4TH SEMESTER TH4: ELECTRO

ICS SYSTEM & DESIG

DEPARTME T OF CSE, KSET

Chapter 1: Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

The cathode-ray oscilloscope (CRO) provides accurate time and amplitude measurements of voltage signals over a wide range of
frequencies. Its reliability, stability, and ease of operation make it suitable as a general purpose laboratory instrument. The heart of
the CRO is a cathode-ray tube shown schematically in Fig. 1

The cathode ray is a beam of electrons which are emitted by the heated cathode (negative electrode) and accelerated toward the
fluorescent screen. The assembly of the cathode, intensity grid, focus grid, and accelerating anode (positive electrode) is called an
electron gun. Its purpose is to generate the electron beam and control its intensity and focus. Between the electron gun and the
fluorescent screen are two pair of metal plates - one oriented to provide horizontal deflection of the beam and one pair oriented ot
give vertical deflection to the beam. These plates are thus referred to as the horizontal and vertical deflection plates. The
combination of these two deflections allows the beam to reach any portion of the fluorescent screen. Wherever the electron beam
hits the screen, the phosphor is excited and light is emitted from that point. This conversion of electron energy into light allows us
to write with points or lines of light on an otherwise darkened screen.
In the most common use of the oscilloscope the signal to be studied is first amplified and then applied to the vertical
(deflection) plates to deflect the beam vertically and at the same time a voltage that increases linearly with time is applied to the
horizontal (deflection) plates thus causing the beam to be deflected horizontally at a uniform (constant> rate. The signal applied to
the vertical plates is thus displayed on the screen as a function of time. The horizontal axis serves as a uniform time scale.
The linear deflection or sweep of the beam horizontally is accomplished by use of a sweep generator that is incorporated in
the oscilloscope circuitry. The voltage output of such a generator is that of a saw-tooth wave as shown in Fig. 2. Application of one
cycle of this voltage difference, which increases linearly with time, to the horizontal plates causes the beam to be deflected linearly
with time across the tube face. When the voltage suddenly falls to zero, as at points (a) (b) (c), etc...., the end of each sweep - the
beam flies back to its initial position. The horizontal deflection of the beam is repeated periodically, the frequency of this periodicity
is adjustable by external controls.

To obtain steady traces on the tube face, an internal number of cycles of the unknown signal that is applied to the vertical plates
must be associated with each cycle of the sweep generator. Thus, with such a matching of synchronization of the two deflections,
the pattern on the tube face repeats itself and hence appears to remain stationary. The persistence of vision in the human eye and

Page 1
OTES BY: Er. SOUMYA SOURABHA PAT AIK, HOD(CSE)
Er. ABHIJITA HOTA, CLASS TEACHER (CSE)
 4TH SEMESTER TH4: ELECTRO ICS SYSTEM & DESIG
DEPARTME T OF CSE, KSET

of the glow of the fluorescent screen aids in producing a stationary pattern. In addition, the electron beam is cut off (blanked)
during fly back so that the retrace sweep is not observed.
1.1 CRO Operation:
A simplified block diagram of a typical oscilloscope is shown in Fig. 3. In general, the instrument is operated in the following
manner. The signal to be displayed is amplified by the vertical amplifier and applied to the verical deflection plates of the CRT. A
portion of the signal in the vertical amplifier is applied to the sweep trigger as a triggering signal. The sweep trigger then generates
a pulse coincident with a selected point in the cycle of the triggering signal. This pulse turns on the sweep generator, initiating the
sawtooth wave form. The sawtooth wave is amplified by the horizontal amplifier and applied to the horizontal deflection plates.
Usually, additional provisions signal are made for appliying an external triggering signal or utilizing the 60 Hz line for triggering.
Also the sweep generator may be bypassed and an external signal applied directly to the horizontal amplifier.

1.2 CRO Controls:

The controls available on most oscilloscopes provide a wide range of operating conditions and thus make the instrument
especially versatile. Since many of these controls are common to most oscilloscopes a brief description of them follows.

1.2.1 CATHODE-RAY TUBE

Power and Scale Illumination: Turns instrument on and controls illumination of the graticule.
Focus: Focus the spot or trace on the screen.
Intensity: Regulates the brightness of the spot or trace.

1.2.2 VERTICAL AMPLIFIER SECTION

Position: Controls vertical positioning of oscilloscope display.
Sensitivity: Selects the sensitivity of the vertical amplifier in calibrated steps.
Variable Sensitivity: Provides a continuous range of sensitivities between the calibrated steps. Normally the sensitivity is
calibrated only when the variable knob is in the fully clockwise position.
AC-DC-GND: Selects desired coupling (ac or dc) for incoming signal applied to vertical amplifier, or grounds the amplifier input.
Selecting dc couples the input directly to the amplifier; selecting ac send the signal through a capacitor before going to the
amplifier thus blocking any constant component.

1.2.3 HORIZONTAL-SWEEP SECTION

Sweep time/cm: Selects desired sweep rate from calibrated steps or admits external signal to horizontal amplifier.
Sweep time/cm Variable: Provides continuously variable sweep rates. Calibrated position is fully clockwise.
Position: Controls horizontal position of trace on screen.
Horizontal Variable: Controls the attenuation (reduction) of signal applied to horizontal aplifier through Ext. Horiz. connector.

Page 2
OTES BY: Er. SOUMYA SOURABHA PAT AIK, HOD(CSE)
Er. ABHIJITA HOTA, CLASS TEACHER (CSE)
 4TH SEMESTER TH4: ELECTRO ICS SYSTEM & DESIG
DEPARTME T OF CSE, KSET

1.2.4 TRIGGER
The trigger selects the timing of the beginning of the horizontal sweep.
Slope: Selects whether triggering occurs on an increasing (+) or decreasing (-) portion of trigger signal.
Coupling: Selects whether triggering occurs at a specific dc or ac level.
Source: Selects the source of the triggering signal.
INT - (internal) - from signal on vertical amplifier
EXT - (external) - from an external signal inserted at the EXT. TRIG. INPUT.
LINE - 60 cycle triger
Level: Selects the voltage point on the triggering signal at which sweep is triggered. It also allows automatic (auto) triggering of
allows sweep to run free (free run).

1.3 CONNECTIONS FOR THE OSCILLOSCOPE

Vertical Input: A pair of jacks for connecting the signal under study to the Y (or vertical) amplifier. The lower jack is grounded to
the case.
Horizontal Input: A pair of jacks for connecting an external signal to the horizontal amplifier. The lower terminal is graounted to the
case of the oscilloscope.
External Tigger Input: Input connector for external trigger signal.
Cal. Out: Provides amplitude calibrated square waves of 25 and 500 milli-volts for use in calibrating the gain of the amplifiers.
Accuracy of the vertical deflection is + 3%. Sensitivity is variable.
Horizontal sweep should be accurate to within 3%. Range of sweep is variable.

Operating Instructions: Before plugging the oscilloscope into a wall receptacle, set the controls as follows:
(a) Power switch at off
(b) Intensity fully counter clockwise
(c) Vertical centering in the center of range
(d) Horizontal centering in the center of range
(e) Vertical at 0.2
(f) Sweep times 1
Plug line cord into a standard ac wall receptacle (nominally 118 V). Turn power on. Do not advance the Intensity Control.
Allow the scope to warm up for approximately two minutes, then turn the Intensity Control until the beam is visible on the screen.

WARNING: Never advance the Intensity Control so far that an excessively bright spot appears. Bright spots imply burning of the
screen. A sharp focused spot of high intensity (great brightness) should never be allowed to remain fixed in one position on the
screen for any length of time as damage to the screen may occur.
Adjust Horizontal and Vertical Centering Controls. Adjust the focus to give a sharp trace. Set trigger to internal, level to auto.

1.4 PROCEDURE:
I. Set the signal generator to a frequency of 1000 cycles per second. Connect the output from the gererator to the vertical
input of the oscilloscope. Establish a steady trace of this input signal on the scope. Adjust (play with) all of the scope and signal
generator controls until you become familiar with the function of each. The purpose fo such "playing" is to allow the student to
become so familiar with the oscilloscope that it
becomes an aid (tool) in making measurements in
other experiments and not as a formidable obstacle.
Note: If the vertical gain is set too low, it may not be
possible to obtain a steady trace.
II. Measurements of Voltage: Consider the circuit
in Fig. 4(a). The signal generator is used to produce
a 1000 hertz sine wave. The AC voltmeter and the
leads to the vertical input of the oscilloscope are
connected across the generator's output. By
adjusting the Horizontal Sweep time/cm and trigger,
a steady trace of the sine wave may be displayed on
the screen. The trace represents a plot of voltage vs.
time, where the vertical deflection of the trace about

Page 3
OTES BY: Er. SOUMYA SOURABHA PAT AIK, HOD(CSE)
Er. ABHIJITA HOTA, CLASS TEACHER (CSE)
 4TH SEMESTER TH4: ELECTRO ICS SYSTEM & DESIG
DEPARTME T OF CSE, KSET

the line of symmetry CD is proportional to the magnitude of the voltage at any instant of time.
To determine the size of the voltage signal appearing at the output of terminals of the signal generator, an AC (Alternating
Current) voltmeter is connected in parallel across these terminals (Fig. 4a). The AC voltmeter is designed to read the dc "effective
value" of the voltage. This effective value is also known as the "Root Mean Square value" (RMS) value of the voltage.
The peak or maximum voltage seen on the scope face (Fig. 4b) is Vm volts and is represented by the distance from the
symmetry line CD to the maximum deflection. The relationship between the magnitude of the peak voltage displayed on the scope
and the effective or RMS voltage (VRMS) read on the AC voltmeter is
VRMS = 0.707 Vm (for a sine or cosine wave).

Thus agreement is expected between the voltage reading of the multi-meter and that of the oscilloscope. For a symmetric wave
(sine or cosine) the value of Vm may be taken as 1/2 the peak to peak signal Vpp
The variable sensitivity control a signal may be used to adjust the display to fill a convenient range of the scope face. In this
position, the trace is no longer calibrated so that you can not just read the size of the signal by counting the number of divisions
and multiplying by the scale factor. However, you can figure out what the new calibration is an use it as long as the variable
control remains unchanged.
Caution: The mathematical prescription given for RMS signals is valid only for sinusoidal signals. The meter will not indicate the
correct voltage when used to measure non-sinusoidal signals.
III. Frequency Measurements: When the horizontal sweep voltage is applied, voltage measurements can still be taken from the
vertical deflection. Moreover, the signal is displayed as a function of time. If the time base (i.e. sweep) is calibrated, such
measurements as pulse duration or signal period can be made. Frequencies can then be determined as reciprocal of the periods.
Set the oscillator to 1000 Hz. Display the signal on the CRO and measure the period of the oscillations. Use the horizontal
distance between two points such as C to D in Fig. 4b.
Set the horizontal gain so that only one complete wave form is displayed.
Then reset the horizontal until 5 waves are seen. Keep the time base control in a calibrated position. Measure the distance
(and hence time) for 5 complete cycles and calculate the frequency from this measurement. Compare you result with the value
determined above.
Repeat your measurements for other frequencies of 150 Hz, 5 kHz, 50 kHz as set on the signal generator.
IV. Lissajous Figures: When sine-wave signals of different frequencies are input to the horizontal and vertical amplifiers a
stationary pattern is formed on the CRT when the ratio of the two frequencies is an integral fraction such as 1/2, 2/3, 4/3, 1/5, etc.
These stationary patterns are known as Lissajous figures and can be used for comparison measurement of frequencies.
Use two oscillators to generate some simple Lissajous figures like those shown in Fig. 5. You will find it difficult to maintain
the Lissajous figures in a fixed configuration because the two oscillators are not phase and frequency locked. Their frequencies
and phase drift slowly causing the two different signals to change slightly with respect to each other.
V. Testing what you have learned: Your instructor will provide you with a small oscillator circuit. Examine the input to the circuit
and output of the circuit using your oscilloscope. Measure such quantities as the voltage and frequency of the signals. Specify if
they are sinusoidal or of some other wave character. If square wave, measure the frequency of the wave. Also, for square waves,
measure the on time (when the voltage is high) and off time (when it is low).

Page 4
OTES BY: Er. SOUMYA SOURABHA PAT AIK, HOD(CSE)
Er. ABHIJITA HOTA, CLASS TEACHER (CSE)
 4TH SEMESTER TH4: ELECTRO ICS SYSTEM & DESIG
DEPARTME T OF CSE, KSET

Chapter 2: AMPLIFIER

Amplifier is an electronics device that responds to a small input signal (voltage, current, or power) and delivers a larger
output signal that contains the essential waveform features of the input signal. Amplifiers of various types are widely used in such
electronic equipment as radio and television receivers, high-fidelity audio equipment, and computers. Amplifying action can be
provided by electromechanical devices (e.g., transformers and generators) and vacuum tubes, but most electronic systems now
employ solid-state microcircuits as amplifiers. Such an integrated circuit consists of many thousands of transistors and related
devices on a single tiny silicon chip.

2.1 Direct Coupling:

The method of coupling that uses the least number of circuit elements and that is, perhaps, the easiest to understand is direct
coupling. In direct coupling the output of one stage is connected
directly to the input of the following stage. Figure 1 shows two
direct-coupled transistor amplifiers.
Notice that the output (collector) of Q1 is connected
directly to the input (base) of Q2. The network of R4, R5, and R6
is a voltage divider used to provide the bias and operating
voltages for Q1 and Q2. The entire circuit provides two stages of
amplification.
Direct coupling provides a good Frequency response
since no frequency-sensitive components (inductors and
capacitors) are used. The Frequency response of a circuit using
direct coupling is affected only by the amplifying device itself.
Direct coupling has several disadvantages, however. The
major problem is the power supply requirements for direct-
coupled amplifiers. Each succeeding stage requires a higher
voltage. The load and voltage divider resistors use a large
amount of power and the biasing can become very complicated.
In addition, it is difficult to match the impedance from stage to Figure 1 - Direct-coupled transistor amplifiers.
stage with direct coupling. The direct-coupled amplifier is not very
efficient and the losses increase as the number of stages increase. Because of the disadvantages, direct coupling is not used very
often.

2.2 RC Coupling:
The most commonly used coupling in amplifiers is RC
coupling. An RC-coupling network is shown in figure 2.
The network of R1, R2, and C1 enclosed in the dashed
lines of the figure is the coupling network. You may notice
that the circuitry for Q1 and Q2 is incomplete. That is
intentional so that you can concentrate on the coupling
network.
R1 acts as a load resistor for Q1 (the first stage)
and develops the output signal of that stage. Do you
remember how a capacitor reacts to ac and dc? The
capacitor, C1, "blocks" the dc of Q1's collector, but
"passes" the ac output signal. R2 develops this passed, or
coupled, signal as the input signal to Q2 (the second
stage). This arrangement allows the coupling of the signal
Figure 2 RC-coupled transistor amplifier
while it isolates the biasing of each stage. This solves
many of the problems associated with direct coupling.
RC coupling does have a few disadvantages. The resistors use dc power and so the amplifier has low efficiency. The
capacitor tends to limit the low-Frequency response of the amplifier and the amplifying device itself limits the high-Frequency
response. For audio amplifiers this is usually not a problem; techniques for overcoming these frequency limitations will be covered

Page 5
OTES BY: Er. SOUMYA SOURABHA PAT AIK, HOD(CSE)
Er. ABHIJITA HOTA, CLASS TEACHER (CSE)
 4TH SEMESTER TH4: ELECTRO ICS SYSTEM & DESIG
DEPARTME T OF CSE, KSET

later in this module. Before you move on to the next type of coupling, consider the capacitor in the RC coupling. You probably
remember that capacitive reactance (XC) is determined by the following formula:

This explains why the low frequencies are limited by the capacitor. As frequency decreases, XC increases. This causes
more of the signal to be "lost" in the capacitor. The formula for XC also shows that the value of capacitance (C) should be relatively
high so that capacitive reactance (XC) can be kept as low as possible. So, when a capacitor is used as a coupling element, the
capacitance should be relatively high so that it will couple the entire signal well and not reduce or distort the signal.

2.3 Transformer Coupling:

Figure 4 shows a transformer-coupling network between two stages
of amplification. The transformer action of T1 couples the signal from
the first stage to the second stage. In figure 4, the primary of T1 acts
as the load for the first stage (Q1) and the secondary of T1 acts as
the developing impedance for the second stage (Q2). No capacitor is
needed because transformer action couples the signal between the
primary and secondary of T1. The inductors that make up the primary
and secondary of the transformer have very little dc resistance, so the
efficiency of the amplifiers is very high. Transformer coupling is very
often used for the final output (between the final amplifier stage and
the output device) because of the impedance-matching qualities of
the transformer. The Frequency response of transformer-coupled
amplifiers is limited by the inductive reactance of the transformer just
as it was limited in impedance coupling.
Figure 4 - Transformer-coupled transistor amplifier.
2.4 AMPLIFIER CLASSES OF OPERATION
It may be desirable to have the transistor conducting for only a portion of the
input signal. The portion of the input for which there is an output determines
the class of operation of the amplifier. There are four classes of amplifier
operations. They are class A, class AB, class B, and class C.

2.4.1 Class A Amplifier Operation

Class A amplifiers are biased so that variations in input signal polarities
occur within the limits of CUTOFF and SATURATION. In a PNP transistor,
for example, if the base becomes positive with respect to the emitter, holes
will be repelled at the PN junction and no current can flow in the collector
circuit. This condition is known as cutoff. Saturation occurs when the base
becomes so negative with respect to the emitter that changes in the signal
are not reflected in collector-current flow.
Biasing an amplifier in this manner places the dc operating point
between cutoff and saturation and allows collector current to flow during the
complete cycle (360 degrees) of the input signal, thus providing an output
which is a replica of the input. The class A operated amplifier is used as an
audio- and radio-frequency amplifier in radio, radar, and sound systems, just
to mention a few examples.
For a comparison of output signals for the different amplifier classes of
operation, refer to figure 5:

2.4.2 Class AB Amplifier Operation:

Amplifiers designed for class AB operation are biased so that collector
Figure 5 - A comparison of output signals for
Page 6
the different amplifier classes of operation.
OTES BY: Er. SOUMYA SOURABHA PAT AIK, HOD(CSE)
Er. ABHIJITA HOTA, CLASS TEACHER (CSE)
 4TH SEMESTER TH4: ELECTRO ICS SYSTEM & DESIG
DEPARTME T OF CSE, KSET

current is zero (cutoff) for a portion of one alternation of the input signal.
This is accomplished by making the forward-bias voltage less than the peak value of the input signal. By doing this, the base-
emitter junction will be reverse biased during one alternation for the amount of time that the input signal voltage opposes and
exceeds the value of forward-bias voltage. Therefore, collector current will flow for more than 180 degrees but less than 360
degrees of the input signal, as shown in FIGURE 5 view B. As compared to the class A amplifier, the dc operating point for the
class AB amplifier is closer to cutoff.
The class AB operated amplifier is commonly used as a push-pull amplifier to overcome a side effect of class B operation called
crossover distortion.

2.4.3 Class B Amplifier Operation:

Amplifiers biased so that collector current is cut off during one-half of the input signal are classified class B. The dc operating point
for this class of amplifier is set up so that base current is zero with no input signal. When a signal is applied, one half cycle will
forward bias the base-emitter junction and IC will flow. The other half cycle will reverse bias the base-emitter junction and IC will be
cut off. Thus, for class B operation, collector current will flow for approximately 180 degrees (half) of the input signal, as shown in
FIGURE 5 view C.
The class B operated amplifier is used extensively for audio amplifiers that require high-power outputs. It is also used as the
driver- and power-amplifier stages of transmitters.

2.4.4 Class C Amplifier Operation:

In class C operation, collector current flows for less than one half cycle of the input signal, as shown in FIGURE 5 view D. The
class C operation is achieved by reverse biasing the emitter-base junction, which sets the dc operating point below cutoff and
allows only the portion of the input signal that overcomes the reverse bias to cause collector current flow.
The class C operated amplifier is used as a radio-frequency amplifier in transmitters.
You should be familiar with two terms used in conjunction with amplifiers - FIDELITY and EFFICIENCY. Fidelity is the faithful
reproduction of a signal. In other words, if the output of an amplifier is just like the input except in amplitude, the amplifier has a
high degree of fidelity. The opposite of fidelity is a term we mentioned earlier - distortion. Therefore, a circuit that has high fidelity
has low distortion. In conclusion, a class A amplifier has a high degree of fidelity. A class AB amplifier has less fidelity, and class B
and class C amplifiers have low or "poor" fidelity.
The efficiency of an amplifier refers to the ratio of output-signal power compared to the total input power. An amplifier has two
input power sources: one from the signal, and one from the power supply. Since every device takes power to operate, an amplifier
that operates for 360 degrees of the input signal uses more power than if operated for 180 degrees of the input signal. By using
more power, an amplifier has less power available for the output signal; thus the efficiency of the amplifier is low. This is the case
with the class A amplifier. It operates for 360 degrees of the input signal and requires a relatively large input from the power
supply. Even with no input signal, the class A amplifier still uses power from the power supply. Therefore, the output from the
class A amplifier is relatively small compared to the total input power. This results in low efficiency, which is acceptable in class A
amplifiers because they are used where efficiency is not as important as fidelity.
Class AB amplifiers are biased so that collector current is cut off for a portion of one alternation of the input, which results in less
total input power than the class A amplifier. This leads to better efficiency.
Class B amplifiers are biased with little or no collector current at the dc operating point. With no input signal, there is little wasted
power. Therefore, the efficiency of class B amplifiers is higher still.
The efficiency of class C is the highest of the four classes of amplifier operations.

Page 7
OTES BY: Er. SOUMYA SOURABHA PAT AIK, HOD(CSE)
Er. ABHIJITA HOTA, CLASS TEACHER (CSE)
 4TH SEMESTER TH4: ELECTRO ICS SYSTEM & DESIG
DEPARTME T OF CSE, KSET

CHAPTER 3: VOLTAGE REGULATION & POWER SUPPLY

3.1 MULTIVIBRATOR
A multi-vibrator is an electronic circuit used to implement a variety of simple two-state systems such as oscillators, timers and flip-
flops. It is characterized by two amplifying devices (transistors, electron tubes or other devices) cross-coupled by resistors or
capacitors. The name "multi-vibrator" was initially applied to the free-running oscillator version of the circuit because its output
waveform was rich in harmonics. There are three types of multi-vibrator circuits depending on the circuit operation:

1. Astable, in which the circuit is not stable in either state it continually switches from one state to the other. It functions as a
relaxation oscillator.
2. Monostable, in which one of the states is stable, but the other state is unstable (transient). A trigger pulse causes the circuit to
enter the unstable state. After entering the unstable state, the circuit will return to the stable state after a set time. Such a circuit is
useful for creating a timing period of fixed duration in response to some external event. This circuit is also known as a one shot.

3.1.1 ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR:

An astable multivibrator is a regenerative circuit consisting of two amplifying stages connected in a positive feedback loop
by two capacitive-resistive coupling networks. The amplifying elements may be junction or field-effect transistors, vacuum tubes,
operational amplifiers, or other types of amplifier.

OPERATION:
The circuit has two stable states that change alternatively with maximum transition rate because of the "accelerating"
positive feedback. It is implemented by the coupling capacitors that instantly transfer voltage changes because the voltage across
a capacitor cannot suddenly change. In each state, one transistor is switched on and the other is switched off. Accordingly, one
fully charged capacitor discharges (reverse charges) slowly thus converting the time into an exponentially changing voltage. At the
same time, the other empty capacitor quickly charges thus restoring its charge (the first capacitor acts as a time-setting capacitor
and the second prepares to play this role in the next state). The circuit operation is based on the fact that the forward-biased base-
emitter junction of the switched-on bipolar transistor can provide a path for the capacitor restoration.
State 1 (Q1 is switched on, Q2 is switched off):
In the beginning, the capacitor C1 is fully charged to the power supply
voltage V with the polarity shown in Figure. Q1 is on and connects the left-hand positive
plate of C1 to ground. As its right-hand negative plate is connected to Q2 base, a
maximum negative voltage (-V) is applied to Q2 base that keeps Q2 firmly off. C1 begins
discharging (reverse charging) via the high-value base resistor R2, so that the voltage of
its right-hand plate (and at the base of Q2) is rising from below ground (-V) toward +V.
As Q2 base-emitter junction is backward-biased, it does not conduct, so all the current
from R2 goes into C1. Simultaneously, C2 that is fully discharged and even slightly
charged to 0.6 V (in the previous State 2) quickly charges via the low-value collector
resistor R4 and Q1 forward-biased base-emitter junction (because R4 is less than R2, C2 charges faster than C1). Thus C2
restores its charge and prepares for the next State 2 when it will act as a time-setting capacitor. Q1 is firmly saturated in the
beginning by the "forcing" C2 charging current added to R3 current; in the end, only R3 provides the needed input base current.
The resistance R3 is chosen small enough to keep Q1 (not deeply) saturated after C2 is fully charged.

When the voltage of C1 right-hand plate (Q2 base voltage) becomes positive and reaches 0.6 V, Q2 base-emitter junction
begins diverting a part of R2 charging current. Q2 begins conducting and this starts the avalanche-like positive feedback process
as follows. Q2 collector voltage begins falling; this change transfers through the fully charged C2 to Q1 base and Q1 begins
cutting off. Its collector voltage begins rising; this change transfers back through the almost empty C1 to Q2 base and makes Q2
conduct more thus sustaining the initial input impact on Q2 base. Thus the initial input change circulates along the feedback loop

Page 8
OTES BY: Er. SOUMYA SOURABHA PAT AIK, HOD(CSE)
Er. ABHIJITA HOTA, CLASS TEACHER (CSE)
 4TH SEMESTER TH4: ELECTRO ICS SYSTEM & DESIG
DEPARTME T OF CSE, KSET

and grows in an avalanche-like manner until finally Q1 switches off and Q2 switches on. The forward-biased Q2 base-emitter
junction fixes the voltage of C1 right-hand plate at 0.6 V and does not allow it to continue rising toward +V.

State 2 (Q1 is switched off, Q2 is switched on):

Now, the capacitor C2 is fully charged to the power supply voltage V with the polarity shown in Figure 1. Q2 is on and
connects the right-hand positive plate of C2 to ground. As its left-hand negative plate is connected to Q1 base, a maximum
negative voltage (-V) is applied to Q1 base that keeps Q1 firmly off. C2 begins discharging (reverse charging) via the high-value
base resistor R3, so that the voltage of its left-hand plate (and at the base of Q1) is rising from below ground (-V) toward +V.
Simultaneously, C1 that is fully discharged and even slightly charged to 0.6 V (in the previous State 1) quickly charges via the low-
value collector resistor R1 and Q2 forward-biased base-emitter junction (because R1 is less than R3, C1 charges faster than C2).
Thus C1 restores its charge and prepares for the next State 1 when it will act again as a time-setting capacitor...and so on.

3.1.2 MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR

In the monostable multivibrator, the one resistive-capacitive is replaced by a
resistive network (just a resistor). The circuit can be thought as a 1/2 astable
multivibrator. Q2 collector voltage is the output of the circuit (in contrast to
the astable circuit, it has a perfect square waveform since the output is not loaded
by the capacitor).

When triggered by an input pulse, a monostable multivibrator will switch to its

unstable position for a period of time, and then return to its stable state. The time
period monostable multivibrator remains in unstable state is given by t = ln(2)R2C1.
If repeated application of the input pulse maintains the circuit in the unstable state,
it is called a retriggerable monostable. If further trigger pulses do not affect the
period, the circuit is a non-retriggerable multivibrator.
For the circuit, in the stable state Q1 is turned off and Q2 is turned on. It is triggered
by zero or negative input signal applied to Q2 base (with the same success it can be triggered by applying a positive input signal
through a resistor to Q1 base). As a result, the circuit goes in State 1 described above. After elapsing the time, it returns to its
stable initial state.
3.2 VCO (Voltage Control Oscilloscope)
A voltage-controlled oscillator or VCO is an electronic oscillator whose oscillation frequency is controlled by a voltage
input. The applied input voltage determines the instantaneous oscillation frequency. Consequently, modulating signals applied to
control input may cause frequency modulation (FM) or phase modulation (PM). A VCO may also be part of a phase-locked loop.
A voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO) is used for fine adjustment of the operating frequency. The frequency of a voltage-controlled
crystal oscillator can be varied a few tens of parts per million (ppm), because the high Q factor of the crystals allows "pulling" over
only a small range of frequencies.
There are two reasons for using a VCXO:
To adjust the output frequency to match (or perhaps be some exact
multiple of) an accurate external reference.
Where the oscillator drives equipment that may generate radio-
frequency interference, adding a varying voltage to its control input
can disperse the interference spectrum to make it less
objectionable.
VCOs are used in:
Function generators,
The production of electronic music, to generate variable tones,
Phase-locked loops,
Frequency synthesizers used in communication equipment.

Page 9
OTES BY: Er. SOUMYA SOURABHA PAT AIK, HOD(CSE)
Er. ABHIJITA HOTA, CLASS TEACHER (CSE)
 4TH SEMESTER TH4: ELECTRO ICS SYSTEM & DESIG
DEPARTME T OF CSE, KSET

3.3 SMPS
SMPS stands for switch mode power supply. In such a device power handling electronic components are continuously
switching on and off with high frequency in order to provide the transfer of electric power via energy storage components
(inductors and capacitors). By varying duty cycle, frequency or a relative phase of these transitions average value of output
voltage or current is controlled . The frequency range of an SMPS is from 20 kHz to several MHz.

Below is the block diagram of a typical off-line switching power supply.

The AC input voltage first passes through fuses and a line filter and is rectified by a full-wave bridge rectifier. The rectified input
voltage is next applied to PFC (power factor correction) pre-regulator followed by output DC-DC converter(s). F1 and F2 shown on
the left of the diagram are input fuses. Fuse is a safety device designed to physically open the circuit when the current being
drawn through it exceeds its rating for a certain period of time. The fusing time depends on the degree of overload. Due to this
time delay fuses will not always protect power supply circuit from a catastrophic failure caused by abnormal conditions. Their main
purpose is to protect input line from overheating, prevent tripping of circuit breaker and prevent fire inside the PSU that may be
triggered by failed components. Low-pass EMI filter reduces high frequency currents getting from PSU into the AC line to an
acceptable level. It is necessary to prevent the PSU from causing interference on the mains wiring. There is a number of
standards (such as EN55022 for Information technology equipment) that govern the maximum level of EMI caused by PSU. The
filter is followed by the bridge rectifier- the circuit that converts bipolar AC voltage to uni-polar pulsating voltage. It uses four diodes
in a bridge arrangement to provide the same polarity of output voltage for both polarities of input voltage.

3.4 UPS
An uninterruptible power supply, is an electrical apparatus that provides emergency power to a load when the input
power source, typically mains power, fails. A UPS differs from an auxiliary or emergency power system or standby generator in
that it will provide near-instantaneous protection from input power interruptions, by supplying energy stored in batteries or a
flywheel. The on-battery runtime of most uninterruptible power sources is relatively short (only a few minutes) but sufficient to start
a standby power source or properly shut down the protected equipment.
A UPS is typically used to protect computers, data centers, telecommunication equipment or other electrical equipment where an
unexpected power disruption could cause injuries, fatalities, serious business disruption or data loss. UPS units range in size from
units designed to protect a single computer without a video monitor (around 200 VA rating) to large units powering entire data
centers or buildings.
The primary role of any UPS is to provide short-term power when the input power source fails. However, most UPS units are also
capable in varying degrees of correcting common utility power problems:
Voltage spike or sustained Overvoltage
Momentary or sustained reduction in input voltage.
Noise, defined as a high frequency transient or oscillation, usually injected into the line by nearby equipment.
Instability of the mains frequency.
Harmonic distortion: defined as a departure from the ideal sinusoidal waveform expected on the line.
OPERATIONS:
The general categories of modern UPS systems are on-line, line-interactive or standby.
An on-line UPS uses a "double conversion" method of accepting AC input, rectifying to DC for passing through the rechargeable
battery (or battery strings), then inverting back to 120 V/230 V AC for powering the protected equipment.

Page 10
OTES BY: Er. SOUMYA SOURABHA PAT AIK, HOD(CSE)
Er. ABHIJITA HOTA, CLASS TEACHER (CSE)
 4TH SEMESTER TH4: ELECTRO ICS SYSTEM & DESIG
DEPARTME T OF CSE, KSET

A line-interactive UPS maintains the inverter in line and redirects the battery's DC current path from the normal charging mode to
supplying current when power is lost. In a standby ("off-line") system the load is powered directly by the input power and the
backup power circuitry is only invoked when the utility power fails. Most UPS below 1 kVA are of the line-interactive or standby
variety which are usually less expensive.
For large power units, dynamic uninterruptible power supplies are sometimes used. A synchronous motor/alternator is connected
on the mains via a choke. Energy is stored in a flywheel. When the mains power fails, an Eddy-current regulation maintains the
power on the load as long as the flywheel's energy is not exhausted. DUPS are sometimes combined or integrated with a diesel
generator that is turned on after a brief delay, forming a diesel rotary uninterruptible power supply (DRUPS).
A fuel cell UPS has been developed in recent years using hydrogen and a fuel cell as a power source, potentially providing long
run times in a small space.

Page 11
OTES BY: Er. SOUMYA SOURABHA PAT AIK, HOD(CSE)
Er. ABHIJITA HOTA, CLASS TEACHER (CSE)
 4TH SEMESTER TH4: ELECTRO ICS SYSTEM & DESIG
DEPARTME T OF CSE, KSET

CHAPTER 4: PCB

PCB:
PCB stands for Printed Circuit Board. PCB is used to mechanically support and electrically connect electronic
components using conductive pathways, tracks or signal traces etched from copper sheets laminated onto a non-conductive
substrate. When the board has only copper tracks and features, and no circuit elements such as capacitors, resistors or active
devices have been manufactured into the actual substrate of the board, it is more correctly referred to as printed wiring board
(PWB) or etched wiring board. Use of the term PWB or printed wiring board although more accurate and distinct from what would
be known as a true printed circuit board, has generally fallen by the wayside for many people as the distinction between circuit
and wiring has become blurred. Printed wiring (circuit) boards are used in virtually all but the simplest commercially produced
electronic devices, and allow fully automated assembly processes that were not possible or practical in earlier era tag type circuit
assembly processes.
A PCB populated with electronic components is called a printed circuit assembly (PCA), printed circuit board assembly or PCB
Assembly (PCBA). In informal use the term "PCB" is used both for bare and assembled boards, the context clarifying the
meaning.

Manufacturing

Materials:
Excluding exotic products using special materials or processes, all printed circuit boards manufactured today can be built using the following four items which are
usually purchased from manufacturers:

1. Laminates
2. Copper-clad laminates
3. Resin impregnated B-stage cloth (Pre-preg)
4. Copper foil
Laminates:
Laminates are manufactured by curing under pressure and temperature layers of cloth or paper with thermoset resin to form an integral final piece of uniform
thickness. The size can be up to 4 by 8 feet (1.2 by 2.4 m) in width and length. Varying cloth weaves (threads per inch or cm), cloth thickness, and resin
percentage are used to achieve the desired final thickness and dielectric characteristics.

Copper foil thickness can be specified in ounces per square foot or micrometres. One ounce per square foot is 1.344 mils or 34 micrometres.

Patterning (etching)
The majority of printed circuit boards today are made from purchased laminate material with copper already applied to both sides. The unwanted copper is
removed by various methods leaving only the desired copper traces, this is called subtractive. In an additive method, traces are electroplated onto a bare substrate
using a complex process with many steps. The advantage of the additive method is less pollution of the environment. The method chosen for PCB manufacture
depends on the desired number of boards to be produced. Double-sided boards or multi-layer boards use plated-through holes, called vias, to connect traces on
different layers of the PWB.

Large volume

Silk screen printingthe main commercial method.

Photographic methodsused when fine linewidths are required.

Small volume

Page 12
OTES BY: Er. SOUMYA SOURABHA PAT AIK, HOD(CSE)
Er. ABHIJITA HOTA, CLASS TEACHER (CSE)
 4TH SEMESTER TH4: ELECTRO ICS SYSTEM & DESIG
DEPARTME T OF CSE, KSET

Print onto transparent film and use as photomask along with photo-sensitized boards. (i.e., pre-sensitized boards), then etch. (Alternatively, use a film
photoplotter).
Laser resist ablation: Spray black paint onto copper clad laminate, place into CNC laser plotter. The laser raster-scans the PCB and ablates (vaporizes)
the paint where no resist is wanted. Etch. (Note: laser copper ablation is rarely used and is considered experimental.[clarification needed])
Use a CNC-mill with a spade-shaped (i.e., a flat-ended cone) cutter or miniature end-mill to rout away the undesired copper, leaving only the traces.

Hobbyist Laser-printed resist: Laser-print onto transparency film, heat-transfer with an iron or modified laminator onto bare laminate, touch up with a marker,
then etch.

Vinyl film and resist, non-washable marker, some other methods. Labor-intensive, only suitable for single boards.
Subtractive processes

Page 13
OTES BY: Er. SOUMYA SOURABHA PAT AIK, HOD(CSE)
Er. ABHIJITA HOTA, CLASS TEACHER (CSE)
 4TH SEMESTER TH4: ELECTRO ICS SYSTEM & DESIG
DEPARTME T OF CSE, KSET

The two processing methods used to produce a double-sided PWB with plated through holes.

Subtractive methods, that remove copper from an entirely copper-coated board, used for the production of printed circuit boards:

1. Silk screen printing uses etch-resistant inks to protect the copper foil. Subsequent etching removes the unwanted copper. Alternatively, the ink may be
conductive, printed on a blank (non-conductive) board. The latter technique is also used in the manufacture of hybrid circuits.
2. Photoengraving uses a photomask and developer to selectively remove a photoresist coating. The remaining photoresist protects the copper foil.
Subsequent etching removes the unwanted copper. The photomask is usually prepared with a photoplotter from data produced by a technician using
CAM, or computer-aided manufacturingsoftware. Laser-printed transparencies are typically employed for phototools; however, direct laser imaging
techniques are being employed to replace phototools for high-resolution requirements.
3. PCB milling uses a two or three-axis mechanical milling system to mill away the copper foil from the substrate. A PCB milling machine (referred to as a
'PCB Prototyper') operates in a similar way to a plotter, receiving commands from the host software that control the position of the milling head in the x,
y, and (if relevant) z axis. Data to drive the Prototyper is extracted from files generated in PCB design software and stored in HPGL orGerber file format.

Additive processes
Additive processes adds desired copper traces to an insulating substrate. In the full additive process the bare laminate is covered with a photosensitive film which
is imaged (exposed to light though a mask and then developed which removes the unexposed film). The exposed areas are sensitized in a chemical bath, usually
containing palladium and similar to that used for through hole plating which makes the exposed area capable of bonding metal ions. The laminate is then plated
with copper in the sensitized areas. When the mask is stripped, you have a finished PCB.

The most common is the "semi-additive" process: the unpatterned board has a thin layer of copper already on it. A reverse mask is then applied. Additional copper
is then plated onto the board in the unmasked areas; copper may be plated to any desired weight. Tin-lead or other surface platings are then applied. The mask is
stripped away and a brief etching step removes the now-exposed bare original copper laminate from the board, isolating the individual traces. Some single-sided
boards which have plated-through holes are made in this way. The additive process is commonly used for multi-layer boards as it facilitates the plating-through of
the holes to produce conductive vias in the circuit board. Circuit

Properties of the PCB

Each trace consists of a flat, narrow part of the copper foil that remains after etching. The resistance, determined by width and thickness, of the traces must be
sufficiently low for the current the conductor will carry. Power and ground traces may need to be wider than signal traces. In a multi-layer board one entire layer
may be mostly solid copper to act as a ground plane for shielding and power return. For microwave circuits, transmission lines can be laid out in the form
of stripline and microstrip with carefully controlled dimensions to assure a consistent impedance. In radio-frequency and fast switching circuits
the inductance and capacitance of the printed circuit board conductors become significant circuit elements, usually undesired; but they can be used as a deliberate
part of the circuit design, obviating the need for additional discrete components.

Chemical etching
Chemical etching is usually done with ammonium persulfate or ferric chloride. For PTH (plated-through holes), additional steps of electroless deposition are done
after the holes are drilled, then copper is electroplated to build up the thickness, the boards are screened, and plated with tin/lead. The tin/lead becomes the resist
leaving the bare copper to be etched away.

The simplest method, used for small-scale production and often by hobbyists, is immersion etching, in which the board is submerged in etching solution such as
ferric chloride. Compared with methods used for mass production, the etching time is long. Heat and agitation can be applied to the bath to speed the etching rate.
In bubble etching, air is passed through the etchant bath to agitate the solution and speed up etching. Splash etching uses a motor-driven paddle to splash boards
with etchant; the process has become commercially obsolete since it is not as fast as spray etching. In spray etching, the etchant solution is distributed over the

Page 14
OTES BY: Er. SOUMYA SOURABHA PAT AIK, HOD(CSE)
Er. ABHIJITA HOTA, CLASS TEACHER (CSE)
 4TH SEMESTER TH4: ELECTRO ICS SYSTEM & DESIG
DEPARTME T OF CSE, KSET

boards by nozzles, and recirculated by pumps. Adjustment of the nozzle pattern, flow rate, temperature, and etchant composition gives predictable control of
etching rates and high production rates.

As more copper is consumed from the boards, the etchant becomes saturated and less effective; different etchants have different capacities for copper, with some
as high as 150 grams of copper per litre of solution. In commercial use, etchants can be regenerated to restore their activity, and the dissolved copper recovered
and sold. Small-scale etching requires attention to disposal of used etchant, which is corrosive and toxic due to its metal content.

The etchant removes copper on all surfaces exposed by the resist. "Undercut" occurs when etchant attacks the thin edge of copper under the resist; this can
reduce conductor widths and cause open-circuits. Careful control of etch time is required to prevent undercut. Where metallic plating is used as a resist, it can
"overhang" which can cause short-circuits between adjacent traces when closely spaced. Overhang can be removed by wire-brushing the board after etching.[9]

Lamination
"Multi layer" printed circuit boards have trace layers inside the board. One way to make a 4-layer PCB is to use a two-sided copper-clad laminate, etch the circuitry
on both sides, then laminate to the top and bottom prepreg and copper foil. Lamination is done by placing the stack of materials in a press and applying pressure
and heat for a period of time. This results in an inseparable one piece product. It is then drilled, plated, and etched again to get traces on top and bottom layers.
Finally the PCB is covered with solder mask, marking legend, and a surface finish may be applied. Multi-layer PCB's allow for much higher component density.

Drilling
Holes through a PCB are typically drilled with small-diameter drill bits made of solid coated tungsten carbide. Coated tungsten carbide is recommended since
many board materials are very abrasive and drilling must be high RPM and high feed to be cost effective. Drill bits must also remain sharp so as not to mar or tear
the traces. Drilling with high-speed-steel is simply not feasible since the drill bits will dull quickly and thus tear the copper and ruin the boards. The drilling is
performed by automated drilling machines with placement controlled by a drill tape or drill file. These computer-generated files are also called numerically
controlled drill (NCD) files or "Excellon files". The drill file describes the location and size of each drilled hole. These holes are often filled with annular rings (hollow
rivets) to create vias. Vias allow the electrical and thermal connection of conductors on opposite sides of the PCB.

When very small vias are required, drilling with mechanical bits is costly because of high rates of wear and breakage. In this case, the vias may be evaporated
by lasers. Laser-drilled vias typically have an inferior surface finish inside the hole. These holes are called micro vias.

It is also possible with controlled-depth drilling, laser drilling, or by pre-drilling the individual sheets of the PCB before lamination, to produce holes that connect
only some of the copper layers, rather than passing through the entire board. These holes are called blind vias when they connect an internal copper layer to an
outer layer, or buried vias when they connect two or more internal copper layers and no outer layers.

The hole walls for boards with 2 or more layers can be made conductive and then electroplated with copper to form plated-through holes. These holes electrically
connect the conducting layers of the PCB. For multilayer boards, those with 3 layers or more, drilling typically produces a smear of the high temperature
decomposition products of bonding agent in the laminate system. Before the holes can be plated through, this smear must be removed by a chemical de-
smear process, or by plasma-etch. The de-smear process ensures that a good connection is made to the copper layers when the hole is plated through. On high
reliability boards a process called etch-back is performed chemically with a potassium permanganate based etchant or plasma. The etch-back removes resin and
the glass fibers so that the copper layers extend into the hole and as the hole is plated become integral with the deposited copper.

Exposed conductor plating and coating

PCB are plated with solder, tin, or gold over nickel as a resist for etching away the unneeded underlying copper. After PCBs are etched and then rinsed with water,
the soldermask is applied, and then any exposed copper is coated with solder, nickel/gold, or some other anti-corrosion coating. Matte solder is usually fused to
provide a better bonding surface or stripped to bare copper. Treatments, such as benzimidazolethiol, prevent surface oxidation of bare copper. The places to
which components will be mounted are typically plated, because untreated bare copper oxidizes quickly, and therefore is not readily solderable. Traditionally, any
exposed copper was coated with solder by hot air solder levelling (HASL). The HASL finish prevents oxidation from the underlying copper, thereby guaranteeing a
solderable surface. This solder was a tin-lead alloy, however new solder compounds are now used to achieve compliance with the RoHS directive in the EU and

Page 15
OTES BY: Er. SOUMYA SOURABHA PAT AIK, HOD(CSE)
Er. ABHIJITA HOTA, CLASS TEACHER (CSE)
 4TH SEMESTER TH4: ELECTRO ICS SYSTEM & DESIG
DEPARTME T OF CSE, KSET

US, which restricts the use of lead. One of these lead-free compounds is SN100CL, made up of 99.3% tin, 0.7% copper, 0.05% nickel, and a nominal of 60ppm
germanium.

It is important to use solder compatible with both the PCB and the parts used. An example is Ball Grid Array (BGA) using tin-lead solder balls for connections
losing their balls on bare copper traces or using lead-free solder paste.

Other platings used are OSP (organic surface protectant), immersion silver (IAg), immersion tin, electroless nickel with immersion gold coating (ENIG), and
direct gold plating (over nickel). Edge connectors, placed along one edge of some boards, are often nickel plated then gold plated. Another coating consideration is
rapid diffusion of coating metal into Tin solder. Tin forms intermetallics such as Cu5Sn6 and Ag3Cu that dissolve into the Tin liquidus or solidus(@50C), stripping
surface coating or leaving voids.

Electrochemical migration (ECM) is the growth of conductive metal filaments on or in a printed circuit board (PCB) under the influence of a DC voltage
bias.[17][18] Silver, zinc, and aluminum are known to grow whiskers under the influence of an electric field. Silver also grows conducting surface paths in the
presence of halide and other ions, making it a poor choice for electronics use. Tin will grow "whiskers" due to tension in the plated surface. Tin-Lead or Solder
plating also grows whiskers, only reduced by the percentage Tin replaced. Reflow to melt solder or tin plate to relieve surface stress lowers whisker incidence.
Another coating issue is tin pest, the transformation of tin to a powdery allotrope at low temperature.

Solder resist
Areas that should not be soldered may be covered with "solder resist" (solder mask). One of the most common solder resists used today is called LPI (liquid
photoimageable). A photo sensitive coating is applied to the surface of the PWB, then exposed to light through the solder mask image film, and finally developed
where the unexposed areas are washed away. Dry film solder mask is similar to the dry film used to image the PWB for plating or etching. After being laminated to
the PWB surface it is imaged and develop as LPI. Once common but no longer commonly used because of its low accuracy and resolution is to screen print epoxy
ink. Solder resist also provides protection from the environment.

Silkscreen
Line art and text may be printed onto the outer surfaces of a PCB usually by screen printing epoxy ink in a contrasting color, but can also be done with LPI or dry
film like the solder resist. When space permits, the legend can indicate component designators, switch setting requirements, test points, and other features helpful
in assembling, testing, and servicing the circuit board.

Some digital printing solutions are used instead of screen printing. This technology allows printing variable data onto the PCB, including individual serial
numbers as text and bar code.

Test
Unpopulated boards may be subjected to a bare-board test where each circuit connection (as defined in a netlist) is verified as correct on the finished board. For
high-volume production, a bed of nails tester, a fixture or a rigid needle adapter is used to make contact with copper lands or holes on one or both sides of the
board to facilitate testing. A computer will instruct the electrical test unit to apply a small voltage to each contact point on the bed-of-nails as required, and verify
that such voltage appears at other appropriate contact points. A "short" on a board would be a connection where there should not be one; an "open" is between
two points that should be connected but are not. For small- or medium-volume boards, flying probe and flying-grid testers use moving test heads to make contact
with the copper/silver/gold/solder lands or holes to verify the electrical connectivity of the board under test. Another method for testing is industrial CT scanning,
which can generate a 3D rendering of the board along with 2D image slices and can show details such a soldered paths and connections.

After the printed circuit board (PCB) is completed, electronic components must be attached to form a functional printed circuit assembly, or PCA (sometimes called
a "printed circuit board assembly" PCBA). In through-hole construction, component leads are inserted in holes. In surface-mountconstruction, the components are
placed on pads or lands on the outer surfaces of the PCB. In both kinds of construction, component leads are electrically and mechanically fixed to the board with
a molten metal solder.

Page 16
OTES BY: Er. SOUMYA SOURABHA PAT AIK, HOD(CSE)
Er. ABHIJITA HOTA, CLASS TEACHER (CSE)
 4TH SEMESTER TH4: ELECTRO ICS SYSTEM & DESIG
DEPARTME T OF CSE, KSET

There are a variety of soldering techniques used to attach components to a PCB. High volume production is usually done with SMT placement machineand bulk
wave soldering or reflow ovens, but skilled technicians are able to solder very tiny parts (for instance 0201 packages which are 0.02 in. by 0.01 in.) by hand under
a microscope, using tweezers and a fine tip soldering iron for small volume prototypes. Some parts may be extremely difficult to solder by hand, such
as BGA packages.

Often, through-hole and surface-mount construction must be combined in a single assembly because some required components are available only in surface-
mount packages, while others are available only in through-hole packages. Another reason to use both methods is that through-hole mounting can provide needed
strength for components likely to endure physical stress, while components that are expected to go untouched will take up less space using surface-mount
techniques.

After the board has been populated it may be tested in a variety of ways:

While the power is off, visual inspection, automated optical inspection. JEDEC guidelines for PCB component placement, soldering, and inspection are
commonly used to maintain quality control in this stage of PCB manufacturing.
While the power is off, analog signature analysis, power-off testing.
While the power is on, in-circuit test, where physical measurements (for example, voltage) can be done.
While the power is on, functional test, just checking if the PCB does what it had been designed to do.

To facilitate these tests, PCBs may be designed with extra pads to make temporary connections. Sometimes these pads must be isolated with resistors. The in-
circuit test may also exercise boundary scan test features of some components. In-circuit test systems may also be used to program nonvolatile memory
components on the board.

In boundary scan testing, test circuits integrated into various ICs on the board form temporary connections between the PCB traces to test that the ICs are
mounted correctly. Boundary scan testing requires that all the ICs to be tested use a standard test configuration procedure, the most common one being the Joint
Test Action Group (JTAG) standard. The JTAG test architecture provides a means to test interconnects between integrated circuits on a board without using
physical test probes. JTAG tool vendors provide various types of stimulus and sophisticated algorithms, not only to detect the failing nets, but also to isolate the
faults to specific nets, devices, and pins.[24]

When boards fail the test, technicians may desolder and replace failed components, a task known as rework.

Protection and packaging

PCBs intended for extreme environments often have a conformal coating, which is applied by dipping or spraying after the components have been soldered. The
coat prevents corrosion and leakage currents or shorting due to condensation. The earliest conformal coats were wax; modern conformal coats are usually dips of
dilute solutions of silicone rubber, polyurethane, acrylic, or epoxy. Another technique for applying a conformal coating is for plastic to be sputtered onto the PCB in
a vacuum chamber. The chief disadvantage of conformal coatings is that servicing of the board is rendered extremely difficult.[25]

Many assembled PCBs are static sensitive, and therefore must be placed in antistatic bags during transport. When handling these boards, the user must
be grounded (earthed). Improper handling techniques might transmit an accumulated static charge through the board, damaging or destroying components. Even
bare boards are sometimes static sensitive. Traces have become so fine that it's quite possible to blow an etch off the board (or change its characteristics) with a
static charge. This is especially true on non-traditional PCBs such as MCMs and microwave PCBs.

Design

Printed circuit board artwork generation was initially a fully manual process done on clear mylar sheets at a scale of usually 2 or 4 times the desired size. The
schematic diagram was first converted into a layout of components pin pads, then traces were routed to provide the required interconnections. Pre-printed non-
reproducing mylar grids assisted in layout, and rub-on dry transfers of common arrangements of circuit elements (pads, contact fingers, integrated circuit profiles,
and so on) helped standardize the layout. Traces between devices were made with self-adhesive tape. The finished layout "artwork" was then photographically
reproduced on the resist layers of the blank coated copper-clad boards.

Page 17
OTES BY: Er. SOUMYA SOURABHA PAT AIK, HOD(CSE)
Er. ABHIJITA HOTA, CLASS TEACHER (CSE)
 4TH SEMESTER TH4: ELECTRO ICS SYSTEM & DESIG
DEPARTME T OF CSE, KSET

Modern practice is less labor intensive since computers can automatically perform many of the layout steps. The general progression for a commercial printed
circuit board design would include: Schematic capture through an Electronic design automation tool.

1. Card dimensions and template are decided based on required circuitry and case of the PCB. Determine the fixed components and heat sinks if required.
2. Deciding stack layers of the PCB. 1 to 12 layers or more depending on design complexity. Ground plane and power plane are decided. Signal planes
where signals are routed are in top layer as well as internal layers.[27]
3. Line impedance determination using dielectric layer thickness, routing copper thickness and trace-width. Trace separation also taken into account in
case of differential signals. Microstrip,stripline or dual stripline can be used to route signals.
4. Placement of the components. Thermal considerations and geometry are taken into account. Vias and lands are marked.
5. Routing the signal traces. For optimal EMI performance high frequency signals are routed in internal layers between power or ground planes as power
planes behave as ground for AC.
6. Gerber file generation for manufacturing.

In the design of the PCB artwork, a power plane is the counterpart to the ground plane and behaves as an AC signal ground, while providing DC voltage for
powering circuits mounted on the PCB. In electronic design automation (EDA) design tools, power planes (and ground planes) are usually drawn automatically as
a negative layer, with clearances or connections to the plane created automatically.

Copper thickness

Copper thickness of PCBs can be specified in units of length, but is often specified as weight of copper per square foot, in ounces, which is easier to measure.
Each ounce of copper is approximately 1.4 mils (0.0014 inch) or 35 m of thickness.

The printed circuit board industry defines heavy copper as layers exceeding 3 ounces of copper, or approximately 0.0042 inches (4.2 mils, 105 m) thick. PCB
designers and fabricators often use heavy copper when design and manufacturing circuit boards in order to increase current-carrying capacity as well as
resistance to thermal strains. Heavy copper plated vias transfer heat to external heat sinks. IPC 2152 is a standard for determining current-carrying capacity of
printed circuit board traces.

Safety certification (US)

Safety Standard UL 796 covers component safety requirements for printed wiring boards for use as components in devices or appliances. Testing analyzes
characteristics such as flammability, maximum operating temperature, electrical tracking, heat deflection, and direct support of live electrical parts.

Multiwire boards

Multiwire is a patented technique of interconnection which uses machine-routed insulated wires embedded in a non-conducting matrix (often plastic resin). It was
used during the 1980s and 1990s. (Kollmorgen Technologies Corp, U.S. Patent 4,175,816 filed 1978) Multiwire is still available in 2010 through Hitachi. There are
other competitive discrete wiring technologies that have been developed (Jumatech [2], layered sheets).

Since it was quite easy to stack interconnections (wires) inside the embedding matrix, the approach allowed designers to forget completely about the routing of
wires (usually a time-consuming operation of PCB design): Anywhere the designer needs a connection, the machine will draw a wire in straight line from one
location/pin to another. This led to very short design times (no complex algorithms to use even for high density designs) as well as reduced crosstalk (which is
worse when wires run parallel to each otherwhich almost never happens in Multiwire), though the cost is too high to compete with cheaper PCB technologies
when large quantities are needed.

Page 18
OTES BY: Er. SOUMYA SOURABHA PAT AIK, HOD(CSE)
Er. ABHIJITA HOTA, CLASS TEACHER (CSE)