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ETHICS - A - Z
Absolutism : This is the view, with regard to a moral principle or claim, that it holds everywhere
and is never overridden. For example, one might hold that the claim, 'harming
another person just for the pleasure of doing so' is absolutely wrong. There are
no exceptional cases, and in no case is the principle overridden. The absolutist
claims that there are some moral principles that hold no matter what the
circumstances. Absolutism is more helpfully understood as being a feature of
specific moral rules, such as 'deceitful promise-making is wrong', or 'harming
others just for the pleasure of it is wrong'. A moral theory may hold that there
are no absolute principles even if it holds that there is a fundamental criterion
of moral rightness and wrongness. It also seems that most of the principles that
are regarded as absolute are prohibitions rather than injunctions to act in certain

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ways.

Act-utilitarianism : This is a version of utilitarianism according to which the decisive moral

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considerations are those that indicate what individual act in the specific
circumstances is likely to produce the greatest happiness or utility. Individual
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acts, rather than general rules and principles, are the proper objects of moral
concern and justification. Defenders of act-utilitarianism argue that basing moral
decision on other grounds - for example, the overall utility of people acting on
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the basis of general rules - is at odds with the basic commitments of utilitarianism.
This is because doing so would permit actions that are known not to maximize
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utility.

Agent-centred : Some moral theories hold that the scope of impartiality is appropriately restricted
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consideration by considerations about individual agents' projects and concerns. Defenders of

the view often criticize utilitarian theories (among others) for failing to acknowledge
properly constraints on action grounded in agents' self-conceptions and limits on
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what they take to be morally allowable, at least for themselves. For example, a
defender of agent-centred considerations might argue that (a) there are ways in
which (utilitarian) good could be maximized, but that certain actions that would
maximize it are morally out of the question, and that (b) there is a moral right
that protects agents from criticism for not having taken the maximizing action.
Here again, questions have been raised about whether impartiality should have an
absolute claim over the way agents consider and respond to the moral
considerations in a situation. That kind of partiality is not a moral fault.

Agent-neutral : These are moral considerations that have weight without regard to the ends,
considerations concerns and commitments of particular individuals and their own judgement of
the significance of those ends, concerns and commitments. Agent-neutral
considerations can be expressed in terms that are universal and impartial. The
defender of agent-neutrality argues that if there are decisive agent-neutral
considerations for doing X then I ought do X, even if doing so is contrary to my
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own central concerns and desires. The fact that my autonomy or the projects and
aspirations important to me are at odds with strict impartiality does not get in
the way of agent-neutral reasons for action. Defenders of agent-centred
considerations will argue that not all of morality should be agent-neutral.
Aquinas, Thomas : An enduringly influential Catholic theologian and philosopher, he understood
(1225-74) Italian philosophy to be in the service of theology. In his major works, there are substantial
portions on moral psychology, the virtues, freedom of the will and human actions,
the relation of the moral virtues to the intellectual and theological virtues, natural
law, and human happiness and the proper end for human nature. He was strongly
influenced by, and was an important commentator on Aristotle (in ethics as well
as other areas).

Like Aristotle, he has an intellectualist conception of man's end; however, his

conception of the being with whom we can be united is the God of Christianity,
and the union with God requires the theological virtues. There is not any close
counterpart to Christian grace in Aristotle's ethics or metaphysics, and there are

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no theological virtues (which, in Aquinas's view, have to be infused by God) in
his moral psychology and conception of the soul. That said, there are very

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substantial affinities between Aristotle and Aquinas, and Aquinas certainly regarded
Aristotle's thought as a pinnacle of rational understanding, though incomplete on
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account of not knowing of the Christian revelation. Because of the depth of his
under-standing of Aristotle and because of the richness of his own thought,
Aquinas's works are attracting growing contemporary interest. It is increasingly
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recognized that it is not correct to regard Aquinas simply as 'Aristotle plus

Christianity'. The interest in his ethical thought tends to be focused on its value
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to current developments and defences of virtue-centred moral psychology and

moral theory.
Aristotle (384-22 BCE) : He enveloped a virtue-centred eudemonism, a theory in which human flourishing
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Greek and the virtuous activities required for it are the central concerns. His Nico-
macbean Ethics (and to a lesser extent, Fredonia,: Ethics) is a foundational work
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in virtue-centred theorizing. He argued that there is an intrinsic end proper to

human nature, namely, eudaimonia (often translated as happiness') and that it is
fundamentally grounded in rational activity. That includes both deliberative,
practical activity and theoretical activity, intellectual activity for its own sake.
Indeed, one of the main interpretive debates about Aristotle concerns the relation
between the intellectualist ideal and the life of practical activity (in particular,
ethical activity in civic life). Aristotle held that there are intellectual virtues and
virtues of character, the latter acquired through habituation. There is, though, an
important connection between the two kinds of virtues; practical wisdom (or
prudence) is an action-guiding intellectual virtue. It is the understanding of human
good that one needs in order to deliberate, choose and act well. Moreover, Aristotle
held that one cannot fully have the virtues of character without practical wisdom,
and vice versa.
Another key part of his view is that ethics cannot be codified, nor is there some
single fundamental principle or criterion of right action, as there is in Kant-'s or
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Mill's theories, for example. The phronimos, the man of practical wisdom, is a
living norm, and a proper object of emulation (which is not mere imitation).
There are certain virtues the excellent person must have, and there are certain
ethical rules the agent acts on, but ethics overall is a matter of judgement that
is carefully calibrated to the features of particular situations. It is not simply or
mainly a matter of rule-following.

Through Aristotle's influence, virtue-centred theorizing often rakes a form in

which it is (a) cognitivist, (b) particularist, and (c) focused on what makes for a
well-led life rather than fixed rules or principles of action. The notion of a
flourishing, worthwhile life, shaped by sound habituation and well-ordered self-
determination is central in Aristotle's theorizing and most of the theorizing
influenced by it. Aristotle's ethics can be interpreted as a kind of naturalism
because of the significance in it of a proper end, intrinsic to human nature.
However, his conception of fully actualized intellectual activity is a conception
of activity that transcends our biological human nature. In Aristotle's ethical
theorizing the person with practical wisdom is the relevant measure. That person

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can articulate the reasons for his actions. In that sense there is moral understanding
that can be transmitted. But those reasons arc not themselves derivable from the

Autonomy
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application of an overall criterion of rightness.

: There are several different notions of autonomy, including personal autonomy,

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moral autonomy and political autonomy. In different interpretations they have
different relations to each other. Here we will focus on moral autonomy. In some
moral theories (such as Kant's), autonomy is of the first importance in that
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rational agents both formulate the moral law and arc responsible for their actions.
Both of these reflect their autonomy. In other theories (Aristotle's is an example),
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self-determination is crucial, but not autonomy in the sense of self-legislation of

an a priori principle of action.
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In the more Kantian view, the morally autonomous agent is not only self-
determining in acting but is also the author of moral principles. Conceptions of
moral autonomy typically put a great deal of weight on connections between
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that authorship, moral agency, and rationality. They hold that autonomy is a
condition for one to be morally responsible and a full-fledged moral agent. In
Kant's view we are morally self-legislating and are motivated by our recognition
of what our own reason requires. Autonomy has also been held to be a basis for
'self-respect and respecting others in that, if agents are autonomous, they are not
to be treated or regarded merely as means for the interests and purposes of
others.

Benevolence : This is affective concern for the well-being of others. The benevolent person is
moved to act with a view to the good of others out of a disposition of sensibility
rather than strictly principled considerations. On some moral theories, benevolence
is pointed to as a basis for moral concern that comes naturally to human beings
and is as much a part of our nature as self-interest. In that sort of view, it needs
only to be encouraged and extended, rather than somehow inculcated against the
grain of natural selfishness. It is possible for an agent to act with a view to the
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good of others without benevolence; one may see that certain actions are required
even though one does not feel for the good of others. One could be altruistic on
the basis of principles. That is something different from benevolence, which
involves sensibility and motivation of a certain kind.
Bentham, Jeremy : Bentham's writings are voluminous and they cover many areas. In moral theory
(1748-1832) English he is best known for his conviction that there can be a hedonic calculus, a system
for measuring utility in an empirical, objective way. This was to provide the
instrument for assessing actions, practices and policies with a view to their efficacy
in promoting happiness, understood as pleasure. The issue of measurement and
the issue of whether there are qualitative distinctions among pleasures raised
serious objections to a strictly quantitative approach to assessing pleasure and
thereby measuring utility. However, Bentham remains a key figure in the
development of utilitarianism, and a key figure in the critique of natural rights
and the social contract, both of which he took to be fictional and unhelpful to
moral theory. In addition, his thought represents an important type of overall
approach to moral theorizing as the attempt to develop it as a kind of applied

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social science, a theoretical apparatus to be empirically applied and tested without
reliance on custom, revelation, intuition or metaphysics, Bentham was interested
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in moral theorizing for its practical application in policy and he was concerned
with quite concrete issues in law, penology and rights. That commitment to
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genuine practical engagement has a powerful influence on utilitarians in succeeding
generations.
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Cognitivism : The cognitivist holds that moral knowledge is possible, and that the grounds for
moral judgements are objective. It is incumbent upon the cognitivist to supply an
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account of what kinds of considerations those are, and how they can be known,
but the key general commitment is a commitment to moral judgements as being
evaluable in terms of truth and falsity. Moral statements are not to be interpreted
only as expressing attitudes, conventions or personal endorsements. Moral claims
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are true or false by virtue of objective moral considerations. There is room for
argument over whether they are true or not, and whether if true, they admit of
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exceptions.

There are several variants of cognitivism. Some are naturalistic (e.g. Mill), some
are not. Some are intuitionist theories (Moore), some are not. Some are virtue-
centred theories (e.g. Aristotle), others are not. Some (e.g. Kant) hold that moral
judgements are ascertained to be correct or not according to use of an a priori
principle. Cognitivism as such does not commit the theorist to a single, specific
moral epistemology, though, of course, only those within a certain broad range
will support cognitivism. Nor is cognitivism mapped onto specific positions on
normative matters. Cognitivism is closely related to realism and the terms are
often used nearly interchangeably, but realism emphasizes the metaphysics of
moral value while cognitivism emphasizes moral epistemology.

Commensurable : In recent decades there has been considerable debate over the question of whether
values arc commensurable. That is, can the values of different things be ordered
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by a single, common measure? Is the value of autonomy commensurable with

the value of well-being? Is the value of friendship commensurable with the value
of justice? And so forth. While much of the discussion of the issue concerns
different sources of value, the issue can arise even when the values in question
are of the same type, as in hedonic utilitarianism. For example, is one person's
happiness commensurable with another person's? The issue of commensurability
bears on fundamental questions concerning moral deliberation and the justification
of moral decisions. It also bears on whether there are situations of unavoidable
moral tragedy in the sense that even the most strongly justified course of action
involves disvalue with which we must reconcile ourselves. Perhaps not all values
are jointly realizable, and in some cases, there may be significant moral costs.

Conscience : Questions concerning the nature and role of conscience became prominent and
central issues in moral theory through the Jewish and Christian traditions. In
ancient Greek and Roman moral thought there are extensive discussions of self-
knowledge, awareness of the moral features of one's actions and character, and
the differences between vice and weakness of will. Conscience as morally

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authoritative has had a crucial role in morality influenced by theology, though it
has also been taken up in completely secular ethical thought. There are several

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different interpretations of conscience. Among them are the following: (a)
conscience as a faculty of moral cognition -a faculty that enables us to ascertain
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what is morally right and what is morally wrong (Butler); (b) conscience as a
mode of developed sensibility such that we feel-painful regret and remorse when
we act contrary to it (Mill); (c) conscience as an internal judge of the moral
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Worth of our ends and motives. Conscience does not determine what we are to
do, but it can judge whether we have acted in a morally worthy manner (Kant);
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(d) conscience as faculty of practical reason by which we deliberate with a view

to deciding on particular actions to perform, in aiming at conformity with moral
principles. Conscience specifies particular actions in the overall project of aiming
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at what we take to be good. This allows scope for the possibility that an agent
could be conscientious but have wrong values (Aquinas); (e) conscience as a
reflective consideration guiding employment of criteria of moral soundness with
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a view to ascertaining which actions meet those criteria (Smith). Some of the
main issues regarding conscience are (a) whether acting in accord with conscience
renders one blameless, even if what one does is wrong; (b) whether it is morally
worse to act contrary to conscience and be a hypocrite, or to act wrongly though
conscientiously; (c) whether conscience is a faculty that is part of our nature or
is acquired; (d) what the conditions are in which it is appropriate to disobey the
law and legal authority when what they require is contrary to conscience; (c) by
what tests we can determine whether conscience is a proper guide to action and
moral self-evaluation.

Consequentialism : A consequentialist theory holds that the locus of moral value is in the states of
affairs brought about, by actions or practices; that is, consequences are what
morally matter. For the consequentialist, the central concern of moral evaluation
is the difference that is made by actions, rather than the character of the agent,
the character of the motive, or the action-type in itself. For example, if there are
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