum arrester discharge current of 5000 anperes if the arrester is to be installed in a substation and 10,000 amperes if it is to be installed on fan unshielded transnfesion or distribution line. For distribution arresters Ae will generally be folad’ that che IR drops are higher then the sparkover, A 24.9 ¥/14.4 XV distribution system may be of type A, B or C depend ing upon ite grounding, spacing of primary with respect to 'neuttal and size and kind of neutral contuctor., The following table gives the ap- propriate 60 Harcz volcage rating of arrester, pertinent characteristics of ‘ne make of arrester and protective margin obtained. This protective nargin varies with the make of arrester which may be expected to improve ff historieal trends in improving arrester characteriatics continue. 24.9 V/14.4 kV Single Phase Distribution Transfomer Protection - 125 AV BIL Arrester Rating Minimum Maximun RV Drop for Currents Max, KV, sours 1.2 50 me of 8 x 20.08 ro Ground KY Sparkover _iW Crest With Following Max. Crest 18 33 58 6 74) 83 Type B Systen = Protective Margin 38 KV a 38 6 7 870) 97 Type C Syatem = Protective Margin 27 XY 25 “3 70 90 98 (1) 107 Protective Margin is 125 KV less voltage (1) for an unshielded Line, ‘the relative costs of 18 kV, 21 KV and 25 KV arresters are 1002, 113% and 130% indicating that the lovest rated arrester is advantageous from a perforence and economic standpoint. This applies if the 26.9 ¥/1é.4 KV* System bas the characteristics of @ type A system, ‘cept im those atear vheve the Lackeraunte level ts wery lov 4 hese than by valve type lightning artesters should Serused to protect al {ftsaforners. "the total path fren printey teteinal of cransfoveer cheough the Lightning arteeter tothe tank, Connon neurtel or seconfery nrutrel fetalnsh shoud be hapetore peectieel aiousens "A Gleece but oor separate esas ctes col eseuse eesuud us ecentetesfanaioe thessigpusey earelesterty HP eee sqccect'ot ¢ eusconers service ip eofen cree tal teat Poteet tester diecetbocton aptoneer corvente feeu dicece attcken iotiesecs that ¢'1e06 eecerde about 5 percent had treet magnitudes of at least 10,000 ) cesteces ene care oe cuteies cecteueet ice cereces tony ansorae aricaae seconds’ arttotet pround lente have en teductonee of 0-4 aillinesry pet ESasana £e:""the doitage trop pet toct"In the connection to and frou the ise © ve907 cr 0.4 x 1079, 1000 roe be rowan we nfs EAR, 4 MOP oe i per et Frontera This enphasizes the need for shunting the transformer with the ar- (cont) eater leads at short as is practicable ao at to mininize the surge voltage Between primary and interconnected nevtcel and tank. "The surge voltage it the sun Of the voltage across the valve elenent plus the leader “The vole ge aagnituse of a ditect stroke nay be in the cider of ehousaads of KilO- woles and of an induced stroke of about 500 KV. On a 25 KY distribution Vine’ the Lightning arrester will keep the voltage between primary of « Cronsformer ane Lalercen.acted point. and secondary co leas than 100 ky. The Gifference of 400 KY or wore will exist between interconnected point aad Sround unless fe ie connected to ground. "The voltage inpuise wave has three Possible paths i.e. doun the ground vise co ground, over the service wires nd to the next poies’"A low ground Pestetente would be effective in drate- ing the impulse energy and heape the inpulse voltage to house service toa comparacive low values ‘the mechanical features of all types of transformers in general use E908A veuanzeaL are coverer in deeail by the United Stetes of America Standards Institute {WS4SI), Series 57, publications. A listing of these publications is given FEATURES in Section 14, pages 111402. Some of the saliont features are given below OF DISTRI- but the USASI’showld be consulted for detail coverage. BUTION AKD Distribution transformers are generally considered as transformers 500 twa and sumt lar, RP tw an he selwin pols type, arcton type, or subwey type. They may be classified according co method of cool ing as solf-cooled, water cooled, forced air cooled, forced oil cooled oF a combination of forced oi] with forced air-cooling These transformers have been standardized a9 to type of bushing, size and type of terminals, taps, high and low voltage ratings, mounting arrenge- ments, accessories, nine plates, and other mechanical features s0 that in- Rerchangeability results for certain kva ranges of a given voltage rating. Distribution transformers are now normally designed for 65°C average winding rise. Cooling, on smaller units such as 25 kva and below, is done by the radiating surface of the tank. For larger units, fins of tubes are sided to inerease the radiating surface. Power transformers aré those units larger than 500 kva or over 67 ky. Standard kv and kva ratings have been established (cee USASI C57.12.10) for ssoall pover transforners up co 5000 kva single phase and up to 10,000 kva S-phase for voltages up to 67 ky. There are two core designs for transformers in comon use} the enell ‘type and the core type. The core type features a long mean length of mag- wnetic circuit and a short mean length of windings. The shell type, on the ‘other hand, features a short mean length of magnetic eireuit and a long mean Jength of windings. For these reasons the core type has a saaller area of ‘core and a larger nunber of turns than the shell type with equal output and perfornance, Also the ratio of copper co ton weight 1s greater in the core type. © 1169soba, RECHANICAL FEATURES OF DISTRI- BUTION AND POWER TRANS FORMERS (cont'D) 9088 RAKS- FoRER TNSTAL- LATIONS The insulation syscens used in pover transforeers are composed of solid insulation plus Liquids or gas. The solid insulation materials are Porous, permitting the removal in vacuum treatment of gases and vaporized Water and the filling of all cavities and interstices with oil. Materials generally used include ofl-inpregnated paper, resin-{npregnated paper, Pressboard, cloth, vacuum oil-created wood, end enamel. Of the Liquid insulations, ol is by far most commonly used. Askarel is used in sone cases vhere fire hazard existe but ss generally Lintted to units of 34 kv and below. The gas systens include nitrogon, air, and Fluorogases.” Nitrogen and air insulated transformers are not generally used in voltages above 15 kv. Flvorogas-insulated transformers have better dielectric strength and heat transier cspability chan air or nitrogen insulated units. They can be operated at higher cenperatures than oil-inaulated trangforeers. Like their askarel counterpart, the Fluorogas insulation is used to avofd com Duscibiliey and co liste secondary effects of internal failure Transformer installations, by type, fall into the following categories 1) Pole Mounted 2) Platform or Station Type 3) Pad ousted 4) Vaule 5) Subway Pole mounted transformers are designed for direct pole m the use of pole bands or for crossarm mounting by the use of up to 500 Rva, Due £2 weight aud ple sccength Limi- Eatious the practices iimit in sicss for pole counting tx yenerally 2500 kva unit or 3-167 kve units, Claes 1 or Class 2 poles are generally used for these larger units, Primary fuse cutout, arresters and grounds are mounted on gane pole in specified locations close to the transformers. The ground lead from arrester, transforeer tank, and neutral, are all tied co- gether and grounded with shortest possible tie co earch.’ (On wye connected systems usually there is one common conductor: for both primary and secondary speutral.) . 4ihen load requirecents are above the limits of a single pole trans- forver installation, two poles are used on which platform, usually com posed of two "I" beans with or without cross mesbers, ia inatalled to Soppore the transforners. ‘The distance between poles or the length of the’ "I" beans generally varies from 1¢ to 18 feet depending on the trans former bank size. Across alley construction and other special apolications may require platforns up to 20 or nore feet in length. Platfore instal- lations are normally made as close to the ground as practical to reduce Joading monente on poles co a minimum. Mounting heights usually vary from 12 to 16 feet depending on clearances, code requirenents and other factors. Series street lighting transformers are sonctines placed on these platforns ‘along with the pover units on systens of 5 ky or less. Platform type Eransforser installations are generally linited co about 3000 kva cotal ‘because of weight. For transformer installations of about 2000 kva or more, it is cus- tonary, because of physical size and weight limitations, to install station type transformers, along with their assoesated equipment, all enclosed by a'vall or fence. "A fonco 1s more commonly used but there are sone advan~ tages co a wall to inprove appearance and mitigate noise. {iE © 19 ‘eeWhen eraneforners are placed in streets or alleys, and overhead con- £9088 struetion is not practical, they must be installed in vaults or manholes. TRANS The general location of a yault or manhole is deterained by the size and FORMER nature of the load. The location 1s governed by street obstructions which ' INSTAL generally leaves Little choice as to the exact position tation (cont! For self-cooled transforners, heat dissipation ia co the surrounding air, Proper ventilation therefore oust be a major concern in design and construction of manholes and vaults, The transformers must be arranged 20 that heated air can escape and be replaced with cool air from the outside Sidewalk gratings afford the most Yelfable ventilation for subsurface in- stallations. The cransfornera should be as close to the gratings as prac Leal to acquire adequate cooling. Tranéforners should be separated one from another and from adjacent wails and partieions. This separation should be not less than 12 inches for distribution ize transformers and from 2% ¢0 36 inches, depending on size, for pover units. Reinforced concrete is preferred for construction of manholes and vaults because of its strength and water tightness. Feld poured oF pre- cast may be used dependent upon relative econony in @ particular location. (See National Electric ode, article 450, for detail requirements on ine door transformers installations. With che inevease in residential underground service there is wide- spread use of the pad rounted and submersible type transformers. Pad nounted traneforners are built ia enclosures designed ‘0 be inetalled at ground level on concrete pads. Standard accessories on these units general- Ty include provisions for lightning arresters, insulated barrier in com- partnene between high and lov volcaze bushings, door lockine mechanten, Grain plugs, etc. optional features inciuie sianc-ofr dusnings, loop reed Switches, load break switches, primary fuse and other special devices, Submersible transformers are generally of the pole mounted type with cable terminals and special coatings applied to resist corrosion. These range in sizes up co 167 kva, They are usually installed in belowground enclosures made of prefabricated fibre or concrete. ‘The prefabricated fibre vault enclosures are manufsccuved in standard sizes of 36 inches ID by 72 inches high for transformers up to 100 kva and 42 inches ID by 84 inches high for 167 kva. They are equipped with a gal- vanized steel reinforcing ring on the cop ris to maintain the round shape during backfill operation and to permit the attachnant of the baffle and Brating. concrete enclosures nay be fabricated locally: but are available con- nereially in sone locations in sane standard sizes as the fibre enclosures Duo to weight limitations the manufactured concrete enclosures may consist of three or four sections, each weighing approximately 400 pounds. The upper section has mounting provisions for grate and baffle. Whether in fibre or concrete belovground enclosures, transformers may operate at higher tenperatures than abovegrade installations. Tests are being nade to determine che optimum arrangenent of baffles to obtain air eireulacion around the transformer, The unit residential transformer (URT) 18 now being Used on a trial basis by some utilities. These may be of the Low profile, pad mounted type, prefabricated enclosure, or the direct burial, type.. ALL have the advancage of reduced service runs along with the inherent ability to de- fer investment until the building to be served 1s ready for occupancy. Gis» .908% ‘TRANS Fone INSTAL LaTrONS (cont'D) E908¢ TRANS- FORMER SOUND Levels ‘The encapsulated, direct burial transforma, way ve the goal of under- ground distribution engineers, particularly for unit residential use. Trial installations have been'sade by some utilities Transformer spacing for overhead or underground lateral systens affects distribution econonies considerably. It is no Longer considered sound eco- nomics to extend secondaries out to the usual three percent drop Limit be- cause a three percent secondary voltage drop generally represents s copper Joss evaluation in excess of the conductor cost. Elther closer spacing of transformers or larger secondaries vill be required, (See Sections £802 and £803.) There are two distinct sources of sound coming from transforser in- stallations that, combined or separately, nay reach annoying levels. One is the auxiliary’ cooling equipsent, such’as fans, blowers, coolers, and posps. The second and major source is the transformer core which vibrates Se oven wultiples of the exciting frequency. Thus for 60 hertz exeitarion the core will radiate energy at 120, 240, 360, 480, 600, etc., herte per fecond. The magnitude of this radiated energy is Teferted to a "erans= fomer sound level" and is measured in decibels (¢b).* The human ear is sensitive to a band width of sbout 40 hertz for the principal transforser harmonies. In this band wideh the enbient sound Gnergy is 40 tines that of a one hertz reference band width, Stated dif ferently, the anbient sound level in this band width is 10 log 40» 18 ab greater than a sound level fram a single frnquency source. Accordingly, a single frequency source, such ae the 120 Hz, 240 lle, 360 iia, ete., from 4a transformer must be 16 db greater then an anbient sound level from a in ehis bend Eecap ete ee cemiie, 12 transformer noise pramient ny rhe 2h He nameomic has co sound level of 66 db and che anblent sound level from any single frequency between 220 and 260 He is 50 db then the transformer vill barely be heard. Or Gf the composite anbient sound level within ehe 40 hertz band width 1s ‘equal to of greater than the sound level of the transformer harnonic thea the latter should not be objectionable. NEMA Publication TR-1 specifies the stendard wethod for measuring che average sound level of a transformer. The sound level will be attensated by the distance to the observer. This reduction in sound level is 6 db for each doubling of distance.” For self-cooled units the standard method specifies that the average sound level be determined at one foot from the string periphery of the transformer or group of transformers. For forced. fair and forced-oil-forced-air-cooled units the distance ts six feet from the string periphery. The attenvation equations then become a4, = 20 log 4 a ao, = 29 108 @ @ : é where db, ts decibel reduction dn to dlatence on elf-covled units and dh, te decibel reduction for auniliary cooled nite, d is distance Sa feet from transformer to observer. Im a particular application the sound level may or may not be satis- factory depending, primarily, on the ambient or background noise. The general procedure {5 to measure the sound level of the predominant harmon~ fee at the transformer installation. These values, attenusted by distance Eis» Owein accordance with equations (1) or (2), can then be compared with ambient £908C sound levels at the observer. The compésite ambient sound level for the TRANS 40 heree band width may be muaaured at the observer and compared with the FORMER ‘attenuated traneforner harmonic, or 8 single frequency souree in the 40 SOUND hertz band width may be measured to vhich ts added 16 db and coupared vith LEVELS the actenusted transformer harmonte. (cont"») An example will {Iluserate the foregoing. By the use of a sound level meter and a sound analyzer assume che fol lowing readings vere taken at the transformer and at the observer 200 feet y- . Conposite ab Level, ee for Single Frequency db Measured ae db Levey evel *16,_at Observer Transformer at 200" Bend Wideh db Level 76 30 100-140 2 70 2 220-260 28 63 u 340-380 20 50 4 460-500, 10 38 8 580-620 5 ‘An inspection of above readings shows that only the 120 He noise has a greater attenvated cb Level than its associated band width at the observer. This harmonic may cause complaints from the observer but the other harmon Tes, up throngh AO0 He, will he deaumed ane Ry the ambient ennnd Level NEMA Puideation TR-L contains tables of standard composite suuad levels for transformers. NEMA specifies that transformers shall be designed not to exceed values given in the tables. These tables are reproduced in ‘part a2 show below. AUDIBLE SOUND LEVELS FOR TRANSFORMERS (KENA Publication No, TR-1-1968) Equivalent Equivalent Tio-Winding Kvad Average Sound Two-Winding Kvat Average Sound 125 ky BIL and Below Level (40) 350 Kv BIL and Belov Level (#b) 0-50 48 +300 33 51-100 st 500 i 101-300 55 700 37 301-500 56 1000 58 1500 7 0 +2000 6 2500 a 4 classes 4, OW and POY ratings. ise “E9002 ‘TRANS FORMER Sound EELS (cont'p) For prolisinary evaluation of transformer sound ievels at a givan Location the standard composite level as given in the NEMA TR-1 Publication for the preceding table may be compared against typical average nighttine faabient that have been established for certain types of communities. These fare as follows quiet Residential Residential Suburban ‘Suburban Urban fe) (a) (as) cy 2 4 ‘The standard eransformer sound level, attenvated by distance to ob- server, compared with appropriate value from above table will give sora indication as co whether or not the transformer noise nay be objectionable EXAMPLE OF DETERMINING TRANSFORMER NOISE AT ‘A GIVEN LOCATION ‘A 50,000 iva, self-cooled transformer with 825 kv BIL has s standard composite sound level of 78 db. The nearest observer 1s 300 feet auay in 2 quiet suburben district By equation (1) the db level of the transformer at the observer {8 78 - 20 log 300 = 29 * Since the background noise at the observer is assumed to be only 24 db, there as a aifterential of 29 = 24 = 5 db vhich may be chferrionsbl= TednsiSrser sound ievels may be a mucter of concern in a majority ‘of cases where unit substation construction is used, The alternative to holding down noise levels is the increase cost necessary to house sub- station equipment or getenvate sound levels by other means. The most ef- fective measures used to date is a four wall enclosure with or without Sound barriers are effective if complaints are Eneloaures may interfere wieh air circula- complete or partial roof. from one or fo directions only. ‘tion and are unsightly unless designs are made to improve appearances: A sound pressure level is defined as P = 10 log F/.0002 vhere F is the rms dynes per square centimeter sound pressure and P is the decibel sound pressure level. A point source in a free field is assumed to radiate sound in spherical waves and the Resultant sound pressure varies inversely as the square of the Aistance fron the source, Sound reduction then {= 410 Log F/.0002 - 10 tog F/.0002" = 20 tog 4. “## Transformer harsonics higher than 600 Hz, in general, may be omitted Am sound level tests as these higher harmonice usually contribute very litele to the sound level. on Equations (1) and (2) apply for any single frequeney source but are only approxinate when used for a composite sound level. ol (sl‘The “completely self-protected" transformer, generally referred to E911 fas the cep transformer, is distinguished fron the conventional type by copie! having such protective devices as red Light indicating overload, secon- SELF dary circuit breaker, primary fuse link and Iightning arrester. PROTECT! TTRANS= FORMERS ‘The general design of cep transformers hes been {n use for nore than thirty years. The secondary cizcult breaker is mounted in the transformer oil above the core and coils, It contains a thermal overload cleneat and a sagnetic trip for short-cireuit protection. Aa emergency control device permits resetting the thermal trip elenont to a higher Value and reclosing the bresker under overload conditions. This allows Edditional load to be carried but at cone sacrifice in transformer life. In the early history of the esp transformer the secondary breaker was sot too low which caused excessive tripouts. Through insulation Unprovenents and more practical information on transformer life as affected by load, successive steps in increased breaker calibration have been nade, The able below gives trip values for a 15 and 25 kva, 7200/12470 volt nodern esp transforner of one manufacturer. These values re based on 359 anbient and 75 percent initial load. Other sizes and makes have sinilar values which may be obtained from the supplier or from catclog data. 15 ve 25 ka Peccent Tine Percent Tine . Rated Loed (Hours Rated Load (iiours 205 6 175 6 225 4 32 4 265 2 205 2 305 1 240 1 ‘An increate of approximately 15 percent in" che, above load values may be obtained with the emergency overload éevict ‘The prinery fuse link in the esp transformer is instslled inter nally, under the oil level. Ite sole purpose 1s to ranove the transformer fron the prinary line in the event of a fault in the transformer itself. The secondary breaker protects the transformer from high overload and fault currents originating in the secondary Lines. The primary fuse Link {s selected so that it will not be danaged by the maximum tripping current of the breaker, In the application of cep transformers it s necessary to deter mine that proper coordination is obtained with all overcurrent devices or fuses in the main prinaty Line and laterals, including the ground current setting of the main feeder breaker or Yecloser. It 1s desirable that currents due to transfomer faulte are cleared by the primary fuse Link before any of thase overcurrent protective devices or Fuses begin melting or start to actuate, This is accomplished by conparing the current-time curves of cach of these devices or fuses and ascertaining that cach has progressively incressing tine to operate from the trans= former all the vay back to the breaker or recloser, The folloving table Shows a few examples of what is necessary £0 achieve coordination, using the 7620 vole, esp transformer of one manufacturer. (isn © 1989 ieeon. conmtereLy Sete PROTECTED TRANS FORMERS cout") Closing at Tine Automatic Lever 1 Induction Ava Line of Latersi fuses Reeloser Ground Relay Setting Tue k Type t 10 20 as 25 40 is 25 20 35 60 25 30 25 35 60 50100 20 100 200 yoo 40 100 ° 300 Note: The transformer size indicated is the maximum size that may bbe used on the load side of any one of the overcurrent devices with racings indicated. ‘The stated interrupting capacity of the primary Lénk {8 3500 anperes aymetrical. This may place @ limitation in the use of esp transformers fon urban eiveuits with higher aingle Line to ground faules. Some manufac turers provide internal current Limiting fuses for such applications. ‘The melting and arc-elearing in ofl of the primary fuse Link or transformer vinding 1f faulted may snerease the pressure in the trans- former tank. This could occur at low fault currents with prolonged are~ clauring tine, or at high fault current with shorter clearing time. The Tesults in either case nay be a bloun tank cover or the accumulation of gas pressure, The cover made by one manufacturer for all their pole top transformers ig destened to relieve such_oresmire without damazes Une [eege tes tetwterce steers amar iy ease rie giuaitoe ATERr pag fr ike in the shop vhen a cap unit is brought in for repairs following a blown prinary fuse Link. Most conpanias Limit the use of cep transformers to single-phase installations. The reason for ehis is that if the breakers of one trans former are tripped by overload or fault a single-phase voltage would be impressed on any connected three-phase motors, thereby subjecting chem toa possible burnout if not otherwise protected. For uye-delta con~ nected units, breakers opening in the "Lighting" transformer would cause Tenoval of the secondary neutral. Under this condition voltage across ‘any connected single-phase load could becoue highly unbalanced and cause danage to equipment. Single-phase esp transformers may be-used in three-phase banks using. tthe openedelta to open-delta, open-uye £0 open-delra or the wyemuye connections without adverse effects from loss of neutral due to breakers opening. Hlowever the single-phasing of three-phase motors referced vo above would still exist in the event breakers of one transformer opened. ‘The advantages of using csp transformers are better transformer protection, lover installed cost, and a more compact installation. The major disadvantage is the relatively low interrupting ability of primary Tose Link, A130 coordination ie someuhat more difficult since the raring of the primary fuse Link is fixed. PEBASCy ‘Oo we)Three winding transformers are used where three circuits of different £912 voltages are to be interconnected. A typical case 1s a distribution THREE systen fed from tvo transmission systens of different voltage, or two IWIN Gistribution systens of different voltages fed from one cransnission ‘TRANS Fonens systen. ‘Three winding transformers present problens thet do not readily lend thonself to dizect solution by the conventional tvo winding theory. Each winding is interlinked with the leakage fields of the other windings which cause the load currents in the different cirevite to affect each others voltage in a complicated menner. For exanple, in a double primary single Secondary transfocuer, shore circuit currents in one of the primary wind= ings nay be reversed. It is possible, under certain conditions, for leakage reactance to act capacitive and resistance to appear asa negative values A lagging load nay raise the voltage on one or nore circutes. All these characteristics are dependent upon the ispedance relationship of the various windings. In determining the impedances to be used for calculating voltage ‘drops, voltage regulation, and short circuit currents for three winding transformers, it is usually desirable to employ an equivalent star connected network which includes both the self and mutval effects of the Eheee windings. The star connected equivalent is connected to the primary, secondary, and tertiary terminals, Each leg mey be considered to represent the effective impedance of the winding connected to its terminal. The erpart within the Eran fer Starar junction point het no physical om a -uye-connected thea-phase transformer, or to the sear equivalent of Three delta connected independent impedances. ‘The resistive and reactive elenents of the three legs of the equiva: lent are calculated fron the following formulas: am, = 4 am, - 3, + 2m) oy wa + 4 om, = ny, +, @ aan, +4 Gy, = UR, +31) © wy, = FO, TG, + UH)“ “ ny, = 4 Gin, - tHE, +204.) ° ton, + 4 ny, - ty, + 21,5) © ‘where the subscripts 1, 2, and 3 refer £0 the primary, secondary, and Kertiary vindings respectively. Ry, ZR,yy TRy,, and UX, 2X pyy ‘Dt, are the percent resistance and reactance between pairs of vindings js dicated, ali expressed on the same kva base.E912 THREE SINDING TRAKS- FORMERS (cont'd) ‘Transformer naneplates and other data usually give only 212 values hich makes it necessary to calculate both che JiR snd ZIX. The value for ‘LIR between any two terminals is determined most accurately fron tests for other data giving the load losses which, in tura, are equal to full Toad minus no load losses and include born’ 12R and stray losses that vary with load. “These data are normally available fron factory test informa tion. If loss data is not available, or is noe given ia a form that vill permit its segregation inte the losses associated with each separate pair bf windings, then the losses may be calculated from the measured dec Fesistance of the individual windings although velues calculated this vay Will be a little low because they do not include the stray losses. All losses must be calculated on, or converted to, a comnon kva bas ‘The 2X between any tvo terminals must, theoretically, be darives from the 412 and IR but in practice may be taken af equal to the ZIZ. Only in the unusual cage in which t1z 1a less then about five tines the TAR vill it be desirable to conpute IX from the equation na = cue? ~ aan?)V/? After the individual inpedance functions have been determined they nay be used in the conventional regulation equation, modified as follows: 2 So eo a iq aini)a om Ry a te, + GL Bs, RD 2 (ig RIK ~ a IR2) el eg, = ky UR, + ay UK + 7 ee Regs «ky TR, +95 UK; + Sees sed 00 oy where ke and ¢ values are: vay C020, + Kva, Cos0,. va, Sind, + Kay Sin@, aie Base hve a Base Kea a Roe, g = tte 2” “Base wa 2” Gass a vay 6008, ava, S100, «,- eed ‘3 “Base Bee #93 7 Fase Wa 4 which Kvay, Kvayy Kvay, Oy, Oy5 0, are the Kwa and pover factor angle ‘of the load at cemminals 1, 2, and 3 respectively. ‘The foregoing equations for "k" and "q" factors give magnitude only. There are many possible combinations of power and reactive flovs at the three terminals and for each of these it will be necessary to determine iso © 1908 er Wwthe sign of these factors. A reference point, such as terminal one, should be adopted from which the flv of real and reactive power ino out of the transformer at the remaining terminals may be "viewed." wich terminal one as the reference point, Povet into the transformer at terminal one 1 positive. Power out of the transformer at terminal one {5 negative. Poupr into the transforner at tering] two is negative. Pager out of the transformer at terminal evo 9 positive. Power into the transformer at terminal three sa negative. Power out of the transgorner at terminal three is positive. Confusion often arises as to the proper sign for reactive pover. ‘an indication that the pover factor is lagging or leading is not adequate. In the folloving, reactive refers to lagging reactive power whieh, by the standard convention, is that pover generated or supplied by an over-excited enerator, synchronoue condenser, oF static capacitor and is used by in- Asctive leads such ae induction motors or reactors. hen viewed from a reference point, such as terminal one of @ three winding transformer, this reactive power is considered co be positive uhen floving into this terminal and vill cause a drop in voltage through the cerminal one leg equal to Tk. With this convention, Lagging reactive flov'ng ity che transformer at terminal fone i positive. Lageing reactive floving out of the transformer at terminal Lagging reactive floving into the transforner at tersinal two 1 negative. Lagging reactive flowing out of the transformer at terminal ‘two is positive, Lagging reactive floving {ato the transformer at terminal three 1s negative. Lagging reactive floving out of the transformer at terminal three is positive. After the appropriate signs for the Mk" and "q"" factors have been determined, the factors may be vied directly in equations (7), (8), and (8) to devermine the zegulation in each of the three: legs. The signifie- ance of the signe of the regulation in each of the three legs will be: A+ sign for tRegy indicates a drop in voltage from terminal one to the junction or star point while a= sign indicates a rise in voltage fron terminal one fo the junction point. In contrast, a + sign for Weg, or TReg3 indicates # voltage drop f¥om the junction to’ the appropriate terminal. A - sign indicates a voltage rise from the Junction to the terminal. E912 ‘Tunee- unNDTIG TRANS= FORIERS (cort'D)With the foregoing in mind regulation between primary and secondary, prinary and tertiary, and secondary and tertiary is given by, 2Reg,) = Wes, + Teg, 3 Reg, = Hes, + Teg, ay Reg, = eg, + Me, a2 It should be kept in mind that equations (10), (11), and (12) refer to the algebraic sun of the regulations in,the two appropriate ess. Example of Determining Regulation of thres-tinding Transformer A throe-winding transformer has @ primary rated output of 7000 kva, secondary rated output of 5000 kva, and'a rated output of 1750 kva on the tertiary winding. Respective voltage ratings for primary, secondary and tertiary windings are 23,000, 13,200 and 4000 voles. Neneplate data Bives the folloving impedance factors on a 5000 kva bast Wty = Ty Wy, = 8 Ueyy = 7-5 Resistance values are obteined by short-cireusting egch winding én turn winding, ubile the chifd winding remains open. Effective resistance drop Of the thort-circuited winding is then given by the wattmcter reading divided by the rated current. Percent IR drop is the effective resistance drop tines 100 divided by the winding rated voltage. This is then con- verted to percent IR on the base kva. These values are tabulated belov: ated Rated Wat tmeter uur winding "Kee Gursent “Heading” IR. 218 (5000 Xva) 1 7000-217, «19,200 88.5 «385.275, 2 500037911300 27.9 225285 3 1750437 2,000 4,56 116 «325 The ratios of Z/R ie such that IZ = LIK for all practical purposes £0 that by equations 3 through 8, ae, = & (7-7.548) um, = & 7.5847) aK, = & (8747.5) © 18For a secondary load of 6000 kva at .8 power factor lagging and a tertiary Load of 1500 kva at .9 lagging pover factor, the magnitude of factors and "q" are 6000 x .8 + 1500 x 6000 = 6 +1500 x 438 “5000 hen a 5000 a 6000 x 28 | = 0006 | ‘5000 96, 2° 5000 us 1500 x 49 = 1800x2138 _ 5000 7 -274y Oe ee ‘The signs of the above factors are all positive because both real and Feactive power are into the transformer at terminal one ani out at ter minals two and three. Substituting these in equations (7), (8), and (9) gives 2 Be gee es eee ei pease ass Reg, = 1.23 2754 .85 x 3.75 ae 3.62 2 96 26.225 4 272 x 3.25 496-6 3.25 472 x 295)? ‘Rog, ~ -96 x.225-4 272 x 3.25 Se 2.60 2 . 2.325 4 251 x 6.25 ¢ 2226.25 = 191 x 1325)? | Reg, = -27 4.325 + 251 x 4.25 Se 6 and hy equettone (30) and (22) ‘Teg, y = 3.62 + 2.60 ~ 6.22 eng = 9.624 65 = 4.27 To further illustrate the use of the foregoing equetions “in deter mining regulation on throo-vinding transformer consider the above exanple but with power flow reversed in the secondary. Assuning power flow in the tertiary to rentin the sane, this also reverses the flow in the primary. Under these conditions doth real and reactive power 2 out ‘Sf the transformer on terminals one and three and in on termina! two. sing the sane reference goint, ive. in at terminal one is positive, Kay is negative, Kva, 4s negative, Kvay is positive. Accordingly, = =6000x 8+ 1500 x9 = 28000 x 6 41500 x 438 % aoa 694-45 39 “5000 6000 x 28 = 78000 x6 = =" 5000 6 + “5000 aa = 3500 x .9 | 21500 2038 | By “5000 ~ -27+ 3-500 a 4 2 we 3.75 e262 3.75 42560 x 275)? 9 57 589 x 3.75 a fis» Ou meg, = -69 x 275e912 THREE- TRDING BANS FORMERS (cont'd) 2 96 x 225 = 172 «3,25 +29 3.25 + 72 x 225)? gy 200 wee, 2 + go GMD 4.25 = 191 x 325)? | egy = 27 x 525+ 131 x 4.25 8 “65 Renenbering that a negative sign for Reg, represents a voltage rise from ferminal one to the junction and a negative sign for TRegy represents voltage rise from the junction to the terminal, the exact reverse of this, tie, fron cerainal 2 to junction to terminal 1, gives ‘ieg,, and is Regyy = = (62.37 = 2.51) = 6.88 Also, since a positive sign for tReg, represents 2 drop from the junction to the terminal, che Reg), is Regy3 ~ -(-2.51) + 65 + 3.16 In supplying three-phase we connected service the question may arise whether to use a three-phase tranaforeer or three single-phase unica Since the electrical characteristics of the two arrangenénte are essential 4y the sane this question is usually resolved on the basis of econony, space, svailability of units, or operation and maintenance problems. How ver, there are some fundanantal differences, depending primarily on Elon and wnether the primary geviv*l 13 iszlated or connected to a mot: grounded system neutral, that should be kept in mind when saking this deci~ Bion, In the shell type three-phase transformer thé core encircles the windings, This weans that there is a closed iron path for the flux of each phase. This complete iron path offers a low reluctance to any unbalanced Flux chat may exist because of unbalanced loads. his unbalanced flux in the wye connected primary of a shell type transformer, without the neutral Hed in, generates a relatively large third harmonic voltage in the secon- dary. It's therefore essential that the prinary neutral of a three-phase ‘ahell type uye-uye transformer be connected to the sultigrounded systen heutral. Under this condition there is essentially no difference in the ‘operating characteristics of a ehree-phase shell eype transforser and Three single-phase units similarly connected. In the core type three-phase transformer the windings surround the core and any unbalanced flux must complete its circuit through a tigh Eeluctance air and ofl pach, This high reluctance path limits any un Balanced flux co snail values and therefore the third harnonie components of line to neutral voltages are relatively small. Accordingly, a consider- ‘Bble unbalanced load can be carried on the wye-wye connected core type Fhree-phase Crensforner vith the pritary neutral isolated. Except for exetting current this difference betveen the shell and ‘ore type three-phase transformers is in evidence only vhen unbalanced loads o faule current exist and che prinary peutra) 1s isolated. If the neutral of the transformer is connected to a multigrounded system neutral then either type vill have the sane operating characteristics as three similarly {Eis eeconnected single-phase units. See Section 8, £813, for’ characteristics of the shell and core type transforners with isolated neutrals and neutrals connected to a multigrounded system neutral. ‘The merging of the magnetic circuits in a three-phase transformer results io an appreciable saving of core material as conpared with three single-phase unite. The single task for a three-phase cransforner may cost Jess chan three naller tanks. More expensive radiators or other means of cooling may, however, be required for the three-phase onic ‘The result of these savings is veually favorable to the three-phase unit for pouer traneformers but unfavorable for distribucion cransforners he reason for this ig that there is a puch greater denand for single phase units of 167 kva and below than for three-phase units. Therefore, the lower manufeccuring cost resulting from quantity production of siagle- Phase unite offsets the greater cost of material, soreover, the lees weight per unit, less cost of repairs, and the relative ease of replacing fone transformer in a disabled bank often make three single-phase nits the Preferred arrangonent for banks of about 500 kva and below. When distribution system is scheduled for conversion to a higher the interim transformer requivenents say Se Supplied vith unite of the lower voltage ratings or dual rating tran formers suitable for operation at both voltages may be used. Comp. costs of the two sethode can be determined as the cumulative present worth ‘of all transformer costs extended over an infinite period of tine. voltage at tone future date, arive in deriving che various craneformer qw2co the following symbole will be used: 1 = relative installed cost of the lover voltage transformer of a given rating. 2 = relative installed cost of the higher voltage transformer of equal rating. : 12 = relative installed cost of the dual voltage transformer of equal rating. TI = relative cumiletive present vorth of installing che lover voltage transformers and replacing withthe higher voltage Amite at tine of cutover. 2 = relative cusulative present worth of installing the dual voltage transformers. 4 = Interest rate (decimal). Fe Hixed charges (decimal). = period in years £0 scheduled cutover. = GHD =1~ cumutacive present worth factor 4044" b= (+4) = present worth factor (values of a and 6 ‘gan be obtained from Section 2, H203A- 303K) Rn * relative cost to resove and reinstall the lover voltage eranstorner. : {50 e913 sunie- PHASE veRsus THREE PHASE. ‘TRaNs- FORERS FoR FOUF WIRE Wve SERVICE (cont) E94 Dual voutace TRANS FORMERSE91 DuAL voLTace TRANS FORERS (cont'D) When the lover voltage transformers are used for interim requirement, and replaced at cutover with the higher voltage units, the relative cum lative present vorth costs are given by = circa + mb + care [229° = carca + Rab + 2c (27 - a) a where the first term of (1) 4s the cumulative present worth of fixed charges for the period oon the lower voltage transformer. The second term is the present vorth of the cost to remove and reinstall the lover voltage unit. The chird term is the relative cumslative present uorth of Fixed charges on the bigh voltage uait from the period a to perpetuity. If dual voltage traneforsers are used, the relative cumulative present vorth costs are m2» circ | G+i_-1) - cize @) fasiy 4 Relative transformer coste for sone 2400, 7200, 2400 x 7200, and 7200 x 14 400 volt transformers are Listed below. The above equations are applicable for transformers of different cypes and voltages than ‘those Listed but the relative cost may be different. Primary Seemndary a flake Seve an, Hee Od aS “1 csP 2400 120/240 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 csp 7200 120/240 1016 11012 1.010 1.007 1.004 a B B-2 GSP 2400 x 7200 120/240 1.113 1.111 1.110 11106 1.100 B-2 GSP 7200 x 14 400 120/240 1.202 1.233 1.216 1/190 1.155, ‘The folloving example will illustrate the method of deternining rel- lative cransformer costs for an area presently served at 2400 volts but Scheduled for conversion to 7200 volts in cheee years. Relative cost of installed transforner kva, interest rates, and fixed charges are as fellows: a 45.07 2 ree 115 a 2 = 2.624, = .8163 Q2O3G) zn By equation (1) TL = 15 x 2.626 + 3.x .8163 + 1.016 « -15 (16.286 - 2.624) 13936 + .2449 + 1.7773 = 2.4158 -and equation (2), mz = LIE ELIS © 239350 <07 ‘which shovs the dual voltage units to be more economical for the case {isn © keHad the schedule cutover tine been five years in the above example, E94 DUAL ar 4landb= 713 2 = ] . a voLtice Ts 15 414.3 x 713+ L016 x 15 (14.286 = 4.1) = 2,380 YOLEASH FORMERS land the lover volcage unite vould have been more economical. cont": If equations (1) and (2) are equated and solved for a, there result: Rai + Fe (@2 - ot a= 28 (ara) Fe tos 0) vnich gives the period n A. witch costs for the tvo methods of supplying Interim transformers. are equa For typical values of paraneters equation (3) will give n= three to seven years. A very general rule then is that Cransforners installed in areas Scheduled for conversion {n three years or lest should be of the dual voltage type. Similarly, transformers installed in an area scheduled for catover in seven years oF nore favor the lover voltage unite. Are: Scheduled for cutover between three and seven years should have en econca= ie investigation since the transforner cost ratios vill determine which smethod of supplying interi= transformer needs is nore economical, In planned conversion work, quite frequently extending over a period of several years, the use of the dual voltage transformer for normal re- placenents reduces the munber of higher voltage units to be purchased and the nuaber 96 lower voltags unite to be removed at the tins of convert conversion time, any savings nay be cancelled out by the higher carrying charges. Subsurface transformers are subject to two general types of corro- 915 conno- sion, These are : STON Localized Corrosion 7 oF uRD 2. Electrolytic Corrosion vbich may be caused by: ne (@)_ Stray currents (®) Galvanic action between che transforser tank and copper conponents of the growiding system. Localized corrosion nay be easily recognized. Typical environmantal conditions which may caute it are chemfeals in laim fertilizer, snow melting salts, insecticides, ground water chlorides, etc, Road salts used in the winter may aleobe offenders. In any event, the salt water, ‘aided by the transformer tenperature rise, way soon rust the steel trant- former tank, particularly if it 8 inadequately protected by @ poor Electrolytic corrosion caused by stray currents {s not as widespread as ie was when most of the large sunieipalicies had street cars run by Gizect current. However, it is still prevalent in the New York municipal farea and nay be encountered in any region where diréet currents are still Deing used whether for transit, mining operations, or cathodic protection.1915 connostox oF URD ‘ORMERS «cont"D) 1m the galvanic process the corrosive current ir generated by electro- chenteal action between the transformer tank and the teil. typical snvironsental conditions which nay dring thia sbovt are diseiwilar necale Sided by high operating tenporatures and contineal of intereittent water fnmerefon, The general case ia when the transformer, tank (anods) ie aub- nerecd in vater or soll (electrolyte) and connected to a copper neutral fyeten (cathode) which is Also subnereed in vater or buried Sn the soil Such an arrangement sete vp galvanie action whereby the treneformer tank, having a lowes galvanic potential than the copper neucraly vill corrodes The extent of this corrosion is dependent primarily on the type snd mote tare content of the soil, of wove specifically on the aotl resiativiey, In general the lower tq soil res{ativity che greater the corrosion wil be, Nucerous methods have been used to mitigate this galvanic corrosion, all with varying degrees of success, Sone of the measures to prevent oF Feduce this corrosion that are being used either singularly or in con Binations are: Eliminating: water or harnful chenicals and Gebris from the transformer enclosure. 2. Using metals for the tank that are less anodte : to copper. 3. | coating the tank 20 as eo insulate it 4. Using non-metallic ranks. 5. Covering the neutral, a 4. enthedie protection y ssersfletal snoces 3 7. Cathodie protection by’an external direct ‘These will be discussed én turn, 1, Elininating water or haraful chemicals and debris from fhe transicrner enclosure. The installation of transformers in sealed enclosures vill exclude water and foreign matter and permit the use of less expensive coatings at the expense of derating transformer capacity, Another consideration is to use a solid plate covering rather than a grate to exclude direct entrance of water, organic matter and chemicals, This vould be almost as effective aa'a sealed vault where che water table is lov. It would hovever have the ane heat transfer probler. 2. Using metals for the cank that are less anodic to copper. Sone ane ee Te aaa Millets beontes dol eupeestie alloye for transfert teats a seals ttse steele aoe thelr eervosion reslaving abiliay co the formation of @ passive ouide film Uith ents passive onde Lily stainless steal is ExthodLe wish reapace to copper and tins If thie fila is removed, tt ba- onto thodte and thas may revert co cortosions this fn may be enoved Spe pretence of chlorides or by planned or’ aceldsatat cover tage ahich SEL satiate ate (onyenn)s Gonerdily voch fide fanovel te in the torn of perforations reseltiag in danaping fittings ihe addition of niche! seest correct te iting tendencies but ie fates aapensive: “Belacive cores) of the'varicos Lacaritte nocd for tenks‘at raporeed by asa nanelacturer are given in the following table:Table A e915, Cconosic ative Cost of Alloy Tent Relat € Alloy Tanke ane TRANS FORMERS Relative cost Relative Cost 7 Material ‘of Alloy of Trans Corner {ocurD) Meld Steet 1.0 1.0 SAE 51409 Stainless Steel 210 10 to 1.35 AIST 204 Stainless Steel 420 120 to 1.35 Silicon-Bronze 6.0 1.45 0 1.60 : 8.0 1.75 9 2.00 Cspro-Nicke! 3. Coating the tank, Te 42 obvious that a desirable protective coating 8 one that will protect the metal of the tank from contact with water for the life of the transformer, and yet be capable of conducting lind radiating heat, Such coatings should have the following charac teristics: 1, Inperneabiliey to water 2) chemical resistance 31 Tolerance to transforser operating temperature 4) Good adherence co metals or anodie prisers 5. Resistance co cathodic disbonding 6! Resistance to nechanical danage Matertals most commonly used as protective coatings on URD trans~ foenae ave vingla, coal tar opreins, and straight apcvies Theae are Ctisctive in redveing corrosion but have not been developed co the poine Of satisfactorily seating all the requirénents Listed above. there will Qsually be pinholes, scratches, blisters, pitnarks, or other defects chat expose bare setal, Under these conditions corrosion may be intensified ae such exposed spots which could lead to tank failure sooner than would be the case with an unesated tank, Comprehensive information on types of coating and priners and sethods ‘of application will be found in the folloving references 1. “Fundamentals of Corrosion and Corrosion Control for Residential Subsurface Transformers" by G. Cy Nonken, IEEE Transaction Paper 6, Volume PAS-G8 No, 3, March 1969. 2. orrosion in URD Systems" by several authors, Electrical World, May 5, 1969. 4. Vaing non-metallic tanks. the use of non-netalli¢ transformer tanks completely removes one of the elenonts necessary for galvanic cor~ Fosion in #0 far ar the tank itself is concerned. This would appear to be the best solution to the tank corrosion problem but existing units on trial nay have insufficient thickness Co provide the necessary sechanical Strength or, if thickness is sufficient, they aay lack heat dissipating ability. © 16eais ‘CORROS TON OF URD TRANS FORMERS (cont"D) 5. Covering the neutral. An insulating Jacket over the buried con ‘centric neutral will reduce tank corrosion but reduces the degree of grounding. Since corrosion and the degree of grounding are both inversoly proportional to soil resistivity, it follows that the use of the covered neutral will generally give optinun results when used where the soil hi 1 lov resistivity. Stated differently, the sacrifice ia grounding, due to the covered neutral, will be partially offset by the low soil resistivity. fon the other hand che tank corrosion will be reduced because of the ‘covered neutral. based on present lnouledge it ie expected that covering the neutral will result in fault Aiitages that vould render objectionable the practice of random lay of pover and coomunication cable in the sane trench. At any Fate safety codes prohibit randon separation unless che pover Lines fare surrounded by 2 bare neutral. 6. Gathodse protection by sacrificial anodes. If the grounding electrode ie made of material lover in galvanic potential than the crans~ forser tank, the corrosive currents will be reversed, This will shife corrosion ffom the tank Co the grounding electrode and may require fre~ Guent replacement of the Iatter unless a sufficient amount of anodic aterial is used, Materials nost enmonly used as sacrificial anodes to bring about ehis current reversal are zine and magnesiun. One company reporce effective control by installing a nine-pound magnestun grounding node at a cost of about §20 per transformer. The amount of anodic material to use, however, {s dependent on soil resistivity. hs a lece current. instead of selecting material fo that the transtorser tank a6 cathodic with respect to the grounding electrode, current reversal, and the consequent shifting of corrosion, can be achieved by external means. This is accomplished by connecting a direct current, usually provided by an a-c to dec rectifier, fo the transforser tank and a specially prepared grounding bed. In this hnanner current is forced to flow fron the grounding bed through the earth to the transformer tank, Corrosion will then take place’ in the grounding bed viéch can be designed for long 1ife. Materials comonly used for the grounding bed are high silicon cast ‘roa or graphite, both of vhich have 42 slow rate of consumption with current discharge. In the design of an underground distribution systen, preliminary studies should be made to daternine uhether of not environmental conditions fre such ae £0 promote corrosion, Preventive measures, such as outlined above, should then be taken as required. Conditions under hich galvanic Corrosion oceurs ave so varied that no one method, or combination of metheds, can be offered at a general solution to the problem. Further~ more, it should be kept in mind that corrosion is not unique with trans~ formers, Certain measures may be taken to protect the transformer but, by 20 doing, transfer the corrosion co other vital underground or sub: mersed components. Gm 3yearly costfer kva of load (not tae Studies indicate thet the tot cluding extra cost of loss in Lif Caney) for residential transform fers may not vary appreciably beticen 135 percent load ani 220 percent load. ‘Gerhend type transformer shows that ennual cost fone study on a 37.5 per kva decreased“only 10 percent as the load Anereases from 133 percent ‘to 200 perGént. These costs do not include the increase in depreciation luhjoieould occur 1 the hottest spot tenperature caused accelerated insu- Geson deterioration. Lightning arresters are dfscussed sonevhat in detail in E655. Where Lightning incidence is appreciable it is important thee lightning ar- esters be ured on sli transformers and that they be installed as near the transformer se practicable. The total path from privary terminal of transformer through the Lightning arrester eireute to the tank or secon- dary neutral terminal of the transformer should not exceed 12 feet and should be 8 feet prefersbly. Ia large transformer banks vhere it is dif- ficolt to provide euch short paths without reducing the tapuice strength se way bs advisable to install a set of arresters one span avay on each side of the installations (or provide a special design of structure for amuuncing che arcescers) eitors is to supply the Legging re- ‘The reason for using shunt € active pover required by loads and che Lagging’ reactive loss in supply Lines instead of requiring generators to do so. By locating capacitors las close to the source of lagging reactive pover as is practical the path of lagging reactive flow {2 shortened thus increasing ‘the capscity of Lines ami equipment for handling real pover or kilovatts. Since system Loads vary daily ané seasonally, the kvar of capacitor installations ‘should vary accordingly. 908 TRANS- FORMER TOADING (cort'D) 5906 TRANS FORER Liceeanc PROTECTIO 921 USES oF ‘SHUNT, ‘caraceron:e921 uses oF SHUNT caraci TORS (cant*0) On a given systen, # certain percentage of capacitor installations may be fixed, another precentage manually switched seasonally and another percentage automatically sultched. The anount of fixed capacitors is de- termined by light load conditions. If these Light load conditions vary seasonally, capacitors may be evitehed either manually or automatically. Daily variations in load necessitate the use of automatically evitehed eepacttors: Shunt capacitt ss have becoae increasingly important in distribution systen design to release feeder and substation transformer capacity, erans- mission and generating capacity. They also reduce voltage drop and 1°R and 1x losses along the path over which the kilovars would have otherwise been Hlowing. The fundanental reason for svitching capacitors is to improve system performance. Some of the specific reasons for switching are: 1 - A variable kilovar denand con result from several types of load. Electric furnaces, industrial plants, air-conditioning, or pumping installations can place Large fluctuating demands on the systes. Yoitany resviacign can Qe improved. sy lacing the SE, SEE apeatuce my be coordinated with voltage regulators to obtain voltage ranges not possible with regulators alone. Voltage regulators and tap changing transformers may ‘be eliminated and proper voltage regulation -ob- tained on the distribution syste by maximum ut{liza- ton of capacitors. rR and 1°x losses can be ainintzed. 5 - Capacitors can be switched to provide emergency woltage boost. Poor voltage conditions on a di: tribution substation bus may exist due to an outage in the trenenfssion system. The automatic connection of a capacitor bank co the distributton bus may provide relfef util permanent corrective measures have been taken. “The econonic benefits of capacitors are reviewed in Section #247. Gian © seA capacitor {s a syaten of conductors and dielectrics arranged so 2920 that @ large electeteal charge can be stored in a relatively small volume. ELECTRICA Prinetpel dielectric materials of capacitors used in the electric utility AND MECH industry include paper, polyester, acetate and polypropylene files. Of ANICAL these, paper is the most commonly used. Generally the conductor 18 FEATURES OF SHUNT aluniaun foil. caractToR ‘the polypropylene {Lim dielectric is a biaxtally oriented, heat set, homopolymer polypropylene film designed especially for capacitors end Other critical electrical applications, Capacitors with this type of Gielectric feature Lower Losses, Lighter weight and saaller size chan conventional units with paper dielectrics: Shunt capacitors in voltage ratings fron 2000 to 14,400 volts used in electric utility service are generally of che nonenclosed terminal type, of single phase construction. Standard sizes are 25, 50, 100 and 150 var. Low voltage units for individual customer use, or for secondary voltage application, raage from 5 to 25 kvar for standard voltages from 216 to 600 voles, ‘these standaré ratings are shown in Tables Land 2. Table 1, Standard Voltage and KVAR Ratings for Nonenclosed ‘and Enclosed Ovedoor Capacitor Units : Svan Voltage Phases 5, 7-1/2, 1-1/3, 216 Land 3 5, 7-1/2. 10, 15 240 Land 3 10, 15, 20, 25 480 and 600 Lend 3 25, 50, 100 2400, 2770, 4160, 4800 6600, 7200, 7620, 7960 . 1 50, 100 9960 1 50, 100 12670, 13280, 13600, 14400 a ‘Table 2. Standard Voltage and XVAR Ratings for Outdoor Open Rack Assenblies, Pole Mounted Voltage Rating 240 4160 4800 7200-14400, BVAR Ratings of Individual Capacitor Unies 50, 100 50, 100, 150 $0, 100, 150 50, 100, 150, EVAR Ratings of Three-Phase Assenblies 300 300, 450, 600 300, 450, 600, 300, 450, 600, 900 900, 1200 ALL shunt capacitors used by electric utilities have internal dis. charge resistors which allow the charge to drain off after being dis- connected {rom the circvit. The mexinu allovable vorking voltage is 110 percent of rated value, exclusive of transients. Capacitor units in- Stalled outdoors in a single row and ina single tier without enclosures, or without restricted,ventilet{on, are suitable for operation at ambient fatures up €0 46°C (115 °F). They may be operated continuously at£920 ELECTRICAL, AND MEG ANTAL FEATIRES OF SHUNT ccaPactToRs, (cont) ev2ta USES OF SHUNT CAPACITORS E9218 SHUNT CAPACITORS: FOR REGULATION anbfent temperatures down to -40° ¢ (-40%). There is risk, hovever, of danage co capacitor units if they are energized vhen che temperature ts below -159°C (0° F). Manufacturer's recommendation should be obcained where such anbient venperacures exist. Recent developments in underground facilities include submersible capacitors, These units are nounted on a steel frane designed to support two tiers of three-130 kvar capseitors each, plus oil switch, all install- ed in a standard 36 inch diameter underground enclosure. These units are available in 100 and 150 kvar from 4160 co 13,800 volts. Shunt capacitorse ice used on electric distribution systens to re- lease thermal capacity, to reduce kvar generation requirements, to re Goce Losses, and co regulate or inprove voltage. These benefits are derived because the capacitor inherently draws a negative kvar in direct opposition to the positive reactive load. cepacitors located as close to the reactive load as practical re- duces the path of reactive flow and thus increases the capaesty of lines land equipaene for handling real pover. Since systen loads vary daily and seasonally, the kvar of capacitors connected in service should vary accordingly. ‘the installation of capacitors to reduce losses on distribution systens is questioned by asiy utility engineers. The reason for this is that to utilize the thermal capacity celessed the current aust be {n= creased back to its original value. Loss reduction measured in ky may ggdemin eveant. shore such {netatlspiane rapes rhe iytcus Sogttees, Percentage come) now fever, will be affected. See Section £220 for evaluation of losses. ‘the use of shunt capacitors for voltage control {s increasing, either ‘as a sole means or to supplement existing methods of regulation. Their Spplication in this respect is covered in £247, £523, £9218, and E921C. When 4 negative veactive current flows through a dfzteibution line 1 voltage rise occurs equal to the product of this current and line re- factance. It follows therefore, that voltage along a feeder can be varied by varying the amount of connected capacitors. This is done by suttching capacitors in response t0 voltage, load, tine or other factors that are characteristic of the feeder kilovar requirements. A voltage roguistor responds to a voltage drop or rise by raising’ or lowering the voltage at its location so that the voltage profile slong the Line ia maintained at an acceptable value. The voltage range will be the same as for un unregulated Line but the point at vhich desired volt- age is to be maintained can be varied by compensator settings. With twitched capacitors on the feeder, the voltage profile can be varied as desired. By a combination of fixed and switched capacitors, the voltage profile can be made essentislly flat with negligible difference between Tighe end peak loads. See figures 1 and 2 and MI26A and C. The intelligence required to auttch benks of shunt capacitors de- pends upon the reason for their use, when used primarily for voltage Control they ean be switched on when the voltage is lov and off when the voltage is high by a voltage relay. Where voltage regulation is by other [ EBnscy © 10 wmeans and capacitors are used for power factor correction, then the load £9218, kvar or total current is generally used as the method of switching. Other SHUNT methods of capacitor control are given in Section £935. ccaactroR FOR Mose utilities use, in varying dogrees, a combination of voltage voutAce regulators and shunt capacitors to achieve voltage control. Due £0 the REGULATIO. Additional benefits of shunt capacitors, such az reducing thermal loading (CONT'D) fand raising system voltage on the source side of the regulating moans, their use as voltage control equipment is increasing throughout the electric utility industry. Many companies maintain voltage regulacion by shunt capacitors exclusively. ‘The table below gives a comparison of the technical functions that can be perforned by capacitors and regulators. FUNCTIONS PERFORNED BY CAPACITORS AND REGULATORS Function Performed by Conmene capacitor Regulator © Gives the effect of lowering system voltage by being switched off. Raise and lover ves # ves systen voltage yes + voltage steps pro- portional to bank ‘ize and syste Stepless or small no * step voltage control Raise system voltage Yes tio fon source side of Feguiating means : ve: No * + Sone lose reduction : zesults from in- creased voltage. Reduce systea losses Reduce thermal loading Yes 0 ‘the advantages of using suitehed capacitors instead of regulators care both econonical sad practical. The economy lies in the increased Toad carrying eapab"Lity which frequently may give improved voltage re- gulation a8 3 bonus. That is, in determining the relative cost of Sapaciter regulation it should be recognized that any capacitors vhich fcan be justified on the basis of released systen capacity need not be charged against voltage regulating functions. Fron a practical viewpoint, an economical capacitor installation can be located almost anywhere £0 ‘raise the peak load voltage. @ ie .e215 SHUNT CAPACETORS. FoR VOLTAGE REGULATION «cont 5) Example of Voltage Control by a Conbination of Capacitors and a Regulator ‘A 4160 volt, 3 phase circuit has a poak load of 2500 kva and a Light load of 800 kva.’ Power factor is .90 for both pesk and light loads. Conductors are 4/0 ACSR with equivalent deita spacing of 5) inches. Céreute is two miles long and uaiforaly loaded, Existing voltage control is by a+ 5 percent station regulator set for maintaining rated voltage at a poine .4 mile from station R= 084 x 5.28 x 2 = .885 ohm Xe (110 + 030) x 5.28 x 2 = 1.52 ohms 1885 x9 + 1.52 x 0438 = 1.46 ohms ‘The per unit voltage at any point x along this circuit is given by waz 2 ae PO, = 1 = ofA? 2x -x?- op o Where x 1s che per unit distance along feeder from the station and © is a constant dependent on the per unit distance from station at which the regulator is set co maincaia rated voltage, Since thie distance 42 sirite or «2 per unit, &.04-C = 0, and C= 36. Inserting this and the given paraneters in the above equation, the voltage profiles for peak and light lead conditions becone, creak) rye 1 1958 2 =P 30) 2 (uighe) Pw, = 1.0337 (2 x - x? - «36 Tese are plotted in figure 1. With power factor of .90 the total circuit kvar is 2500 x .438 = 1100 at peak Toad and 800 x 438 = 350 kvar at light load: To approxi- ately supply this reactive requirenent and fo iaprove voltage, capacitors Will be installed as follows Location Bank Size (Ger Unit KAR) a 300 fixed a 300 switched 3 200 evieched Per unit voltage rise due to capacitors is given by: ews POV, = 000 kv? where chve = capacitor kélovars, X > total etxeuit reactance ‘and x= per unit distance to point of capacitor application.” » Biss [omensDuring the peak load when all capacitors are connected there will be 4 uniform voltage rise up to x= «3 given by equation (2) of $00 x 15223. o235 1000(4.16) and from x = .3 to x= «7 there w{ll be an additional voltage rise of $00 x 1.5224 go PU Rise = 7; 1000 (4.16) ‘These risers are added to the peak load curve of figure 1 to obtain the resultant voltage profile shown ia figure 2. For Light load the 300 kver of fixed capacitors at x= .7 will cause a per unit rise of 300 x 1.52267. o1g5 PU Rise = - 1000 (4.16) This ie added co che Light load profile of {igure 1 with results plotted in figure 2, The voltage profile curves of figure 2 can be Shifted vertically by changing the regulator line drop ceupexsctor to get the desired point at vhich rated voleage should be saintained. : = | aeguame, i 5 | AAR 5 5 aa s 5 10 Pen unit FeeDen ‘Pen unit resoen (CAPACITORS OM LIKES ise O19 9218 SHUNT CcaPACITOR FoR VoLtace REGULATIO: «cout'D) eses21c ‘SHUNT, caPactToRs: 70. cON- ‘ROL voutage FLICKER e924. SERIES ‘caPactTORS, Shunt capacitors, with conventional control schemes, are aot tasten- taneous in their response to voltage fluctuating such as caused by the starting of motors. The reason ir that the "systen shock" creating the fluctuation vould necessarily be the factor to switch the capacitors into the circuit. They are, therefore, not effective in compensating for such voltage fluctuations unless special control schenes are enployed. The control achene will determine the effectiveness of the installa- clon towards reducing the voltage dips. The capacitors should be energized simoleancously with the motor starter and de-energized during motor-start- ing current decay. For motors with constant starting characteristics a time relay may be satisfactory for de-energizing the capscitors, If the starting characteristics are ot constant a current-sensing device may be eed. For large motors, uhere it may be necessary to compensate for voltage dips up to 8-10 percent or more, the required size of capacitor bank may be excessive. In such cases consideration should be given to using phase to neutral voltage rated units connected in delta. For example, 2 2400 volt capacitor connected across 4160 volts wiil have three tines its rated kvar. The overvoltage should aot materially re dace capacitor Life since the bank would normally be se-encrgized~ A series capacitor in an a-e efreuft introduces a leading reactance, Current through this reactance causes @ voltage drop that is 180 degrees out of phase vith che drop caused by a lagging reaccunce. It thus gives the effect of raising voltage by reducing the inductive reactance drop. correct voltage fluctuations caused by motor starting, electric velders, electric furnaces, and similar fluctuating loads with low lagging power factor In a three phase circuit containing resistance, R, inductive re- actance, X, capacitive reactance, X_, the percent voltage drop, > developed Mirom equation (4) of Sceefon £505, 8 va Liye MA? (Roose + x, sine - x, sind) a here 9 is the power factor angle. ‘The last tem of equation (1) gives the percent voltage rise caused by the series capacitance. For high power factors, Sind is seal and thus their benefits to booct voltaze mar be negligible. For low pover factors shunt capacitors are nore beneficial because the kvat output of 4 series capacitor varies a3 the square of the load current and at Light Toads would require more kvar capacity vhich, in turn, would result in over-conpensation at peak loads. The genersi consensus is that the application of series capacitors for voltage correction 1s most likely to be successful when the power factor 1s between 70 and 95 percents © me rs‘The rating of 2 series capseitor for a particular application de- e924 pends on the desired voltage tegulation, the pover factor, the anount of SERIES Fesistence and reactance in the circuit, and the circuit rated kva, f CAPACITOR: (coxt') equation (1) is multiplied by the circuit rated kva and:divided by 100 Sind, there results, Rvp WA wa? (neato +x) _ WAT TOO Sind * 1000 xv’ 1000 xv tthe last tem of which {s ti: required capacitive kvar to Lintt percent Voltage drop te 4 given value. This equation can then be written 2 wa Vy HA capacitive kar = MWA 2 creoto+ = YD @ rae ep sine ‘The voltage rating of the capacitor can be determined by multiplying ‘equation (1) by Line £0 line kva and dividing by 100 Sin, Thus By wa vA Too Sino" ooo OEP +H) = ooo Fe where the last term is the required capacitor kv rating. This then can be written, co 7 100 o a ba (Roet® + %) - T90"sine It is interesting to note that equation (2) divided by circuit raved kva, thus giving the per unit capecitive kvar rating, gives the same results a2 dividing (3) by Line to line kv, which gives the per unit kv Teting of the capacitor. ‘Stated differently, on the basis of cireust Fated kva, the per unit capacitive kvar rating 12 the sane as the per nit ky rating. Thus per unit rating with respect to both ky and kva ss given by wa aw capacitor Pu Rating = UA (ncoto + x) - EW ay Example of Series Capseitor Application A three phase feeder has a circuit rating of 10,000 kva at 23 kv. Line resistance is 2.4 ohms, reactance 1s 8 ohms and pover factor és 60 percent (Cot = 1.33 and Sind = .6). It is desired co liste voltage drop to 5 percent at circuit rating by installing series capacitors. Fron equation), eu racing = 7106990 (aan tsn4e) - gS = 1287 529,000 var rating = .1287 x 10,000 = 1287 ‘ fey rating = 1287 x23 | = 2.94 ise926 -ERIES APACTTORS. (cont) ‘These ratings may be built vp approximately by a series-parallel combination of standard capacitors units, as for example, each phase con- Celning 4-100 kvar,, 2400 volt units connected in parallel with the group in series. This vill give 1200 kvar at 2400 volts which is only slightly ese than required. ‘The location of a series capacitor {nstallotion may be any convenient place along the circuit. However, if must be between the source and the Toad vhose voltage is ta be improved. From voltage viewpoint the Series capacitor gives the same effect ae a booster transformer. It ts therefore desirable to install then at a point on the feeder to maintain optima voltage throust ut the feeder lengeh. Tm general, experience has Shown this point to be about one-third of che feeder's electrical im- pedance {tom the substation for a feeder with distributed loads Standard cepscitors can withstand about 200 percent of their raced voltage for brief periods. However, when connected in series, voltages Te excess of this may appear across their terminals during fault cone ditions. Ie {4 therefore generally necessary to employ special gaps, arresters, or other auxiliary equipment to limit this voltage to noe ore than’ 200 percent. [A special Line of capacitors 4s available for series connection on the secondary side of transformers, These have thicker dielectric and larger foil areas peruicting them to withstand about 20 tines full Toad current for very brief periods (about .5 second). For faults Jerger than this, some device such as referred to above should be prow “+ the conventional approximation, 2'= RCos0 + x Sind, gives that con- ponent of inpedance in phase with che sending end voltage and ts not Eo be confused with Z=R+ JX. This is accepted in discribution Voltage computation since the error i¢ suall for che usual range of power fectors. st Refereing to Ligure (a), where coral sl : feeder length is one pet unit, it can a be seen that KJA se any point x i= given y | AVA, = HUA (1-8) Figure a, kva versus * ‘per unit feeder length “The voltage drop in clenent dx is for a uniforaly loaded + Vy (ex) * Mis Oa) fay 10 aud covsl drop op to point x ts xVA_(1-x) WAZ eS oo) {sent « avo 7 : 10 a 20where x ie por unit distance from station and C is a constant of integra £924 Efon. “Per unit voltage at x chen becones SERIES 5 CCAPACETOR! pet SMEG «cout Dy 7 2000 KY’ C Se evaluated by letting (2x - x? = c) = 0 where x is the point on feeder where {t a desized that voltage be held at one per unit. Since the voltage across the cerminale of a series capacitor is 9204 Atrectly proportional to the current, it follovs that any cucrent in ex- CVERYOLTAC cess of the capacitor rated value will produce overvoltage on the capaci- PROTECTION tor. The duration of such overvoltages permitted by the American National OF SERIES CAPACITORS Standards €55.1-1968 1s as given in Teble 1. TAB 1 PERMISSIBLE 60 HERTZ OVERVOLTAGE FOR STANDARD POWER cAPACITORS Maximin Permissible Voltage Duration in Per Unie of Rated rns 1/2 cycle 3.00 1 eyele 2:70 eyeles : 2120 cycles 200 1 second 70 15 seconde 140. 1 ainute 130 5 minites 1:20 30 sintes ais Referring to Table 1, and recognizing that fault currents aay be any tines rated current, it is obvious that any device which is co Linit capacitor voltage to values listed must be extrencly fast in its operation. Conventional circuit monitors such ax relays, circuit breakers, magnetic contactors, etc., cannot respond fast enough: Because of this, over voltage protection of series capacitors is generally accomplished by @ gap. This gap, shunted around the capacitor, can be designed for instantaneous aparkover and thus preventing excessive voltage across the capacttor. ‘There are three basic types of protective devices in general use clasetffed by the provision for renoving the bypass after the protective device has operated. These are 1) manual, 2) autonatic, and 3) instanta neous. The choice of which type to use {2 dependent upon the purpose for hich ‘the eapacitors are installed. For relatively snall capacitor installations, where the piinary pure pose 12 to counteract voltage flicker or reactive voltage drop the manual type of protective gap is often used. This type, following en operation, places @ permanent short circuit across the capacitor by means of a switch [neorporated in the device. To reinsert the capacitor into service the switch 1s samally reset. Table 2 gives a Misting of four major utilities reporting on such use of series capacitors.E9244 over voLTAGe PROTECTION OF SERIES ‘CAPACTTORS (coxt'p) E925 APPLICA Trot PROB EMS OF ‘SeRTES capact- TORS tape 2 SERIES CAPACITORS TO COUNTERACT VOLTAGE _ FLICKER OR REACTIVE VOLIAGE DROP > ten a a kw 13.8 13.8 12.4 Phase 3 3 3 3 Xo. Tnstalled 1 2 1 is Protection Bypass Gap Bypass Gap Bypass Gas Bypass Gap Wo Reststor No Resistor No Resistor Kith Resistor Years in Service 3 3 2 - Experience OK ok 0K 7 Tosd Current 50-100 40 40-50 : # Planned but not yet installed, For larger installation, and uhere economics will permit, the auto- atic protective gap is used. This 1s easentially the sane as’ the manual type with equipment added to automatically reinsert the capacitor in the circuit after the fault is cleared. ‘The instantaneous type protective davice {2 not generally used in Asstrtbution systens. Tes prinary application is in transmission civcutes for the purpose of improving pover transfer ability or system stability. For these purposes the capacitors mst remain in service. Secause of this, he device is equioned with an ait blast arrachone tq 22 BEGETS S0F Howdlacety, hun giving instantaneous coinsercion ot espae uw The application of series capacitors to radial feeders for voltage control generally presents no major problens, provided a shunting gap, oF other device or devices, {s used to limit voltage across the capacitor doting fault or transient conditions. These conditions are usually severe enough to cause instant sparkover of the protective gap, ‘thus renoving the capacitor fron the circuit and alloving relays and other components to react normally. Hovever, the use of sertes capacitors may subject the systen to cer- fain resonant conditions that could cause motors, during starting, to lock in ata eubsynchronous speed, of a transformer, vhen energized, may con: tinue to draw its high cransient exciting current. Both these conditions are exceptions rather than the rule and vhen they do occur can usually be eliminated by a shunting res{atance on the capacitor protective gap. ‘The value of the shunting resistance referred to above cannot be readily determined because of the difficulty of giving proper considera tion to such variables a5 inertia of the motor and load, type of starter, speed of acceleration, and other loads on the circuit. 'It is, of course, desirable to have the resistance as high as possible to reduce losses. Ta 4 paper published in Electrical Engineering, August 1937, Butler ané Concordia shoved that the size, computed by the method outlined in ther paper, is so consistently near 200 ohms to suggest the use of ¢ standard ) Fesistance with taps. A value of about 240 ohms per phase, although 10 percent to 25 percent greater than the computed optima value, seems to be a good conpronise which has moderate steady state losses and which {Eis ourwill usually provide adequate danping during circuit disturbances. 925 APPLICA Series capacitors are sometines used on tle feeders to increase Tho PROB power transfer ability, Also they are used to improve losd division be- LEMS OF Eueen porailel feeders, Ta such cases systen relaying is affected in pro SERIES portion to the degeee of compensation. For example if a tie feeder is capact- Compensated for a major portion of its inductive reactance, then inpedance TORS or distence relays, Fecognizing the line as less inductive, will sonetines (CONT'D) overreach thelr zone of protection, causing breaker operations for faults beyond the next bus, This condition can somatines be overcone by relay adjustments here inductive reactance compensation is relatively small G0 percent or less). For sajor compensation (greater than 50 percent) special relaying eclenes ‘ill generally be required. © wn‘The following equations may be of use in the application of E026 sera shune capacitors Fonnatas For sun 1 = Vartation in cKUA Losd of Capacttors With Carael tan Hiipesssedl ledge ese INSTALLS Tons vs ckVA load = ~4 x RVA rating of capacitor ® ‘o whore V, = actual voltage across capacitors Vo = rated capacitor voltage c 2 ~ Voltage Rise in Transformer Due to Capactror Installation my a tv rise «OWE ax, @ Where V = rated voltage of transformer CEVA = HVA capectty of capacitors at rated voltage of transformer T= HVA capacity of transformer at rated voltage 1X, = percent reactance of transformer In other words {f 2 15 KVA, 7620-120/240 volt transformer has 2.5 percent reactance and 2 3 KVA, 240 volt eapactior 4s Installed on ‘the secondary, the percent voltage rise 1a: UV rise = 3/15 x 2.5 = 0.5% of 240 = 1.2 volts 3 = Voltage Rise in Lines Due 10 Capacitor Installation CKVA x MEt x X, for 4 three-phase bank of my — capacitors. (CKvA) 10 UV rise = here X, = Phase-to-neutral reactance in ohms per Mft V = Phase-to-phase voltage in kilovolts For single-phase eireuite multiply % by two. ‘Table H931 42 derived from this equation and gives the CKVA MEt (K) to give 1 percent ri in voltage. Gran * © 82£026 4 ~ Rapid Estimating Constants tere roenucas The folloving equations are very approninte but may be used Fan SHWHT aoe rapid eatinating meanauua. ZV cise = 0,032 civa for 2.4 57 ca canto) 0.004 KYA for 4.16 x cw 0.0005 civ for 12°47 KY ee) 9.0004 CKVA for 13,20 KV (aay For @ sore exact calculation use the equation: 1 vise » SUA H MEE Wore K, nay be obtained fom Table HB31 for each spectiie wire size and voltage. 5 = Voltage Drop in Liner With Shunt Capacitors ‘The voltage deop (a Lines where capacitors are installed (¢ ex- pressed by the equation: V drop = VT RT cos Qa xr tn TY. 8 here V drop = phase-to-phase voltage drop T= Line current without capacitors e power factor angle of losd R= Line resistance x Line reactance cepecitor current If Tg As large enovyh, the total voltage drop may be reduced to ere Consider an 6000 foot, three-phase, 12-KV prinery line of 4/0 roppee conductor on standard crossarms with 7000 KVA of load at 0.8 pf evenly distributed along its length. Tt ia desized co know the voltage drop between the First and last customer with a 540 KVA, three phase bank of capacitors installed at the end of the line With an evenly dfstetbuted load, the voltage deop may be based fon 7000 KVA at 4000 feet and may be calculated from equations developed in Section 5. Gise © tose ‘eeAVA x Mfe | 7000 x 4 : es26 = 1000 mt = 2.28 where K is given Kat 0.8 pi a 5A oo in Table #931. oe 2.28 = 0.36 = 1.92% Ket % V drop 6 - Moat Economical Poner Factor Considering Systen Thermal Capacity ‘The sost economical pover factor, based on using all of the thermal copacity released, is expressed by the following: equation: ‘The nost economical pf (thermally) = ype © cow @= [1 - (c/s) Where = capacitor cost in dollars per CKVAR 5 cost of system in dollars per KVA from point where capacitors are installed to and including This relation ts plotted as curve M935. If the present power factor falls above this curye, it would not be economiesl to install capacitors to improve thermal capacity usage for KVAR, An example of the application of equation (6) {s illustrated in the folloying case of an overhead 12 KV feeder. The feeder 1s loaded at or nese capacity and {¢ {s desired to deteraine the economical power factor without in- eluding decrease in resistance or reactence losses, ‘elease of capacity on the whole aysten or voltage improvement. For this exemple the sole consideration will be the cost per HVA of the feeder and its allocated pole space, the feeder exit, and the substation. These costé may be ‘ascuned as $40 per EVA. The capacitor cost may be assumed as $4 per KVA. ‘This capacitor cost is the cost of unsuitched capacitor banks, ‘spaced along the feeder, in 300 HVA or 600 KVA sizes using capacitor unit sizes of 50 HVA each Fron the curve of H935 with C/S = 0.1, the most economics pover factor equals 0.995 tse . © 082es26 userut Forwuias FoR SHUNT CAPACITOR INSTALL Tons ‘conT*) 7- Capacitors Required to Reise Pover Factor Pron cos 8; £0 £08 0, ‘The amount of capacitors required to improve power factor of any load fron 0, to 0, may be deternined from cos 8, ceva 1 GHYA _ fein 0, - gt sin 0, ay Way 1” wae, ) Where KVA, = original KVA at 8, ©, = original power factor angle 0, = desived pover factor angle The above equation is plotted as curves H936. cor 8 The resuleane WK at @y = Wy = HVA, Sgt ay Consider this example. Present load {5 3000 KVA at 0.85 pf and it is desired to raise the power factor to 0.90 by fixed capacitors ‘and to 0.93 by switched capacitors. The CKUA of fixed capacitors re- cKva 000 x 0.115 = 2465 KVA of fixed espacitors (0.115 is determined from curve H936) 0.85 : ‘The resultant KVA at 0.90 pf = 3000 x 283 = 2833 10 “The CKVA of switched capacitors required to raise pf from 0.90 to 0.93 is determined by: “ERVA = 2833 x 0.080 = 226 or say 225 (0.08 ss determined from curve 4936) 0.90 093 ‘The resultant’ KVA at 0.93 pF = 2833 x = 2731 WK S~ Increnental_ KVA of Load at Original Power Factor ‘To Reach Original KVA Before Capacitor Installation ‘TheKVA of load at power factor O, that can be added to being ‘the load to the total KVA that ir was before the CKVA of capacitors vere “added nay be deternined from: Eten © 02 aco26 userue FORWULas cw? 2, )¥2 FoR sHux? + {i - SE cos%,) |eaay CAPACITOR way HMSTALLAS Thows (cont) Increnental KVA of Load at Oy = and the addftional kw that can be added at @, = tncrenentel KVA x cos 8, (8b) Curves of the above equation ere shown in 1927. The exazple in (7) above shows how to determine the capacitor WA required to’ raise the power factor of # 3000 KVA load from 0.85 to 0.93. The equation above cen be used to determine how much ore losd KVA at 0.85 power factor can be added on the cfrcutt to rafse the load back t 3000 HVA. Incresental KVA load at 0.85 pf = 3000 x 0.0866 = 259.8 or 260 KVA ‘The factor 0.0866 is obcained by interpolation from the curves of cxva "S70 ia * 3000 * 9-19. N937 for 9 = Increnental KVA of Load at Original Pouer Factor ‘To Reach Original Voltage Drop Before Capacitor Installation ‘The following equation shows the anount of load KVA at original power factor that ean be added to bring the voltage drop in a circuit back to the original voltage drop existing before the CKVA of capacitors vere added: ‘cava Increnental KVA of load at 0, = GaSe 1” an Gy + WY cos Oy > Values for the factor a for Copper, ACSR and * Tan G+ WR) cos By ALI Aluainus are plotted in curves 4938, 4939 and NS40 respectively. In the ‘above example, if 4/0 copper conductor 12 used, then: a = 630 VA Ga aon HVA that may be added at 0.85 pf = Using the curves of H938,KVA that may be added at 0.85 pf = 570 x 1.10 = 627. . © 382co26 useru Forwucas FoR sHunT carAciToR EnSTALLA tons onT*0) 10 - Loss Reduction Resulting From Capacitor Installation ‘The total resistance loss in a civeuit without capacitors ts 2 2 sa-1g?] noes abe nork | coe a Where T cos 0 = Ip = real power current Tsing = 4, lagging reactive power current without = capacitor current 1, 1, - Ty # net reactive pouer with capacitors In gelevlating the effect of capacitors in a system it 1s sin- pler to separate the current into tvo components, [.0, real power current ‘component and the reactive pouer current conponent. Equation (10e) indi~ cates that the loss reduction due to pover factor irprovenent and ceduc~ tion in total current varies with the factor (1, - 1g)? and that losses due (o the real power current will remain the tare. It {¢ also evident that the maximum loss reduction resulting from the installation of eepesttors Ls obtained when the capacitor current equals the Lagging reactive load current at every location. ‘the reduction in losses fe equal tor 2, C2tjJg - 1) Ror x (ave)11 = optimus Location of Capacitor Banks e926 (Considering Loss Reduction oserot FORMULAS Since it ia seldom economical or practical to install capac FoR SHUNT itors at every reactive load location on the average distribution feeder, CAPACITOR two types of efzevit loads are considered. Toys (coutD) ‘4 - Uniformly Distributed Loads ‘The average dist#:bution efreuit will more often Fellow the pattern of a efreuit with uniformly distribuced loads. The following, equations vere taken from an AIEE Transaction Paper entitled "Loss Re duction From Capacitors Installed on Primary Feeders” and published in ‘the AIEE Transactions, Volume 75, Part IIL, pp 950- dank on @ uniformly loaded efreutr =38 [SV4) [2-0 - se) 100 aia) iva, WAR, Where a = the Jocation ef a capacitor bank (0 to 1.0) ‘The percent loss savings by " installation of a capacitor CRA = size of capacitor bank to be installed sunt, = oral agging reactive KUAR Of Uw elieuce without any capacitor installations “The above equation is plotted as curves on MBI for various ratios of CKUA/HUAR, located at distances of 0 to I from the substat‘on. ‘Observation of these curves indicates that the maxinun loss reduction is obtained when the capacitor installation is made at the location where the capacitor current Tz is equal to twice the load reactive current I. ‘Since most of these curves are quite flar at their optimum location, tf ‘both Joss reduction and voltage improvement are requfred, it would be desirable then to place the capacitor bank beyond the location of the ‘maximum Toss reduction benefits, rather than not far enough out on the Feeder, since very little loss savings are sacrificed and the voltage ‘benefits are proportionally increased. Lf more than one capacitor bank is £0 be located on a circuit, the optimum location may be expressed by the equation: CXVA ~ crm wc Pies aes} am Eis zcsze useruL Foewutas FoR SHUNT CAPACITOR INSTALLS Tons (corr'o) Where L = Length of Line n= 1, 2, or 3 ete., dopending on relative posi- elon of the bank of CHA fron end of circuit CEVA = rating of each capscitor bank to be installed oat, total reactive power of the efxeuit before capacitor installations For exanple, if one bank of capacitors, equal to the circuit reactive load, is co be installed the optinum location would be 0.5L. If the equivalent capacitor CKUA is to be divided into two equal size banks, the optimum locations vould be at 0.25L and 0.75L, These wo Jocations still indicate that the capacitor banks are located where the capacitor current ie two tines the circuit reactive current at the point of installation, ‘The above equation As valid only for 2 cirovit with uniformly Gtstetbuted loads and for capacitor banks of equal sizes. For unequal size capacitor banks on a circuit with untformly distributed loads, the Sued atime point of installation. pa b - concentrated Loads TE one capacitor bank is to be installed for several con- centrated loads, the optimum location for maxinim loss reduction vould be at the first point from the end of the feeder where the capacitor ‘current. {s 200 percent or less then the efrcuft reactive current at ‘the point of installation. The same procedure can be followed if more than one capacitor bank {s installed For exanple, consider the following primary circuit vith ‘the indicated reactive loads and no capacitor installations Case i - If one 600 CKVA bank Of capacitors is to be Anstalled, it should be located at point 4. : isn ui wacase 44 - If two 300 CKVA banks of capacitors are to be insealled, they should be located at points 1 and’6, 12 ~ Capacitor Bank Size To Give Maxtoum Loss Reduction - Uniforaly Disceibuted Load curve M942 is plotted with the abscissa equal co CKVA/KVAR in one bank or in multiples of equal size banks at their optimum loed- fone and the ordinate as percent reactive load loss reduction. As Indicated in these curves, capacitor CKVA up to 65 percent of the total Tagging EVAR, of clrouit may be installed as one bank with very Litle sncrifice in toss savings as compared to the loss savings obtainable with several capacitor banks of total equivalent capacity Further study of curves H941 and ™942 indicates that the maxi- num loss reduction with one bank of capacitors installed on a elreule With uniformy distributed loads is obtained when the capacitor CKVA is equal to two-thirds of che lagging reactive pover load and the bank is Tocated at a point equal to two-thirds of the cotal length of eireutt from the {iret load potat Tf two equal size banks are installed at thelr optima location, axtsum loss reduction is obtained when the tota? CKVA of capacitors equals about 83 percent of the total Lagging line reactive power load the following equations’ may woe? w WR ain 8 ed to doteratne spproztnate X, = capacitor reactance in ches E = Line to Line kilovolts © = power factor angle of load beyond capacitor AV = the percent voleege rise ‘The 2 400-volt capacitors are connected delta on 2 400-volt, cireuits and wye on sky cirevite. The 7 200-volt capacitors are Connected vye on 12-ky circuits. Generally the wye connection should be made with nevtrai connected to system neutral Grounding the neutral WAL] insure blown fuses in case of capacitor fault. In case of small banks with seutral ungrounded, @ faulty capacitor would not blow fuse and fault uay develop into’ 1 cuptured tank. Teolating the neutral of the wye of capacitor bank hat sone advantages, This sethod shall be used only upon special instructions then grounding of neutral would develop an operating difficulty at the particular installation. The advantage of not grounding the neutral if Individual fuses are used in Large capacitor banks are: 1 = The fault current within a favity unit {s Lnceed by individvel fuse and Keeps tanks fron rupturing. © ime e926 sero Fonwutas Foe. SHUNT caraciToR IRSTALLA Thoxs (conto) Fomuuta For senses cartciToR InSTALLAS Tons esa connection ARRANGE WeNTS FOR SHORT CAPACITORS. a2 Low rupturing capacity fuses aay be used oe lalanced" relay protection schenes may be used fon large banks. Capacitor units in a bank may be protected by individual fuses for by a benk fuse for each phase. In case of # large bank there may be Several fuses, one for each group component of each phase of the bank. In snall outdoor banks mounted on a pole of rack the use of individual fuses is undesirable, considering their installation cost, salatenance expense and space requirenents, The omission of the inéividsel fuse fand dependence upon a€ ink {use resulta in greacer probability of Tup- Cored tanks when a capacitor fala. The pecbabi lity of ruptured tanks Snereases with size of bank fuse and available system fault current. A capacitor bank fuse should satisfy the folloving requtre- 1 = It should be capable of continuously carrying 135 percent of the rated capacitor banle current 2- 1t should be capable of handling avaiable fault 3 = For ungrounded-wye banks vhere maximum fault current is iim{ted co three tises normal line cuerent, the fuse must clesr within five ainuces 4+ Tae fuse muse cvordinate with Lhe Ceuk tuptuce - Expulaton fuses cannot be depended upon co prevent cank rupture where the faulted capacitor current exceeds 4000 aaperes through a shorted 25-kvar unie of a shorted 50-kvar unt and 5000 enperes through » shorted 100-kvar unit. The delta or grounded-wye connection of capacitors should hot be used vnere the fault currents are above these values unless cur Tent Limiting fuses are used. e The time current characteristics of a capacitor tank are shown in the Latest NEHA publication CP 1. The following data from NEMA CP 1-1963 will be found useful in selecting a fuse rating deperes ‘Aaperes 90 160 200 ao 0.1 second 600 600 1600 ‘The values shoun above represent maxifun current values in what {a known as the safe zone, Ie is expected that for these fault Current values there would be no greater danage than the swelling of the case. Both K and 7 EEL-NEWA Links are used for fusing capacitors: J Gonerally the T Links have better characteristics for grounded uye and £2i8% © inesdelta banks, and the K Links are more suitable for ungrounded wye banks. eae The K link is faster than the T Link and since the ungrounded wye Ls lim FUSING Teed as indicated in (3), the faster link is nore suitable. The lover” SHUNT ink {5 nore aultable te vithsteed cransients during bank energizing snd CAPACITORS decenergising., ‘These conparisone apply for fuse Links of the sane rating. (COHT"9), ‘he application of Lighcning arresters to grounded wye capacitor —cyyy instaLlations docs not normally result inan appreciable decrease in the ea avigg number of capacitor failures. Arrestere may be justified, Rovever, ‘on aiaaTEIna Teleched bents to procect the suitehing equipment shea the Banka ate off PROTECTION the line, on delta connected and ungrounded wye capacitor banks. eoesauaar: on touive three-phase distribution aysten uhen capacitors are gggg connected Tine to ground, the fifth harmonic voltage 1 usually respon S24 Stole for the cases ef inductive incerferance that have been experienced (ANOM( Tethascountey, “hia te-caused by unequal tve of cranstoraer capaciey CURRENT per phase on a feeder which allovs sone residual fifeh harsonic magnetizing SONS! Correne to appear. A capacitor installation secting up 2 resonant condi- on Eton would of course aggravate the situation." Trouble also has been ex- perienced on long rural circuits where third harnonic current is high and Jong paratlele exist between open vire communication and pover lines. ‘The general solution of inductive interference 1s one of co- ‘operation betueen the conpsnies involved and coordination between the Eyes of wiscuits, and equiprent involved. Some of che more connon : Fenedial measures’ for solving these problems are 1 = Change in size or location of capacitor bank. 2 Disconnect the aeutral of bank from ground and aysten neutral, 3 - Install reactors or wave traps in the neutral connection £0 ground. 4 ~ Reduce susceptivencss of cosmunteation circuits to inductive interference. Same of the methods sre, grounding the cable sheath, elimaste ground geturn eirevit, and use high iapedance ringers 5 Use delta connection for capacitor bank. See Section 13 for sore detailed information on inductive “interference. Overloads on capacitor banks sonetizes occur due to harmonic overcurrent. The trouble is due in aost instances to high voltage at Tighe loads which increases the harmonic concent of transformer excitiug currents. If capacitor bank is in near resonance, excessive current will Flow. This condition may be renedied by reducing size of bank, switching bank off during Light load period, reaoving vye-point ground. ete. Sone bf the sources of harnonie voltages other than fron overexcited transformers Gre old generators, old motors, rectifiers, and iereraittent current to ground such as wight be caused by insulator leakage. : ‘The greatly increased use of automaticelly switched shunt e035. capacitors and the different characteristies of systens has required chat conte. oF SHUNT caPaciToR sn bans © wee935 CONTROL OF SHUNT caraciToR BARKS (conto) considerable attention be given to the controls used to initiate the Suitching of capacitors. aay different types of controls have been developed and are being used. ‘The lovest cost, simplest and aost popular ie the time switch Ie is evitable where the kvar eine pattern is fairly constant. Te should be equipped with spring carry-over and oaitting device for one or two Gays when kvar load is off, A disadvantage of the time switch 1s {es {ability to adjuse to the kvar load pateera which changes for aany Teasons such as tenperature changes, Seasoual changes, changes in sys Tem connections ang operation and changes in large custoner loads. In order to satisfy sone of these requirenents control devices are nade Sensitive co either voltage, current, cenperature and vars or combina Clons of these such as voltage and current, voltage and time, volcage and tenperature and time and temperature. ‘Carrier equipment is zlso being used for capacitor control. One conpany uses che contact naking Voltmeter of substation regulator for control of substation capacitor Voltage sensitive devices are essentially contact making voltmeters with single step controls. Adjustment on standard equip- iment anges from about 90 fo 110 percent of rated voltage wich bend width adjustable fron 1 to 5.0 percent. Voltage sensitive devices are gererally applied for renoval of capacitors during light load peciod And for bos or feeder voltage regulation. Voltage sensitive devices Gre not suitable vhen system voltage varies independently with load With wasen che capacitor benk is associaved, Band widel setting wat beat least one voit ereater than the rise due to che capacitor vais Maxioun benefit vill be gained from a voltage control if voltage spread without the capacitor bank is at least 3 volts greater on a 120-volt base than the rise due to the capacitor bank. Current sensitive devices are essentially contact making amneters, with band widths of from 5 to 50 percent of cofl rating and are usually furnished for single step control. These devices are generally used to renove capacitor banks during Light load periods on Systems where voltage control would be unsatisfactory. For successful ‘operation the load pover factor should not vary appreciably with verte. tion of kw losding, Kilovar sensitive devices are usually induction type direc tional relays and can be considered a5 contact making vatt-hour meters Connected to register kilovars and are adaptable for single or multi- ‘Step conteal. Kilover control is applicable for regulating kilovars for power factor and for renoving capacitor banks during light load period on aysten with variable bus voltage. Tenperature-sensitive devices are used to control capacitors fon residential and conmereial feeders having a large proportion of air~ Conditioning load, Sone tine delay is required to compensate for the Yeg between inside and outside tenperatures and avold premature renoval of kvar supply folloving # sudden decline in outdoor tenperacure. Cin Bined controls such as a time clock with a thernel override seem par- ‘ticularly applicable in the warner elinates, isn © vse aThe de-energizing of capacitors and capacitor banks presents cane problens not encountered in the usual load-switching applications. caraci Tor [na three-phase bank of capacitors connected in wye vith the neutral SNITOMINC grounded, supplied from a wye connected source with the neutrsl grounded, it 1a practical to consider only one phase in a simplified nanner as shown in Figure 1. f ne source € Fioure 1 SIMPLIFIED OIAGRAM OF ONE PHASE OF THREE PRASE WYECNYE. BLAK OF CAPACITORS ‘The initial voltage across the interrupter contacts following the breaking of a capacitive cdrovit is practicclly zero since che Capacitor on the Load side of the switeh holds the same instantaneous Voltage as existed on the eupply,side. Usually the capacitive cir- Cait is not breken enti? ite curvent is zero, AE thiy Ulue Une Voitag= nf the esvem and capacitor ere g scisus and of the same velue, One-half cycle later the voltage acrocs the switch contacts Se twice the crest value of the fundamental cince the capacitor has retsined its charge and the supply voltage has reached its crest of the opposite value, as sholn in Figure 2. caPaciToR vouTiGe 2 fe AoROSS SwITCH CONTACTS Tg = BECINKI¥S F suITEH OPEKING 1 = FIRST cunzenr 680 Ty = 1/2 eveue AFTER FIRST ‘CURRENT 2680 ‘Tg = SWITOH coumueTeLy pene ‘euenenT ah Fuouee 2 © 6s 3e006 caraceTor SHITERING (cont'0) IE the suitching device contacts have separated enough to with- stend the dovble voltage, the cirevit {a successfully cleared. Other- Wise, a restrike across the svitch gaps will occur, es show in Figure 3, The capacitor voleage is opposite in polarity to the supply Voltage so the capacitor voltage will reverse, Hovever, the capacitor Voltage will overshoot by an amount equal to its attempted change in Voltage so that the voltage across the capacitor will be three tines ite steady state value. At the first current zero the are agein may be interrupted leavit, three tines normal crest voltage on the capsct- tor, One-half cycle later four Lines ehe Fundamental crest voltage will appear across Ehe switch contacts, Again # restrike may occur unless the contacts ere evfficiently separated to avoid it. Tf a re- strike occurs the capsestor voltage vould overshoot the steady state value by four tines the normal erest voltage. sy, Bus WoLTAGE iran gure oan APTEE RESTEISE aesTRKE capac TOR VOLTAGE cugeent estat FraURE 3 A RESTRIKE chuseD oY o1FFeRENCE’ OF CAPACITOR VOLTAGE AMD LINE VOLTAGE Giten © i aIf the neutral of the capacitor bank is ungrounded the opening of eae a switch in one phase does not entirely isolate the capacitor in the caracito phase az in the ease of # neutral grounded bank, The details of what SwiToMIN (cour9) Secure exe soneuhat nore complex thin described above, More severe overvoltages my occur across the bresker contacts. A good descrip- Elon of what may occur 4s €0 be found in AIEE paper 55-224, If the source is ungrounded, the breaker of suitch will experience the same overvoltages and restrike phenonena as for the case of ungrounded capacitor bank with the source grounded, This 1s true regardless of the capacitor bank grounding conditions. When a single capacitor bank is energized the inrush currents depend upon whether the eapecitor bank is not charged or is fully charged to the game or opposite polarity. The completely uncharged capacitor dravs heavy current from the ayeten when energized. If the bank is energized at the instant of systen peak voltage che inrush shore-cireuse lve : ‘ oy Tmax = 1, G+ (Sores ay state eapecitor current. wliere T, = erest value of the st The dnrush transient current frequency {s the natural frequency Anrush frequency f = £, whore f, is the normal’ system frequency. If the capacitor bank initially 4s incharged the meximse craneient capacitor voltage is about 1,8 tines the steady state voltage. If the capacitor bank initially is of opposite polarity the transient eepscitor woltage is 2.7 tines the steady state voltage, In case of parallel banks where one bank (C,) is energized, the ‘ewitehing in of the second bank (Cp) can cause high inrush currents. Nearly all of the inrush current is supplied by the fizet bank and is approxinately: EF Ly = the efreuit inductance between banks in henries ee 1 y zy 1G, = charged bank of capacitors in forads : ©, = uncharged bank of capacitors in farads £250 % © 196sesse capacitor SITCHINE (eout*D) Tt has been found that the peak inrush current is between 20 and 250 tines the steady state capacitor current, However it usually de- cays to an insignificant value in Jess than 0.016 second, ‘The inrush current between benks of capacitors can be Limited by installing reactors in each phase, The value of current Limiting re- actors may be determined by the following equations: 2 « ‘a 5 1, = inductance to be added in henries estimated aaxisun inrush current between banks in amperes - see equation (3) desired maximum inrush current between banks in L = actual inductance in henries between two banks allowing inrush current 1p Economies! ofl contactor evitches have been developed which are capable of opening and closing the supply to single banks of 3600 kvar Fating at 13'800 Volts three-phase, They open completely in one cycle, ‘These contactors operate fast enough to prevent restrikes. They sre Tow power insuctive suit currents is low. O41 switches can be used for aultibank evitehing if the circuit impedance between banks will linit surge currents to peraissible Values. Khare beaks are not located sufficiently far apart for cir- ‘cuit inpedance to Linit surge currents, current limiting reactors oF Suitable breakers will be required, The switching of large substation banks can be handled in eany ways, If the bank is of limited size, and the system shore circuit ‘current is not large, the ordinary breaker may be satisfactory. With Larger banks or where sultistep switching {2 £0 be used, the applics- tion of suitable breakers is necessery. Oil switches wich choke coils betveen steps may be satisfactory. Manufacturer's catalogues carry Anforaation a¢ £0 limiting surge currents and required reactance for multibenk or multistep avicehing. ‘The use of danping resistors inserted during the opening and losing of the breaker are nov available a2 part of the breaker de- Sign. The resistors have performed very satisfactorily. Airblast ‘and sulphur hexafluoride breakers of particular design co solve the problen, are svaiisble for this application. Vacuum svitches, to 454.5 kv and 300 aaperes for capacitor svitching, are also available for outdoor use. They are rated for parallel bank neximum peak Amrush amperes of 20 000. Ein © rs aXE9O1 should contain © detailed description of the voltages, xes01 sizes, end taps of transformers currently {o service; and whether the Teaasronnet secondary windings are suitable for series, multiple of three-vinding Hows operation. ASK Standard 057.12.20 for Ovethead-Type Distr fbution Transformers shall be used to the greatest practicable extent Eien - Ov