Metallography PDF

METALLOGRAPHY
AND
MICROSTRUCTURE
OF
ANCIENT
AND
HISTORIC METALS
METALLOGRAPHY
AND
MICROSTRUCTURE
OF
ANCIENT
AND
HISTORIC METALS
DAVID A. SCOTT
THEINTHEAGES OTCJ.IAYTPICOOANUNWLSIGETEHRVATARTCYHIOMUETNYPISENEBSUTOMITKUSTE
Front and back cover: Photomicrograph of a Wootz Credits: Figures 73-74: Courtesy of the American
steel prill from the Deccan region ofIndia. The steel is Society for Testing and Materials; Figures 106, 145,
hypereurectoid and cast, and was made in a crucible 148, 162: Peter Dorrell, Photography Department,
process. Voids appear dark. The pearlite appears in a Institute of Archaeology, London; Figures 1-8,12-20,
variety of colors due to differences in spacing. The 26-40,55,198-212: redrawn by Janet Spehar
white needles are cementite; the occasional lighter Enriquez; Figures 198-212: Courtesy of the Interna
patches are rich in phosphorus. This crucible steel is a tional Copper Research and Development Association;
high-quality product of ancient historic significance. Figures 75-80: Dennis Keeley; Cover, Plates 1-20,
Color interference tint etched in selenic acid. x420. Figures 9-11, 21-25, 41-54: David A. Scott.
Publications Coordinator: Irina Averkieff, GCI
Editor: Irina Averkieff
Technical Drawing: Janet Spehar Enriquez
Design: Marquita Stanfield Design, Los Angeles, California
Typography: FrameMaker / Adobe Garamond and Gill Sans
Printing: Tien Wah Press, Ltd.
1991 The J. Paul Getty Trust
All rights reserved
Published in association with Archetype Books which acknowledge a grant
from the Commission of European Communities
Printed in Singapore
Libraty of Congress Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
Scott, David A.
Metallography and microstructure of ancient and historic metals/
David A. Scott.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-89236-195-6 (pbk.)
1. Metallography. 2. Alloys--Metallography. 3. Metallographic
specimens. 4. Art objects--Conservation and restoration.
I. Tide.
TN690.S34 1991
669'.95--dc20 91-19484
CIP
THE GETrY CONSERVATION INSTITUTE
The Getty Conservation Institute, an operating
program of the J. Paul Getty Trust, was created
in 1 982 to address the conservation needs of our
cultural heritage. The Institute conducts world
wide, interdisciplinaty professional programs in
scientific research, training, and documentation.
This is accomplished through a combination of
in-house projects and collaborative ventures
with other organizations in the USA and abroad.
Special activities such as field projects, interna
tional conferences, and publications strengthen
the role of the Institute.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Foreword
Preface
IXIX
List of Color Plates and Figures
Color Plates
Xlxvli
The Nature of Metals
2 The Microstructure of Ancient Metals 5
3 Two-phased Materials 11
4 The Microstructure of Tin Bronzes 25
5 Notes on the Structure of Carbon Steels 31
6 Martensite in Low-carbon Steels 33
7 The Tempering of Martensite 35
8 Structure and Properties of Cast I ron 37
9 Corroded Microstructures 43
10 Reflected Polarized Light M icroscopy 49
11 Grain Sizes of Ancient Metals 51
12 Metallography and Ancient Metals 57
13 Metallographic Sampling of Metals 61
14 Mounting and Preparing Specimens 63
15 Recording Results 67
16 Etching and Etching Solutions 69
17 Mounting Resins 75
18 Microhardness Testing 77
A Appendix: Common Microstructural Shapes 79
B Appendix: Microstructure of Corroded Metals 81
C Appendix: Microhardness Values for Different Alloys and Metals 82
D Appendix: Alloys Used in Antiquity 84
E Appendix: Terms and Techniques in Ancient Metalworking 85
F Appendix: Metallographic Studies 86
G Appendix: Phase Diagrams 121
Glossary 1 37
Bibliography 1 47
Index 151
FOREWORD
Information about the structure of materials and

technology of manufacture of ancient and his
toric objects and artifacts can provide insight into
their date, place of origin, and probable use.
Investigations of structure may also be very
important for documentation, preservation strat
egy, or conservation treatment. For many decades
objects from a variety of materials and dating
from prehistoty to the present have been scientif
ically studied, many of them by metallographic
techniques. Most of the results are scattered
throughout the international literature, are some
times inaccessible, and often not published at all.
Frequently the need has been expressed, in
national and international meetings, to collect
information on certain types of objects or classes
of materials in one place and to make it available
as a database or publication. This volume is an
attempt to provide a measured amount of infor
mation regarding the techniques of metallogra
phy as they apply to ancient and historic metals.
It is illustrated with many examples of different
types of microstructure, drawn from David Scott's
many years of experience in this field of study.
We hope that the present volume, developed
with the guidance of Dr. Frank Preusser, Associ
ate Director, Programs, GCl, will be a useful
book for students, conservators, conservation sci
entists, and workers in the area of metallography,
especially those seeking to understand the nature
of microstructure as it applies to ancient materi
als. The book is the first in a series of reference
works that the Getty Conservation Institute is
publishing on materials used in conservation and
technology. The Getty Conservation Institute
and the ] . Paul Getty Museum have been
involved collaboratively with this work and
present this volume as copublishers.
Miguel Angel Corzo

Director
The Getty Conservation Institute
Marina del Rey, California
PREFACE
This book began as a series of laboratory notes of samples for metallographic study. The quanti
and the author hopes that in the process of rewrit tative interpretation of alloy phase diagrams has
ing and integrating, the original text has been ren not been included here, and in general, mathe
dered more accessible. There are many studies of matical content has been kept to a minimum.
ancient and historic metalwork published in the The practical information in the text also includes
literature, but it is more difficult to find a general details on etching solutions and short accounts of
account of metallographic techniques and an microhardness and the grain size of metals. There
interpretation of microstructure written primarily is a lengthy appendix (F) in which examples of
for the conservation scientist and conservator. different rypes of alloys and microstructures are
This book attempts to fill this gap by ptoviding a given, drawn from studies carried out by the
guide to the structure of metals. From the mate author. This appendix is not comprehensive, but
rials science perspective, it is also useful to explore it is hoped that the reader will find it interesting
the ways in which alloys have been used in and informative.
ancient metalwork. The analytical data that have been presented
There are many reasons for studying the in the book are quoted without a discussion of
structure of metals. The proper conservation of how the results have been obtained. There are
objects requires or sometimes enables the conser many accounts of analytical methods and tech
vator to observe microstructure. Investigative niques, such as electron microprobe analysis,
studies may be necessary in order to assess the atomic absorption spectrophotometry, induc
degree of corrosion or embrittlement of an object.
A new conservation treatment may have implica
tions for the preservation of metallographic struc
tively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, and
ray fluorescence analysis, and one or more of
these techniques are the principal methods by
x
ture. Cyril Stanley Smith states that the hierarchy which the results quoted in the text have been
of structure can be examined at many different obtained. It was not the aim of the present text to
levels ofaggregation and that the incorporation of enter into detail concerning the chemical analysis
empirical experience of materials into a theoreti of metals. Similarly, although corrosion and cor
cal framework has enabled materials science to rosion products are often essential components of
appreciate the effects of structure on properties ancient metals, there is no detailed discussion of
and even the artistic qualities of materials. It is the nature of corrosion products given, since to
certainly true that metallographic structures do so would add substantially to the length of the
themselves are often visually compelling both in a book. The smelting, casting, and working of met
scientific and an artistic sense. Metals are interest als is also not covered in detail by the text,
ing materials since their properties can be manip although the glossary does provide some informa
ulated in many ways. By combining metals, by tion and common terms used in describing metals
heating and quenching, by making them liquid and metalworking processes.
and casting them, or by working them to shape
with a hammer or a lathe, they allow a plasticiry Acknowledgments
of movement while being shaped and a finaliry of The author is very grateful to the staff of the
form when that process is completed. Getry Conservation Institute Publications
The structure of the book should have a word Department for seeing the manuscript through
of explanation here. The approach that has been from editing to printing, in particular to Irina
taken is to describe briefly what metals are and to Averkieff for her thoughtful and dedicated edito
discuss phase diagrams and the kinds of structures rial work. Janet Enriquez was responsible for
to be found in different and relevant alloys, before redrawing the original figures, Dennis Keeley
proceeding to deal with the practical application took the photographs in Chapter 1 1 , and Mar
of this knowledge: the sampling and preparation quita Stanfield directed the overall design. Nota-
bly, Frank Preusser, Associate Director for
Programs, and Irina Averkieff, Publications
Coordinator, must be thanked for their enthusi
asm and support.
The author is also grateful to Summer Schools
Press for assistance with the publication of the
first version of the text.
Several of the photomicrographs taken by the
author would not have been possible without the
help and assistance provided by those who have
generously devoted samples or time to the cause.
In particular I would like to thank Dr. Nigel See
ley, former Head of the Department of Conserva
tion and Materials Science, Institute of Archae
ology, London, currently Surveyor of Conserva
tion, National Trust, London; James Black,
International Academic Projects, London; Dr.
Rodney Clough, formerly Research Associate,
Department of Conservation and Materials Sci
ence, London, and former students of the
Department, Noel Siver, Heather Burns, Bob
Haber, Dr. Warangkhana Rajpitak, Naylour
Ghandour, Dr. Abdulrasool Vatandoost
Haghighi, and Jane Porter. I would like to give
thanks to the following members of the staff at
the Institute of Archaeology: Dr. Warwick Bray,
Reader in South American Prehistory; Peter Dor
rell, Head of the Photography Department; and
Stuart Laidlaw, Senior Photographic Technician.
At the Getty Conservation Institute I would
like to thank, in addition, my secretary Ruth
Feldman, who has carried out many retyping and
reformatting jobs in connection with the prepara
tion of the manuscript; Dr. Neville Agnew,
Director of Special Projects; and Michael Schill
ing, Associate Scientist. From the J. Paul Getty
Museum I am most grateful to Jerry Podany,
Head of the Department of Antiquities Conser
vation and Linda Strauss, Associate Conservator,
Department of Decorative Arts and Sculpture
Conservation.
Dr. David A. Scott

Head, Museum Services
The Getty Conservation Institute
COLOR PLATES AND FIGURES
Plate I. Section from a Lurisran Fig. 7 . Progressive movement o f an in Ag-Cu. axe.

dagger handle. edge dislocation. Fig. 39. Cu-Au phase diagram. Fig. 71. Section of a corroded
Plate 2. Fragment of corrosion crust Fig. 8. Dendrite atms. Fig. 40. Cu-Pb phase diagram. fragment from an Ecuadorian gilded
from a Chinese cast iron lion. Fig. 9. Polished and unetched view Fig. 41. Cast toggle pin from Iran. copper ceremonial axe.
Plate 3. Section from an outdoor of a section through a "Darien"-sryle Fig. 42. Chinese cast-bronze incense Fig. 72. Nomograph for grain size.
bronze sculpture. pectoral from Ancient Colombia. burner. Fig. 73. Typical standard for
Plate 4. Fragment of a brass Fig. 10. Polished section of a small Fig. 43. A small mirror of beta estimating the (austenitic) grain size
medallion from the La Perouse cast frog from the Tairona area of quenched bronze from Sumatra. of steel.
shipwreck off the coast of Australia. Colombia. Fig. 44. High-tin bronze mirror Fig. 74. Typical standard for
Plate 5. Roman mitror from Fig. Ila-f. Some microstructural from Java. estimating the (austenitic) grain size
Canterbury. features in solid solution FCC Fig. 45. Cast high-tin leaded bronze of annealed nonferrous materials
Plate 6. Corroded section of a metals. of 22% tin,6% lead,and 72% such as brass,bronze,and nickel
Roman incense burner. Fig. 12. Relationship between single copper. silver.
Plate 7. Cast iron fragment from phase strucrures in FCC metals. Fig. 46. Laborarory quenched alloy Fig. 75. Mounting small specimens.
19th-century scales. Fig. 13. Section through copper alloy of 24% tin,76% copper. Fig. 76. Grinding mounted samples.
Plate 8. Section from a high-tin axe from Iran showing twinned Figs. 47-50. Japanese sword blade Fig. 77. Polishing mounted samples.
bronze vessel from Thailand. grains. fragment. Fig. 78. Sample storage.
Plate 9. Section from a Greek Herm Fig. 14. Twinned grains of gold Fig. 51. Partially Widmanstatten Fig. 79. Examination by polarized
of about 120 B.C.
Plate 10. Iranian Iron Age dagger
copper alloy sheet.
Fig. 15. Twin planes in Indian zinc
steel.
Fig. 52. Grain boundary structure
light microscopy.
Fig. 80. Use of inverted stage
hilt.
Plate II. Section of an Islamic
co 111.
Fig. 16. Twin planes in zinc.
with subgrain features.
Fig. 53. Grain size of knife edge.
metallurgical microscope.
Fig. 81. Drawing of an axe showing
inkwell. Fig. 17. Twin planes in zinc. Fig. 54. Banded structure of a ideal location of sample cuttings.
Plate 12. Section of a corroded cast Fig. 18. Phase diagram for the gold quenched sword blade. Fig. 82. Two samples of mounted
iron cannonball from the Tower of silver system. Fig. 55. Part of the Fe-Fe3C phase wire or rod.
London. Fig. 19. Eutectic diagram of silver diagram. Fig. 83a-c. Holding small samples.
Plate 13. Section of a cast iron copper alloy. Fig. 56. Steel prill from lid of a Fig. 84a-d. Embedding small
cannonball hom Sandal Castle. Fig. 20. Eutectic-rype Wootz crucible, Deccan area of samples.
Plate 14. Section of a high-tin bronze microstructures. India. Fig. 85. Shapes of ferrite in low
mirror from Java.
Plate 15. Section from a small Indian
Fig. 21. Dendritic
Cu cast alloy.
a in 60% Ag 40% Fig. 57. Medieval knife blade from
Ardingley,Sussex, England.
carbon steels.
Fig. 86. Common descriptive
Wootz ingot. Fig. 22. 60% Ag 40% Cu etched in Fig. 58. Photomicrograph of kris microstructural terms.
Plate 16. Section from a Japanese potassium dichromate. from India. Figs. 87-89. Base silver-copper alloy
swotd blade. Fig. 23. 60% Ag 40% Cu cast alloy Figs. 59,60. French cut-steel bead. coin from western India.
Plate 17. Late Bronze Age sword illustrating eutectic infill. Fig. 61. Part of the Fe-Fe3C phase Figs. 90-93. Islamic inlaid inkwell
from Palestine. Fig. 24. Wootz steel ingot from India diagram for cast iron. cast in a copper-tin-zinc-Iead alloy.
Plate 18. Polished and etched section
of a late medieval Indian zinc coin.
Figs. 25a,b.
microstructures.
a and Fig. 62a-f. Flake graphite in cast
Iron.
Figs. 94-96. Cast bronze arrowhead
from Palestine.
Plate 19. Section of a small Luristan
ceremonial axe from Iran.
Fig. 26. Eutectic a and .
Fig. 27. Eutectic and dendrites.
Fig. 63. 18th-century cast iron scales.
Fig. 64. Cast iron cannonball from
Figs. 97-99. Palestine bronze sword.
Fig. 100. Roman wrought iron.
Plate 20. Section from inside the Fig. 28. Fibrous structure in worked the Tower of London. Figs. 101-103. Colombian gold
base of a Greek Herm. two-phase alloy. Fig. 65. Typical variations in the copper alloy sheet.
Fig. !. Close-packed hexagonal unit
cell structure.
a Ii 0
Fig. 29. and eutectoid.
Fig. 30. Iron-carbon phase diagram.
preservation of surface detail in
ancient metallic artifacts.
Figs. 104,105. Ecuadorian copper
alloy nose ornament.
Fig. 2. Face-centered cubic unit cell. Fig. 31a-d. Breakdown of grains. Fig. 66. Mounted and polished Figs. 106-108. Cast arsenical copper
Fig. 3. Body-centered cubic unit cell. Fig. 32. Cementite and pearlite. section through a bronze rod axe from Ecuador.
Fig. 4. Graph of relationship Fig. 33. Copper-tin phase diagram. fragment. Figs. 109, 110. Chinese bronze
between stress and strain.
Fig. 5a, b. Stress and strain relation
Fig. 34.
Fig. 35.
a+
E peritectic.
phase grains.
Fig. 67. Drawing of the cross section
of a bronze rod fragment.
incense burner.
Fig. Ill. Thai bronze cast bell.
for FCC,BCC,and C P H; stress and Fig. 36. Copper-zinc phase diagram. Fig. 68a-d. Examples of corrosion of Figs. 112,113. Luristan dagger
strain for interstitial materials. Fig. 37. grains in copper-zinc. gold-copper alloys. handle.
Fig. 6. An edge dislocation. Fig. 38. Discontinuous precipitation Figs. 69,70. Luristan ceremonial Figs. 114, 115. Fragment of a Thai
bronze container. Fig. 173. Section of a circular globular region of pearlite.
Figs.116,117. Columbian cast Siml bracelet from Thailand. Fig. 194. White cast iron etched in
ear ornament. Fig. 174. Structure of the circular Murakami's reagent and picral.
Figs. IIS-120. Cast iron cannonball bracelet from Thailand after etching Figs. 195,196. Tin ingot from
from Sandal Castle. in alcoholic ferric chloride. Cornwall.
Figs. 121,122. Bronze Age copper Fig. 175. High magnification of Fig. 197. Tensile properties, impact
ingot from Hampshire, England. circular bracelet from Thailand value,and hardness of wrought
Figs. 123-125. Roman brass coin. showing redeposited copper,copper copper-tin alloys.
Figs. 126,127. Thai bronze sulfide inclusions, and bronze metal. Fig. 198. Copper-tin system.
container fragment. Fig. 176. Section through a Roman Fig. 199. Part of the copper-tin
Figs. 128-130. Gold necklace bead bronze bowl,lightly etched in diagram under different conditions.
from Colombia. alcoholic ferric chloride. Fig. 200. Copper-arsenic system.
Figs. 131-133. Gold alloy nail and Fig. 177. Early medieval brass sheet Fig. 201. Copper-lead binary system.
gold ear spool. etched in alcoholic ferric chloride Fig. 202. Copper-iron binary system.
Figs. 134,135. Tang and blade and potassium dichromate. Fig. 203. Copper-gold binary
sectlon. Fig. 17S. Recrystallized and heavily system.
Figs. 136,137. Iron knife. worked grain structure of brass stud. Fig. 204. Copper-antimony binary
Fig. 138. Roman copper alloy coin. Fig. 179. Microstructure of system.
Figs. 139,140. Roman iron nail. Romano-Greek iron arrowhead. Fig. 205. Copper-silver binary
Figs. 141-144. Native copper from Fig. 180. Unusual corrosion pattern system.
the Great Lakes region in North through Byzantine bronze blade. Fig. 206. Copper-nickel binary
America. Fig. lSI. Heavily etched view of system.
Figs. 145-147. Head of a roggle pin Byzantine leaf-shaped blade. Fig. 207. Copper-zinc binary system.
from Iran. Fig. 182. Corroded iron knife blade Fig. 208. Iron-carbon system.
Figs. 148-151. Javanese iron blade. from medieval Britain. Fig. 209 a. Lead-tin system
Figs. 152, 153. Bronze axe fragment Fig. 183. Iron knife blade showing a (pewters). b. Gold-silver system.
from Iran. weld where different pieces of iron Fig. 210. Copper-silver-gold ternary
Figs. 154,155. Laboratory cast have been joined togerher. liquidus.
60:40 brass. Fig. 184. Low-carbon steel area of Fig. 211 . Copper-silver-gold ternary
Figs. 156-159. Gilded silver earring medieval iron knife blade. solidus.
from Jordan. Fig. IS5. Section of panpipes etched Fig. 212. Copper-tin-Iead ternary
Figs. 160, 161. Fragment of a brass in cyanide/persulfate. system.
medallion from Australian Fig. IS6. Fragment of Byzantine iron
shipwreck. dagger blade showing part of the
Figs. 162-164. Fragment of a small edge.
Siml ear ornament. Fig. 187. Overall view of the Roman
Fig. 165. Roman mirror fragment. coin of Victoren us etched in
Fig. 166. Roman bronze figurine. alcoholic ferric chloride.
Fig. 167. Roman btonze Fig. lS8. Grain structure of the
microstructure. Roman coin of Victoren us.
Fig. 168. Renaissance silver basin Fig. IS9. Microstructure of grey cast
from Genoa. iron of the early 20th century.
Fig. 169. Part of solder blob from a Fig. 190. Grey cast iron showing
repair to the outer radial panel of the graphite flakes and pearlitic infill.
Renaissance silver basin. Fig. 191. Grey cast iron showing the
Fig. 170. Section through the cast structure of the iron-carbon
Renaissance silver basin. alloy.
Fig. 171. Overall view of a core Fig. 192. Graphite flakes in a ferrite
drilled plug from the silver basin. matrix with an infill of pearlite
Fig. 172. Part of the silver sheet containing some steadite patches.
etched in acidified potassium Fig. 193. White cast iron showing
dichromate. long cementite laths and small
1 THE NATURE OF METALS
Metals are an aggregation of atoms that, apart metal is cooled very rapidly, as in splat cooling,
from mercury, are solid at room temperature. the normal crystalline structure can be sup
These atoms are held together by "metallic pressed. In splat cooling, metal droplets are
bonds" that result from sharing available elec cooled very quickly between chilled metal plates
trons. A negative electron bond pervades the and the structure that develops is similar to
structure, and heat and electricity can be con glass-a random arrangement of atoms rather
ducted through the metal by the free movement than a crystalline array. In the usual crystalline
of electrons. The negative electron bond sur state, metal will consist of a number of discrete
rounds the positive ions that make up the crystal grains. The metal is then referred to as being poly
structure of the metal. There are three common crystalline. An important property of metals is
Figuret cellI.structure.
unifactor Close-packed hexagonal
Atomi c packing
types of lattice structure that metals belong to: that they undergo plastic deformation when
of 0.74.1 close-packed hexagonal, face-centered cubic, and

body-centered cubic.
stretched or hammered. This is illustrated by a
stress-strain diagram using Young's Modulus
(YM ) :
Close-Packed Hexagonal (CPH) load applied
Models of crystal structures can be made up of stress cross-sectional area
YM=
spheres stacked in close-packed layers. Two strain change in length
arrangements are possible, one being hexagonal original length
and the other cubic in basic structure. In the
close-packed hexagonal system the spheres repeat
the same position every second layer (ABABAB . . . ;
Fig. 1). low-carbon steel
FiFCCgurestructure
Face-centered
2. 0.74 has four unit. Anper
atoms
Face-Centered Cubic (FCC)
pure copper
unit celofl and aninatomi
factor most celpacki
e ng
mental
Layers can be built up so that the third layer of
spheres does not occupy the same position as the
------'---
crystals. spheres in the first row; the structure repeats every
third layer (ABCABCABC. .. ) . FCC metals tend
2
to be ductile (i.e., can be mechanically deformed, strain----t_
drawn out into wire, or hammered into sheet).
Examples are lead, aluminium, copper, silver, Figure 4. Relationship between stress and strain.
gold, and nickel (Fig. 2).
Before plastic deformation occurs, materials
Body-Centered Cubic (BCC) deform by the elastic movement of atoms that
Another common type found in many metals, the hold the structure together. This elastic deforma
body-centered cubic structure, is less closely tion occurs in metals and in other materials, such
packed than the FCC or CPH structures and has as glass, which have no ability to deform at room
atoms at the corners and one atom at the center temperature. Glass will stretch by elastic deforma
Ficelgurel. A 3.BCCBody-centered
metal has cubiatoms
two c unit of the cube. The atoms at the corners are shared tion and then break. Metals can deform plasti
fperBCC
actorunimetal
oft celsl andarein elboth
anemental
atomiccrystal
packinsg. with each adjoining cube (Fig. 3). cally because planes of atoms can slip past each
Other metals important in antiquity have other to produce movement. This kind of move
strong
0.68
(e. g . , i
tungsten, and molybdenum).r on, ductium,le and
chromi
entirely different lattice structures; for example,
arsenic, antimony, and bismuth are rhombohe
dral, and ordinary tin is body-centered tetragonal.
ment cannot take place in a glassy structure.
When metals such as pure copper or iron are
stretched they will break or fracture, but only
Metals are crystalline solids under normal after a certain amount of plastic deformation has
conditions of working and melting. However, if a occurred (see Figs. 4, Sa, Sb) .
The Nature ofMetals
2
Hardness Dislocations
The hardness of a metal is measured by its resis It is rare for crystals to have a perfect atomic struc
tance to indentation. The metal is indented under ture; there are usually imperfections present. In
a known load using a small steel ball (as in the metals, edge dislocations and screw dislocations
Brinell test) or a square-based diamond pyramid are the most important faults (see Figs. 6, 7).
(as in the Vickers test). In the Vickers test the These crystal faults enable deformation to take
result is given as the Diamond Pyramid Number place at lower applied stress by slip than would be
DPN (or Hv) . possible if the lattice structure was perfect. When
FigauretionshiSa, ripgforht. FCC,

relCPH StressBCC, and strai and n
metal
typicals compared
andin inateratomi polc spaciymer.ngsAnwiis tihncrease
glass fracture points
II
responsi
whifrom le diplsalbostilcatiecformovement
elastic behaviresul otsr, II
BCC (e.g. Fe)
When thi s pl a ostinsc gimovement
ving rise tocanslip. typical brittle material (e.g., glass)
plnoace.longer occur fracture wil take
V>Q)....
IIIII I CPH (e.g., Zn)
I
typical amorphous polymer (e.g., polystyrene)
felFiogerurementsSb, beltialomateri
intersti w. Stressals. Iandnterstistraitianl ----_/:--- FCC! (e.g., Cu)
arecansmalbel iinnserted size, suchintoas I
carbon,
thesuchlaasttisteeland
ce spaci, whingchofis some an i n metaltisa,l
tersti
IlI
alstilotiyalofs tendirontoandresicarbon. d e at the Interbase of
dislocatisloipnsoccurs, and anchor them.is left strain E 4
When carbon el4astic on1-4__-
1deformati pl a sti c deformati o n ---I-IFCC, I
behi nsome
d andhithegherdisstress locatioisnreached.is held FractureBCC
-
unti
When l the stressnumber factorofisdireached
antionsenormous
occur that can now slocaat a
move upper yield point
lowerred-hence
requi stress than theorigtwo inallyyield
points.
Cu substitutionally alloyed, e.g., CuSn e.intersti
g., Fe3Ctial alloy,
Cu unalloyed
strain f
The Nature ofMetals
3
a metal is deformed then slip takes place until a Notes

tangle of dislocations builds up which prevents
any further working (i.e., dislocation entangle
1. The atomic packing factor is a measure of the
space actually used by the atoms in the lattice.
ment). As metal is worked, slip planes become ePH and FCC lattices are both 0.74 while the
thicker and immobile. If the metal is worked fur Bee metals have a lower factor of 0.68. A com
ther, it must be annealed (heated up to bring plete infill of the lattice would be 1 .00.
about recrystallization) . Before annealing, the 2. Ductility is often used in the sense of tensile
metal can be said to be work-hardened. Work movement (i.e., stretching) and malleability is
hardening is accomplished by, for example, ham used for ability to be worked (i.e., hammering).
mering at room temperature. This increases the
metal hardness value, but decreases ductility.
ploriFiganeureginaloflaatoms
6. This figinuresertedshowsin antheextra
tticatice.onTheandplitasnedi rofectitheon of
edge
movement di s l o
slip plane. are perpendicular to the
edge dislocation crystal lattice
anFigureedge diProgressi
7. slocationveshowi
movement
ng slip.of r __ r __
crystal lattice after slip

edge dislocation movement through crystal
2 THE MICROSTRUCTURE OF ANCIENT METALS
There are two basic means of manipulating met phenomenon that often arises in impure metals or
als: they can be cast or worked. All the various alloys because one of the constituents usually has
methods by which casting and working are car a lower melting point than the other. For exam
ried out cannot be examined here in detail, but ple, consider the cooling of an alloy of copper and
the different types of structures are described. tin. Copper melts at 1 083 C and tin at 232 C.
When the alloy cools and begins to solidify by
Casting dendritic segregation, the first part of the dendrite
There are essentially three types of microstructure arms to form are richer in copper since this con
that can arise during the casting and cooling of a stituent solidifies first, while the outer parts of the
melt in a mold, regardless of the exact nature of arms are richer in tin. The result is that there is a
the technology involved. Most ancient metals are compositional gradient from the inner region of a
impure or are deliberate alloys of two or more dendritic arm to the outer surface. Such dendrites
metals, such as copper and tin (bronze) or copper are usually referred to as cored. Coring is a com
and zinc (brass) . The fact that they are impure is mon feature in castings of bronze, arsenical cop
an important one, for the kind of crystal growth per, debased silver, etc. It is usually necessary to
that can occur is ro a large extent dependent on etch a polished section of the metal to investigate
the purity of the metal. This is one reason why the whether coring is present or not. Depending on
great majority of ancient castings show a den the amount and nature of the alloying constituent
dritic structure. Dendrites look like tiny fernlike present, the remaining fluid in the interdendritic
growths scattered at random throughout the channels or spaces will then solidify to form a dif
metal. They grow larger until they meet each ferent phase of the particular alloy system. A
other. Sometimes outlines of grains form between phase is any homogeneous state of a substance
them, and the rate at which the metal is cooled that has a definite composition. In practice this
influences their size. Usually a microscope must definition must be interpreted a little loosely
be employed to make dendrites visible, but on because, very often, ancient metallic systems are
objects that have cooled slowly, the dendrites not fully in equilibrium conditions, which means
have also formed slowly and may be visible to the that the proportion and even the composition of
naked eye or under a binocular bench microscope the individual phases that are present in an alloy
at low magnification (x l O or x20). The faster the may not match the precise values that can be
rate of cooling, the smaller the dendrites. It is pos determined from a phase diagram. The subject of
tertiary sible to measure the spacing between dendrite

arms if they are well formed and to compare the
phases and phase diagrams will be taken up later
in this section. Dendrites, then, dominate the
secondary arm spacings obtained from those from known alloys world of ancient castings (see Figs. 9, 1 0) , but
cast in different molds or under different condi there are occasions when other types of segrega
tions. Arms of dendrites are usually referred to as tion occur in addition to dendritic segregation, or
primary, secondary, or tertiary (Fig. 8). when cooling conditions give rise to completely
primary arm It may be of interest to record dendritic arm
spacing for comparative purposes, even if condi
different structures.
The other principal types of segregation are
Figure Dendrite arms.

8. tions are not precisely known or there is a lack of
background information in the metallurgical lit
normal segregation and inverse segregation. Nor
mal segregation occurs when the lower melting
erature. Dendrites may be rather fuzzy or point constituent is concentrated towards the
rounded in outline or quite sharp and well inner parr of the mold, while inverse segrega
defined, depending on the nature of the alloy and tion- often associated with alloys of copper con
the cooling conditions of the melt. Dendritic taining arsenic, antimony, or tin-can push the
growth is actually one form of segregation that alloying element to the exterior of the surface of
can occur during casting. It is a segregation the mold. Inverse segregation may be responsible
The Microstructure ofAncient Metals
6
Figure 9, risecti
unetched ght. oPoln through
ished anda
"Darienten"-styl
anci Col o e pectoral
mbi a . Magni from
fi cationon
(xof 160) shows
therounded sel
dendritei marms. e cti v e corrosi
Note thethe
very
dendri ticd,shapes. pressi o n
The68%allocopperof
y is an
18% gol 4% si l v er,
alloy cast by the lost-wax process.
Figureon10,of afarsmalriglht.castPolfrogishedfrom the
secti
Taidifferona
rent areadendrioftColic structure.
ombia showiHereng for some of the silvery coatings occasionally castings) or causing gas porosity in the metal. The
the magni
secti o n hasficbeen
ation etched
is x80 andwiththe reported in the literature, such as the antimony
coatings on some cast Egyptian copper objects
third type of structure, which is particularly asso
ciated with chill castings, is columnar growth.
potassifateum etchant.
persul cyanide/ammoni u m (Fink and Kopp 1 933) . Copper, lead, or gold
castings can occasionally be relatively free of
Chill castings are formed when metal cools
quickly on being poured into a mold. In this type
impurities and on slow cooling no dendrites may of structure, long narrow crystals form by selec
be visible. Under these circumstances, the metal tive growth along an orientation toward the cen
may cool and produce an equi-axial, hexagonal ter of the mold. They may meet each other and
grain structure. An equi-axed hexagonal crystal thus completely fill the mold. It is rare to find this
structure, in which all the grains are roughly the type of structure in ancient metals, although some
same size, randomly oriented, and roughly hexag ingots may show columnar growth.
onal in section, corresponds to an ideal model of
a metallic grain or crystal. It is the arrangement of Working
separate growing crystals that meet as they grow Working refers to a method or combination of
that gives the hexagonal nature to the ideal struc methods for changing the shape of a metal or an
ture, since this results in the least energy require alloy by techniques such as hammering, turning,
ment. It is an equilibrium structure for this raising, drawing, etc. A list of useful terms is given
reason, which the dendritic structure is not (see in Appendix E. Further details can be found in
Fig. 1 1 ) . One result of this is that it may be pos many of the texts mentioned in the bibliography,
sible to obtain an equi-axed hexagonal grain especially those by U ntracht ( 1 975) and Maryon
structure by extensive annealing of the original ( 1 97 1 ) .
dendritic structure. On the other hand, a den The initial grain structure of a homogeneous
dritic structure cannot be obtained by annealing alloy can be considered as equi-axed hexagonal
an equi-axed grain structure. Cast metals that do grains. When these grains are deformed by ham
not show a dendritic structure can be quite diffi mering they become flattened (their shape is
cult to etch and it may be difficult to develop any altered by slip, dislocation movement, and the
structure apart from the visible inclusions and any generation of dislocations as a result of working)
porosity in the metal. Cast metals often display until they are too brittle to work any further. At
characteristic spherical holes or porosity, which this point, the grains are said to be fully work
can be due to dissolved gases in the melt or to hardened. If further shaping or hammering of the
interdendritic holes and channels that have not metal is required then the metal must be annealed
been kept filled with metal during solidification. in order to restore ductility and malleability. Fur
AI; the metal cools, the dissolved gases exsolve,
creating reactions with the metal itself to form
oxides (for example, the production of cuprous
ther deformation of the metal by hammering may
then lead to work-hardening again and, if further
shaping is required, then another annealing oper
oxide [Cu20], the copper eutectic in ancient ation can be carried out. Many objects have to be
7
shaped by cycles of working and annealing in Schweizer and Meyers 1 978).

order to achieve sufficient deformation of the Cold-working and annealing can be com
starting material, which may be a cast blank or bined into one operation by hot-working. The
ingot of metal that must be cut or shaped into object to be worked is heated to near red heat and
individual artifacts. Typically, annealing temper then immediately hammered out. The two pro
atures would be in the range of 500-800 C for cesses, namely cold-working followed by anneal
copper-based alloys, iron, and steel. If the metal is ing and hot-working, will give essentially the
an alloy, then, strictly, the type of annealing oper same microstructure of worked and recrystallized
ation should be specified: process anneal, stress grains, so it is always not possible to know if cold
relief anneal, solid solution anneal, etc. Time is an working and annealing has been used in a partic
important factor as well: too lengthy an anneal ular case, although there may be other indications
may lead to grain growth and a weakening of the that have a bearing on the interpretation of the
structure of the artifact; too short an anneal, and resulting structure (see Figs. 1 1 a-f, 1 2) . Some
heterogeneity and residual stresses may not be metals, such as iron, usually must be worked into
eliminated sufficiently. There are other practical shape while they are red hot. The forging of
problems associated with annealing depending on wrought iron, which contains slag globules as
the metal concerned; for example, when debased impurities, produces a worked structure in which
silver alloys (usually silver-copper alloys) are the slag gradually becomes elongated or strung
annealed by heating in air, they are liable to out into slag stringers along the length of the
undergo internal oxidation. A black skin of cupric object. It is important to note that most inclusions
oxide forms (CuO), overlying a subscale of in ancient metals do not recrystallize as a result of
cuprous oxide (Cu20), while oxygen can diffuse hot working or working and annealing: they
into the alloy, attacking the readily oxidized cop either are broken up into smaller particles or they
per-rich phase and producing internal cuprite are flattened out as the working process proceeds.
embedded in a silver-rich matrix (for further Face-centered cubic metals, except for
details see Charles and Leake 1 972; Smith 1 97 1 ; aluminium, rectystallize by a twinning process.
Figure I Iia-f.n solSome

features i d sol miuticorostructural
n FCC
metal
a.dendri s .
Coredtic grai ns with remnant
b. FulCollyd-workedstructure. cored grains.
c.hexagonal annealequie-daxed
homogeneous
graiedns.metal
d.witColh flda-worked anneal
e.showiAnnealngttened graicolns.d-working
etwid nafter
nedafgrai ns. ing
f.showi
Coldn-worked t er anneal
strain lignesdisitortedn the graitwinns.lines and
8
Finggluree-phaseRelstructures
simetal 12. ationship between oridendri
ginalticcastsegregati
materioanl showing
s used in antiquity.in FCC
)
extensivetheanneal ing wil and cold-worked
dendri tes distorted
remove segregated
cored structure
deflinesormed
evidentgraionns heavy
with some
workistrai
ng n
equi-axed hexagonal grains
------)
hot-working
annealing annealing
workedng deformed
showi bent twi n sgraiandnsstrainown
lines
-- cold-worki
(<E- 1??S
ng
1 witwirecrystal linzedlinesandabsent
tnh strai twinnedandgraistrainsght
lines within grains
recrystal
wigrai ligzhtedtwiandn twilines;nned grains
thnstrai
size usually smaller.
New crystals that grow following the annealing of fectly straight: they may not run completely
cold-worked face-centered cubic metals such as through every grain, but they are straight. If the
gold, copper, silver, and their alloys, produce the grains are subsequently deformed, then the twin
effect of a mirror reflection plane within the crys lines will also be deformed. In polished and
tals, with the result that parallel straight lines can etched specimens, they appear as slightly curved
be seen in etched sections traversing part or all of lines. In heavily worked metals, slip of crystal
the individual grains of the metal (Fig. 1 2) . After planes can occur in individual crystals resulting in
annealing, the twin lines in the crystals are per- a series of parallel movements that can be seen in
9
etched sections as a series of fine lines in some of of cold-working.

the grains. These lines are called slip bands or The percentage of deformation, or degree of
strain lines. Another feature that may show that cold-work, is usually expressed in terms of reduc
metal has been heavily worked is the presence of tion of height of the specimen, h.
a fibrous morphology in the microstructure. This
h h
may occur when grains have been flattened out by
hammering, producing an elongated structure
commonly described as a "textured effect." When
% cold-work = initial
h . ..I x
rmtra
worked
1 00
this metal is annealed to produce a recrystallized It is often difficult to remove the segregation
grain structure, the recrystallized material may that occurs during the casting operation, and
still show a preferred orientation or a fibrous many ancient objects that were worked to shape
nature. This is an extreme example of the fact that from a cast ingot still show some coring or rem
recrystallized grains are not found to be com nant dendritic structure, even though the object
pletely randomly oriented. Depending on the was subsequently worked to shape. Variations in
amount of cold-working that the metal has composition are not confined by the new, worked
received it will be able to recrystallize at succes grain structure and appear superimposed upon
sively lower temperatures, which are markedly the grains when the specimen is etched (Figs. 1 3,
different for particular metals. For example, 1 4) .
heavily worked pure copper is capable of recrys The kind of twinning occurring i n CPH met
tallizing at 1 20 0c, iron at 560 C, zinc at 1 0 0c, als is shown by the structure of the Indian zinc
tin at - 1 2 0c, and lead at - 1 2 0C. coin in Figure 1 5. While slip and twinning are the
This is why metals like pure lead can be bent main methods by which zinc crystals accommo
back and forth at room temperature without date plastic deformation, there are situations in
work-hardening: they are effectively being hot which neither of these events can occur directly.
worked at room temperature. Alloying elements This can happen when zinc crystals are com
and impurities will, of course, affect recrystalliza pressed parallel to the basal plane or where
tion temperature, as will grain size and the degree crystals are restrained from movement, such as in
Figure 13.alloPhotomi
copper y axe fromcrograph
I r an of a secti
showi n g onnnedthrough
twi grai nas Figurepre-Hi14. Twispaninnedc Colgraionmbis ofa.goldisdtri-copper alloiiyo.sheet
afx300).
ter etchiNotengthatwiththeferriporosi
c chltoyriidnethesolmetal
ution has(approx. from
Corrosi othen. whicrystal
ch appears c t of Nari
greyetchihere.ng. Strioutlatiinoesnstwithrough
n
eliminated by working. not been grai n s of s wi t hout
thesegregati
sectioonn arein thedueworked
to selectiallvoey.corrosi
The on as aoresul
segregati n i s t of
due
tohammered
unequal sheet.distributiAnneal
on ofincopper
g twi n s andare golstraidgihtn theshowing
that annealing was the final stage in manufacture. x 120.
10
IFingdiurean zincricoight.n. Twin planes in

1156,,
ziFingc.ure far right. Twin planes i n
basal planes
/
bend plane
the usual polycrystalline solid. Under these con
bend plane tWin In ZinC Crystal
ditions, stress can be relieved by the movement of
the basal plane axis. The axes of the bend are con
tained in a bend plane which bisects the included
angle of bend and which has no defined crystallo
'" 77V./f\L
graphic indices. The bending mechanism
involves slip, since individual basal planes must
:I i//
move relative to each other for bending to occur.
Although in some cases the volume of metal
involved in a series of bends is sufficient to pro
/, __ basal plane
duce macroscopic kinks, bending often occurs
around a very large number of closely spaced par Figure Twin planes in zinc.
1 7.
allel axes giving the effect of a curve. When such
deformed structures are annealed close to the
melting point, a coalescence of the fine bend seg
ments into coarser units occurs (Figs. 1 6 , 1 7) .
3 TWO-PHASED MATERIALS
Apart from compositional variations produced by interpreted with caution and, preferably, after
segregation or by inclusions, the varieties of experience with ancient alloys gained by micro
microstructure produced by the presence of two scopical examination.
or more phases in metal have not been discussed. When two metals are mixed together there are
Some reasons why more than one phase can be three main possibilities. The first is a solid alloy
present are discussed in the following sections: showing complete solid solubility of two metals.
An example is the range of alloys formed between
2413... Eutectic structures

Eutectoid structures
Peritectic structures
Widmanstatten transformations
'
silver and gold. Gold is soluble in silver and silver
is soluble in gold. The phase diagram that results
from this kind of alloy shows just one solid phase
present at all temperatures up to the solidus. The
57. Discontinuous precipitation
6. Intermetallic compound formation
Immiscible structures
solidus line separates the region of solid metal
from the pasty stage of solidification at tempera
tures above this line. As the temperature rises, the
alloys pass through a pasty, semisolid region in
When two (or more) metals are mixed
which some liquid is present in equilibrium with
together to form an alloy there are a number of
some solid. This continues to the liquidus line
different possibilities regarding their mutual solu
and above this line the alloy is present as a liquid
bility. Usually a phase diagram (or equilibrium
melt. The liquidus line separates the pasty stage
diagram as it is also known) is employed. It is
from the liquid melt above (Fig. 1 8) .
essentially a map that can be used to predict what
In cooling from the molten state, the alloy
phases should be present in the alloy at equilib
undergoes the following transitions:
rium. It is important to stress that diagrams usu
ally only refer to very slowly cooled melts which
rarely occur in archaeological materials. This does
not mean that it is useless to consult phase dia where
LL = --7 La+=a -----'3> a
liquid and solid.
grams: It means that the information must be
Figured-silv18.er Phase diaNote

gram that
for theboth
golmetal system.
s are completely soluble in
Toe ofmelpure
ting golpoidnt
each other. "
1050
1000
950 solid solution fJ.
0%100%golsidlver 50%
50% golsilvder 0%100%silvgolerd
Two-phased Materials
12
If no coring or other forms of segregation are varies, of course, depending on the nature of the
present, then the microstructure will be a collec alloying constituents-the liquid melt passes to
tion of equi-axed hexagonal grains of uniform solid, which is two-phased and consists of fine
composition-there will be only one phase plates of alpha phase and beta phase interspersed
present. in each other (see Figs. 2 1-23, 2 5a, b).
The second possibility is that a solid alloy can There is a large area where alpha phase coex
show only partial solubility of the metals in each ists with liquid and a similar region where beta
other. One example is silver and copper. There phase coexists with liquid (Fig. 1 9) . If an alloy of
are three principal types of phase diagrams that composition B is cooled down from the melt,
can arise from this situation. The most common then the following transitions will occur:
is the eutectic type, second is the eutectoid, and
third is the peritectoid. The third possibility is
that the two metals are completely immiscible in
LL ) ----'7---7> L(ex(tJ+ +) ex
(tl
(tJ
each other.
where t = temperature.
Eutectic Structures
Silver-copper alloys are examples of the eutectic The final solid structure therefore consists of
type and have the following characteristics: the
solubility of copper in silver and of silver in cop
per falls as the temperature falls (this is a general
ex + (ex + ). The original alpha will be present as
either grains of alpha solid solution or as dendrites
of the primary alpha, which will probably be cored.
characteristic for most alloys) , and there is one The infilling around the alpha grains will then con
temperature at which the liquid melt can pass
directly to solid: The eutectic point. At this par
ticular composition and temperature-which
sist of the alpha + beta eutectic as a fine inter
spersed mixture and under the microscope in
etched section will look something like Figure 20a.
ofFigsiurelver-copper
19. Eutectialclophase
ys. diagram
eutectic point
B+L
!alloy C
alloy B
composition
13
Fimigcurerostructures.
20a. b. Eutectic-type infil of alpha beta eutectic
+ alpha beta eutectic
+
dendri
usuallytescoredof alpha b grains of alpha
a
Figinurea 60%
ex 21. miAgddl40%e left.CuThealloyfeathery
that has nature
been of dendri
cast. Etchedtic FigureAg22.40%miCuddleetched
60% right. iThe
n sameumallodiycashromate.
potassi Figure x21.I 00.
caniinnfipotassi
ex + bel of seenumcldicannot

ecarlhromate. s x35.
magniWhificatileothen. theex dendri
y atbethiseen. eutectitesc The
resolved intoeutecti
ex + a fince phase
series iofs julistnesbegiin ntheninsecti
g to oben.
Figuren24.g fragments
bottom riofght.cementi
Wootzte needl steel einsgotwitfrom Infidil ofa
theFigphase
ex urenature23. bottom
of the left. 60%c infiAgl i40%
eutecti n
etches dark andanaltheysis sioflvone whi Cuch altheloycopper-ri
er-riofch thephase
il ustraticngh
etches
showi
eutectoisteel
d pearli ngots
ite from+ Fe3C,
(ex x300). etched h an i n
in nitsteel
al. s
larms
ight. that Electron-probe
dendri tiycsis Wootz
(oftenmanuf
overacture
0.8% ofcarbon). I n di a were
castbladesin crucihi g h-carbon
bother
les. andqualusedity for
appear here
of 92% Cutio8%n toAg.thecorrespondi as dark gl o bul e s.
ng veryfrom gi v es an anal
well thein melt in theproducts. sword and
composi fi r st sol i d formed The eutectoid may be similar to the eutectic.
the phase
and potassidiuamgramdichromate.
for Cu-Agx 160. etched in alcoholic FeCI3
14
The cooling rate determines whether the orig At the eutectic composition, the liquid melt
inal alpha phase is present as dendrites or as hex passes directly to solid and ideally will consist of a
agonal grains. Usually in archaeological materials fine, intermixed matrix of alpha and beta phase
the primary alpha will be dendritic and cored; (Fig. 26) .
later working and annealing may remove den A feature of the microstructure of eutectic
dritic segregation and grains of alpha may become type alloys is that there may be a depletion of part
more apparent. It is beyond the scope of this text of the eutectic phase near the grains or dendrites.
to provide a quantitative interpretation of the For example, suppose the original dendrites are
phase diagram, but what can be said is that as the
eutectic point is approached, there will be corre
spondingly less initial phases of alpha or beta.
alpha phase, with an infill of alpha + beta eutectic.
Some eutectic alpha constituent can migrate and
join the dendritic alpha, which will leave a fringe
As the area of alpha is approached there will surrounding the dendrites appearing to contain a
be less eutectic present and more alpha. As the more homogeneous zone before eutectic infilling
alloys approach the beta side of the diagram the is reached (Fig. 27) .
same variation is found: the alloys are progres One of the interesting changes that can occur
sively richer in beta and have less eutectic. In two when a two-phased alloy is worked is that either
phase alloys where dendritic segregation has one or both phases can become elongated or
occurred, the proportion of the twO phases will strung out, much like slag stringers in wrought
not be quite what it should be at full equilibrium. iron, along the direction of the working of the
The alloy at composition A (Fig. 1 9) will have alloy. Slag stringers are the broken-up remnants
a slightly different composition in terms of the of slag inclusions in wrought iron that become
distribution of the two phases. As it cools down elongated upon hammering the iron to shape. In
the following sequence should occur: theory, one would expect the process of working
and annealing to remove any original dendritic
LL --------7-7> L
(t1)
(t-)
(t2) + (J.. segregation and to produce worked and recrystal
lized grains with a eutectic infill, depending on
The resulting structure will then be alpha the composition of the original raw ingot. How
grains with a thin film of beta surrounding them, ever, it is often very difficult to remove the initial
or alpha dendrites with a fringe of beta (Fig. 25). dendritic structure and instead the microstruc-
Figure 25a.bA. atypiandcaleutecti

structures. microc alloy alpha dendrites usually cored
microstructure.
a some
becausealpofhanonequi
+ beta eutecti
libriumccooling alpha grains beta films between grains
Figure 26. Eutectic a and .
eutecti c mistx
wionll yconsi
of alpha beta
+
15
Figure tes inrigaht.typiEutecti

dendri 2278,, c andc alloy.
cal eutecti eutectic
Figure ifarn a ritypight.calFiheavi
structure brously
worked two-phase al loy.
eutectic phase infil
eutecti c depldendri
alpha near eted tiesn elongated dendritic remnants
Figure 29.alloy.and eutectoid in a tin
bronze
a8 cored alpha dendrites
light blhasue eutectoi
phase d where
the composi tion delCU31ta Sna
(a + 8)
ture tends to consist of elongated ribbons of one not the same. In bronzes, the eutectoid constitu
phase with the eutectic in-between. The length ent is made up of the two phases, alpha (the
to-breadth ratio of these elongated stringers then copper-rich solid solution of tin in copper) and
gives some idea of the extent to which the alloy delta (an intermetallic compound of fixed com
has been hammered out-very thin stringers sug position, CU3 J S nS) . This eutectoid phase begins
gesting more severe deformation during manu to appear in the microstructure between about
facture. Sometimes alloys also have a fibrous 5% to 1 5% tin (and above), depending on the
quality for the same reason (Fig. 28). cooling conditions of the alloy. It is a light blue,
Common examples of simple eutectic systems hard and brittle material that often has a jagged
in ancient metals are those of debased silver arti appearance. The structure is often shaped by
facts, which are usually silver-copper alloys and grain boundaty edges and the blue delta phase
soft solders, which are lead-tin alloys. often contains small islands of alpha phase dis
persed through it (Fig. 29) . If there is a lot of this
Eutectoid Structures eutectoid phase present, the bronze is difficult to
The eutectoid phase is similar to the eurectic work. Proper annealing of bronzes with up to
structure, the principal difference being that the about 1 4% tin will result in a homogeneous solid
eutectoid reaction occurs when an already exist solution of alpha grains that can then be worked
ing solid solution transforms into two distinct to shape much more readily because the hard and
phases. The types of phase diagrams that give rise brittle eutectoid has been eliminated.
to eutectoid-type transformations are necessarily Eutectoid in the bronze system originates
more complex because there are series of changes from a complex series of changes that are not
in the solid as it cools to room temperature. There delineated in detail here, but are summarized as
are two important eutectoid transformations in follows:
archaeological metals: those in tin bronzes and in
carbon steels (for one example, see Fig. 24) . The
form the eutectoid takes in bronzes and steels is
1. The alloy passes through the alpha
region as it cools.
+ liquid
16
2. It reaches a transition at about 798 C and two constituents as a fine collection of small
a peritectic transformation occurs. plates is called pearlite. The name ferrite is given
34. A beta intermediate solid solution results.
On cooling to about 586
transforms to gamma.
dc, the beta phase
to the pure iron alpha phase grains, while cement
ite (Fe3C) is another very hard and brittle constit
uent, a compound of fixed proportions between
5. At 5 20 C the gamma solid solution trans
forms to the final solid mixture of alpha
delta eutectoid.
+ iron and carbon.
Consider the cooling of an alloy from above
900 C, in the austenitic region of the phase dia
gram with an average content of carbon, repre
Because the eutectoid in the copper-tin sys
tem is rather difficult to follow, most textbooks
on the subject introduce the idea of eutectoid
transformation by looking at the phases formed
sented by the line for alloy A in Figure 30.
cooling proceeds, austenite (gamma-phase) grains
As
will separate out, and as the temperature falls, fer
rite begins to separate from the austenite at the
when carbon is added to iron to produce steels,
grain boundaries. Also as the temperature falls,
and, .as the carbon content increases, cast irons.
the gamma phase becomes richer in carbon, and
Most ancient steels were made from iron con
the ferrite loses carbon until it reaches a low of
taining up to about 1 % carbon, although not
0.03% carbon, while the austenite reaches the
only is the carbon content of many ancient arti
facts very variable in different parts of the same
object, but many of them only contain about
0 . 1 -0.5% carbon. These low-carbon steels were,
eutectoid composition at 0.8% carbon.
temperature falls below 727 C, the austenite
As
decomposes by a eutectoid reaction into ferrite
the
+
cementite. The changes can be represented as
however, very important products and could be
symbols:
used to produce excellent edged tools.
The eutectoid is formed when the austenite
solid solution (gamma phase) decomposes at
Alloy A: Y ---- --7 Y+
a (at about 820 C)
about 727 C to form the two new solid phases, Y+ a --7(a + +a Fe3 C) (beLow 72r C)
ferrite and cementite. The combination of these
Fiiron-carbon
gure 30. Sigphase
nificantdiaregigram.on of the
J Yl' alloy A
1
austentite
y
austentite + cementite
_1------ pearlite cementite ------i.._

+
o 2 % carbon
17
Figurens i31n thea-d.irBreakdown

grai ofy
on-carbon system. y grains850)
(above
"'''''-::--'''' a grains727C)
(about
at grains
ay y a+ Fe)Cd
eutectoi
grains800)
(about a (below 727 C)
or as a series of drawings at different temperatures The final structure will usually consist of cementite
on the way to room temperature (Fig. 3 1 a-d). films or a continuous cementite network between
The cooling of alloy B, shown on the portion the pearlite regions (Fig. 32) .
of the iron-carbon phase diagram (Fig. 30), fol
lows a line leading through the eutectoid point
with a composition of 0.8% carbon. For this par
ticular alloy the microstructure, if cooled slowly,
would consist of an intimate mixture of pearlite
(alpha + Fe3C) . In the case of the iron-carbon
eutectoid, the initial appearance is very similar to
that of the eutectic mixture drawn previously
(Fig. 26). If the rate of cooling of alloys contain
pearlite eutectoid
ing pearlite as a constituent increases, then the
spacing between eutectoid constituents becomes Figure 32. Cementite and pearlite.
progressively finer. If the cooling rate is very fast,
then the true nature of the phases that might form Peritectic Structures
on a phase diagram cannot be shown because Peritectic structures arise from a type of transfor
nonequilibrium cooling conditions would be mation that may seem rather peculiar at first
involved. What happens in steels in fast cooling is sight. It is unusual in the sense that a liquid reacts
very important, and new phases, such as marten with an existing solid phase to form a new solid
site, can form, which has an extremely hard and phase. An example can be taken from part of the
brittle needlelike structure (see Chapters 6 and 7). copper-tin phase diagram (Fig. 33) to illustrate
The cooling of alloy C (Fig. 30), whose posi the typical shape of the phase system in peritectic
tion is shown on the phase diagram, produces a alloys.
different but analogous series of transformations Alloy A cools down from the melt with about
from the austenitic region: 1 8 % tin content. Ignoring for the moment the
complications produced by coring, as alloy A
Alloy C: YY----7+ Y----;+ ;. (a + Fe3Cj +
Fe3 C
Fe3 C
Fe3 C
cools down, initially an alpha-phase solid solution
of tin in copper separates out, while the liquid
18
diFigagram.
ure 33. Copper-tin phase
20% Sn
that is left gets progressively richer in tin. A reac completely converted to a new grain structure of
tion now occurs at about 800 C between this liq beta grains:
uid and the alpha phase, which produces a new
phase, beta. Since alloy A occurs in the alpha
beta region of the diagram, all of the tin-rich liq
uid will be used up before the alpha phase is com
pletely dissolved, and the alloy will then consist of
+ a+ a + ------7>
Alloy B: liquid
liquid (tin-rich)
liquid (tin-rich)
final structure: grains

One of the difficulties of the peritectic reac

alpha + -----37a + a-----7
beta crystals:
Alloy A: liquid
liquid (tin-rich)
liquid (tin-rich)

tion is that it is rarely possible to get complete
conversion of alpha grains into beta because alpha
grains become covered with a coating of beta as
+
final structure: grains
Often the peritectic reaction gives rise to precipi

tation of the new beta phase both within the
they transform, and the film of beta then prevents
the diffusion of tin-rich liquid to the alpha grains.
The result is that there is very often a core of alpha
grains left, even if the phase diagram suggests that
alpha crystals and also at the grain boundaries so all the material should have been converted to the
that the alpha has rather rounded contours second phase. A complicated example is given by
(Fig. 34) . the final structure resulting from an alloy contain
An alloy of composition B on the phase dia ing 70% tin and 30% copper. Some of these
gram (Fig. 33) starts to solidifY by production of alloys were used, usually with about 40% tin, as
alpha phase grains, but these grains then react the alloy speculum, a white alloy used since
with the remaining liquid at about 800 C and are Roman times for the production of mirrors. In
Figure 34, right. a and peritectic. remaingraiingnalspha

phase
Figure 35, far right. E phase grains. eutectic (11 +Sn)
beta producedon by peritectic

transformati 11(eta) phase
preventi ng pericoati
tectincg reacti
(CuJSn)on
19
theory, this alloy should simply be a mixture of A solid alloy melts as a result of cooling during
the eutectic (eta and tin) ; however, these alloys these phase changes-a rather unique occurrence.
often show a nonequilibrium structure with epsi An alloy system of interest in which a series of
lon (+) phase grains (Cu35n) coated with eta (11 )
phase grains (Cu35n3) ' in a eutectic mixture of
(11 5n; Fig. 35).
peritectic transformations can occur is the
copper-zinc system (brass; see Fig. 207) . Most
copper-zinc alloys of antiquity were made by a
Many of the mirrors used in Roman times cementation process that had, as an upper limit, a
were either made using high-tin leaded bronze, zinc content of about 28%. Zinc ore was mixed
wi th tin contents of 20-24% and lead variable with copper ore and the two were smelted
(typically 5- 1 2%), or they were made with a together direcrly so that the zinc was absorbed
more common low-tin bronze alloy, which was into the copper during reduction, thus avoiding
then tinned on the surface to produce the desired loss of zinc, which boils at 907 C. Most ancient
color. zinc alloys, therefore, possessed an alpha phase or
There are other unusual features in the cored dendritic structure. However, metallic zinc
copper-tin system (see Figs. 1 98, 1 99), such as was also produced; for example, an alloy contain
that shown by the cooling of an alloy with about ing 87% zinc was reputedly found in prehistoric
41 % tin. During cooling of this alloy, gamma (y) ruins in Transylvania, while in ancient India and
phase crystals start to separate out at a tempera China, metallic zinc was produced.
ture of about 7 1 5 C. At slighrly below 700 C, The brasses are generally divided into three
freezing is complete and all the liquid is trans categories depending on the phase type: alpha
formed to gamma solid phase. At about 650 0C,
the eta (11) phase starts to form from the gamma
(y) until a temperature of 640 C is reached. At
brasses with up to about 35% zinc; alpha
brasses with between 35% and 46.6% zinc; and
beta brasses with between 46.6% and 50.6% zinc.
+ beta
about 640 C the residual gamma (y) decomposes As zinc content increases the britrle y phase
to form simultaneously the liquid + eta (11) phase. begins to appear and thus alloys with more than
diFiaggram.
ure 36. Copper-zinc phase
DC
T liquid
1000 alloy A alloy B
900
800
700
100% 20% Zn 40% Zn

0% ZnCu
20
50% zinc are generally avoided. Beta () phase plunging it into water or oil from a red heat. I n
brasses are very much harder than the alpha and contrast, the Widmanstatten precipitation i s the
can withstand very little cold-working. The beta result of one solid phase at a high temperature
phase begins to soften at about 470 C (as the lat decomposing into two solid phases at a lower
tice changes from an ordered to a disordered temperature. This precipitation usually occurs at
state) , and at about 800 C it becomes much the grain boundaries of the initial crystals and as
easier to work. The alpha brasses, which include plates or needles within the grains themselves,
most of the ancient specimens, are much better which have a particular orientation depending on
when they are cold-worked and annealed rather the crystallographic structure of the original crys
than hot-worked because, if hot-worked, impuri tals.
ties tend to segregate at the grain boundaries and In the case of alloy B (Fig. 36) , a mixture of
make the brass very weak. about 58% copper and 42% zinc, we can follow
These types of structures are essentially simi the precipitation of the alpha solid solution from
lar to the possibilities given for the section of the the beta high temperature region.
copper-tin diagram examined briefly earlier (Fig. In Figure 37a the beta grains are shown as
33) . An alloy of composition A will, having they would appear at about 800 C, or if the alloy
passed below the liquidus line, begin to precipi was suddenly quenched in water, which would
tate out alpha grains, which are then partially prevent it from decomposing into the alpha +
attacked and converted to beta during solidifica beta region. The appearance of the grains is j ust a
tion so that the resulting structure consists of homogeneous solid solution of beta grains. Figure
alpha + beta grains (Fig. 36) .
Widmanstatten Transformations
37b shows the nature of the Widmanstatten pre
cipitation upon cooling to room temperature. I f
the structure i s annealed or heated t o about 600
The copper-zinc alloys may apply to a brief dis C, then it can become quite coarse and the alpha
cussion of the Widmanstatten transformation. phase may grow into large crystals with the back
The Widmanstatten structure results from the
precipitation of a new solid phase within the
grains of the existing solid phase. It is thus quite
ground becoming a fine mixture of alpha
Widmanstatten structures also occur in
+
ancient steels as a result of the working process or
beta.
different from the martensitic transformation, deliberate heat treatments used during manufac
which is essentially a single-phased structure usu ture. Very often Widmanstatten precipitation is
ally occurring as a nonequilibrium component of only partially carried through the grains so that a
quenched alloys. Martensite is a collection of fine jagged effect is produced. It is useful to return to
intersecting needles that can form in alloys cooled the iron-carbon diagram (Fig. 30) at this stage in
very quickly. Usually the alloy is quenched by order to define a few common terms. Steels
Figure 37. grains in copper-zinc.
original grains at 800 C

a a
original grain boundaries matrix probably mix of +
21
containing less carbon than the amount needed to Very often the silver was debased to some extent
make the eutectoid structure complete are called with copper, partly to make the alloy harder and
hypoeutectoid steels, whereas those containing car also to reduce the amount of silver. Debased silver
bon in excess of the eutectoid composition (and objects then often consist of silver-rich grains in
up to l .7% carbon) are usually called hypereutec which the copper has not yet begun to separate
toid steels. The eurectoid composition itself occurs out as it should according to the phase diagram.
at 0.8% carbon. In hypoeutectoid steels there will The solution of copper in the silver grains is
generally be more ferrite than is required, and this therefore in a metastable state and can be precip
is called the proeutectoid (or free) ferrite. In hyper itated slowly with time at the grain boundaries.
eutectoid steels there will generally be too much Precipitation of this nature is called discontinu
cementite to form a complete eutectoid, and this ous when it occurs at the grain boundaries. The
is called proeutectoid cementite. essential part of the phase diagram is shown below
Proeutectoid ferrite occurs in several different (Fig. 38).
shapes. In the lower carbon steels of antiquity it is A typical, slightly debased silver alloy is shown
characteristically found as extensive areas among by alloy A on the silver-copper phase diagram.
scattered islands of pearlite. This, according to
Samuels ( 1 980), should be called massedferrite. In
steels nearing eutectoid composition, the ferrite is
Note that it cuts across the (J.+ phase region
where it cools down to room temperature. It can
exist as a homogeneous solid solution alpha phase
usually found as thick films located at what were between temperatures tl and t2' When the alloy
originally the austenitic grains. This is called gets to t2 ' the decomposition of part of the solid
grain-boundary ferrite. Ferrite may also be found solution into beta may not occur and instead a
in the form of broad needles, which can be sec metastable solid solution will result. The copper
tions of plates of ferrite occurring as a Widman rich phase may precipitate out very slowly at room
statten pattern within the pearlite. A descriptive temperature, and Schweizer and Meyers ( 1 978)
scheme for some of the various forms of ferrite has suggest that the discontinuous precipitation of
been developed by Dube (in Samuels 1 980; see copper can be used to establish the authenticity of
Appendix A for names of ferrite shapes in low car ancient silver. They extrapolate from experimental
3
bon steels and a glossary of terms). data to give a growth rate of about 1 0- microns per
year for the rate of precipitation. This kind of
Discontinuous Precipitation growth can lead to age-embrittlement of ancient
Another type of phase separation of importance is metals. Thompson and Chatterjee ( 1 954) also
discontinuous precipitation. A good example is found that lead formed at the grain boundaries of
afforded by copper-silver alloys used in antiquity. impure silver and led to embrittlement.
FigurepitatioDin siconti
preci 38. nuous
n Ag-Cu.
T OC
100% Ag 100% Cu
22
Intermetallic Compound Formation peritectic reaction) at about 240 C (Rhines,

When some metals are mixed together they can Bond, and Rummel 1 95 5 ) . CU3Au can form
form phases that are essentially like ordinary berween 50% and 50.8% gold. CuAu can form
chemical substances in that they are effectively berween 70% to 8 5 % gold.
compounds of fixed composition. An example is Ordered phases such as these have to be dis
the gold-copper alloys. These alloys were used in tinguished from those phases normally called
antiquity, especially in the more base, copper-rich intermetallic compounds. Intermetallic com
compositions in South America. This alloy was pounds are usually represented on the phase dia
known as tumbaga and was used widely both for gram by a straight line that passes down vertically
castings and for hammered sheerwork, often as the temperature falls. There may be rwo such
being finished by a depletion gilding process lines close together that mark out a rectangular
(Lechtman 1 973, Scott 1 983; see Fig. 39). block on the phase diagram, showing the areas
The diagram shows that copper and gold are over which the intermetallic compound may
completely soluble in each other with a eutectic form. The ordered phases are rather different
type low melting point, which occurs at a compo because they may be formed over wider composi
sition of 80. 1 % gold at 9 1 1 C. The rounded tional limits, they do not show vertical phase
shapes at the bottom of the diagram show the boundaries in the form of straight lines, and they
regions where the ordered phases can form. There may pass easily berween ordered regions and dis
are essentially three different ordered composi ordered regions.
tions: CU3Au, CuAu, and CuAu3' CuAu3 can However, these ordered phases are usually
form berween about 8 5 % to 92% gold. It is a harder than the disordered alloy of the same com
superlattice formed by a peritectoid (a solid state position, and they may make the process of
Figure 39. Cu-Au phase diagram.
T OC
a
100% Cu CuAU3 100% Au
23
working and annealing to shape more difficult. usually as globules of one phase in grains of the
For example, the quenched alloys in the gold higher melting point metal. An example is leaded
copper system between about 85% gold and 50% copper, shown in F igure 40.
gold are softer than the alloys that are allowed to The diagram shows that the microstructure
cool slowly in air. This is the opposite of the situ consists of two distinct phases and that the copper
ation that exists in alloys such as iron and carbon, grains that form will contain globules of lead.
where the material is dramatically hardened by Practically all the copper will solidify before the
quenching because of the formation of new lead-copper eutectic forms. This lead-copper
phase, martensite. The reason why gold-copper eutectic is, for all practical purposes, pure lead, as
alloys are softer is that the quenching process sup it consists of 99.9% lead and 0 . 1 % copper. This
presses the formation of the ordered phases which means that the lead is segregated while the solidi
need some time to form, and it is these ordered fication process is taking place. Ordinarily, the
phases that give rise to higher hardness values and separation of lead globules would be expected to
to the difficulty sometimes experienced in the result in massive segregation and an unusable
working of these gold-copper alloys. South Amer material would result. There is a monotectic reac
ican Indians, in lowland Colombia for example,
used water quenching after annealing in order to
make their alloys easier to work to shape and to
tion at 955 oc, which occurs when the liquid
from which the copper is separating out reaches a
composition of36% lead. At this point, a new liq
avoid embrittlement. uid forms that contains about 87% lead. This
There are many examples of intermetallic new liquid is heavier than the first liquid, and so
compounds, such as cementite (Fe3C)' which it tends to sink under gravity. However, in prac
contains 6.67% carbon and the delta phase in tice the gross segregation is limited by the forma
bronzes, which is an intermetallic compound of tion of a dendritic structure upon casting in the
the formula CU3 1 SnS ' copper-rich alloys and, with a high cooling rate,
the lead is finely dispersed among the dendrites.
I mmiscible Structures With very high lead content alloys, the two liq
In some cases metals may be completely insoluble uids that separate out form an emulsion when
in each other. Examples of this type of micro they are cooled from about 1 000 C (Lord 1 949) .
structure are shown by the alloys of copper and This emulsion results in a division into vety fine
lead, zinc and lead, and iron and copper. As the droplets so that gross separation cannot occur.
temperature falls from the melt of these mutually With leaded copper, brass, or bronze alloys
insoluble metals, one of them will be precipitated, the lead usually occurs as small, finely dispersed
Figure 40. Cu-Pb phase diagram. melpointtinCug

.l'
1084.5 c Cu liquid
II--- -..+ -...;. __ - - - two liquids
__ __ _ _----- -- - -..,\
----..+ ::...;. ..::::= ;,..:::: -.. ------------
36 95S "C 87
Cu liquid
melpointting 1-_________+_________________
326 C ---1 99.9%
Pb(327.5 C)
Cu Pb (eutectic of 99.9% Pb 0.1 % Cu)
Cu Pb
24
spherical globules scattered at the grain bound diagram, the composition of the still liquid cop
aries and within the grains themselves. Lead has per follows the liquidus until at 1 095 DC the cop
the effect of making the alloys of copper easier to per will contain something like 3% iron in
cast; it can, for example, improve the fluidity of solution. At 1 084.5 DC, a peritectic reaction will
the alloy in the melt. Lead also makes copper occur between the liquid and the precipitated
alloys easier to work since the lead acts as an area gamma phase to give a solid solution of96% cop
of weakness between the grains. This is of no per and 4% iron. This means that given a vety
practical use if the alloy is used for the manufac slow cooling rate the alloy should consist of a
ture of daggers or sword blades since they will be solid solution (eta [T]l phase) of 96% copper and
weakened by the inclusion of lead, but it is advan 4% iron with residual gamma (y) iron particles.
tageous for the production of cast objects. As the temperature falls, the copper is gradually
It is not strictly true that iron is insoluble in
copper; the phase diagram is more complex than
that, although the end result of admixtures of
precipitated out of the alpha (ex) iron and at the
same time the eta (T]) phase loses iron. In ancient
specimens, so far no evidence has come to light to
copper with small amounts of iron is the presence suggest that the peritectic reaction had occurred.
of small dendrites or globules of iron mixed with Because of the presence of alpha-phase iron (fer
the copper grains. The phase diagram is given in rite) , the copper alloys containing iron are usually
Appendix G in this book. The cooling of a 6% ferromagnetic and can sometimes be picked up
iron in copper alloy is examined by Cooke and with a magnet.
Aschenbrenner ( 1 975). As the 94% copper and Care must be taken when grinding and pol
6% iron alloy cools, it reaches the liquidus at ishing leaded alloys to ensure that lead globules
about 1 2 1 5 DC and solid gamma iron begins to do not drop out (without notice being taken of
separate out. This gamma iron will contain about their existence) in the process. If they do fall out,
8.3% copper in solid solution. As the temperature they leave small spherical holes and it may then
falls, more of the gamma iron-rich phase separates become vety difficult to distinguish between
until at 1 095 DC the precipitating iron contains porosity due to casting defects and lead inclusions
about 8 . 5 % copper. At the copper-rich side of the as an alloying constituent, since both appear as
holes in the polished section.
4 THE MICROSTRUCTURE OF TIN B RONZES
Some of the features to be found in alloys of cop of interdendritic delta phase will be much
per and tin, commonly referred to as bronze, or reduced or disappear entirely. However, at tin
more correctly as tin bronze, have been discussed contents of about 1 0% it is very unusual in cast
in previous chapters. The phase diagram for the ings from antiquity to get absorption of all the
copper-tin system is rather complex and cannot delta phase and the dendrites will usually be sur
be discussed fully here, and the one given in this
book ignores the low-temperature phase field of
the alpha (ex) + epsilon () phase region (Fig. 33
rounded by a matrix of the alpha
toid.
+ delta eutec
As the tin content increases the proportion of

and Figs. 1 98, 1 99 in Appendix G). This is interdendritic eutectoid also increases. I f a homo
because the phase never appears in bronzes of up geneous copper-tin alloy is worked by hammering
to abour 28% tin that have been manufactured by and annealing, then the typical features seen in
conventional means. Thousands of hours of face-centered cubic metals will be developed;
annealing are necessary in order to make the namely, annealing twins, strain lines, progres
phase appear and, of course, such conditions sively finer grains as a result of working, and flat
never occur, even in modern bronzes. Despite tened grains if left in the worked condition, as
this, common forms of equilibrium diagrams discussed earlier. The same features will develop if
contain no clue that equilibrium is practically the alloy is two-phased, although the eutectoid is
never attained. Even more surprisingly, some rather brittle and may be broken up to some
modern metallurgical textbooks appear to be extent. The usual microstructure shows the pres
unknowledgeable on the subject and maintain
that an alloy with 2% tin will decompose on cool
ing from the usual alpha +
alpha and eta without difficulty!
delta region to give
ence of small islands of alpha + delta eutectoid
between the recrystallized grains of the alpha solid
solution. If coring in the original cast ingot was
pronounced, then this may be carried over in the
Tin bronzes may conveniently be divided into worked alloy as a faint or "ghost" dendritic pat
two regions: low-tin bronzes and high-tin tern superimposed upon the recrystallized grains.
bronzes. Low-tin bronzes are those in which the When a bronze section is etched with ferric chlo
tin content is less than 1 7%. This is the maxi ride, this difference in alloy composition due to
mum theoretical limit of the solubility of tin in coring may only be apparent as vague differences
the copper-rich solid solution. In practice, the in shading of the alloy, and a dendritic outline of
usual limit of solid solution is nearer to 1 4%, the shading may be very difficult to see. Some
although it is rare to find a bronze with this tin experience in the examination of bronzes must be
content in a homogeneous single phase. developed so that a worker can differentiate
When a tin bronze is cast, the alloy is exten between uneven etching and uneven coloring of
sively segregated, usually with cored dendritic the specimen surface due to coring.
+
growth, and an infill of the alpha delta eutectoid
surrounds the dendritic arms. The center of the
dendrite arms are copper-rich, since copper has
Apart from complications introduced by
other alloying elements such as zinc, the struc
tural features seen in most low-tin bronzes are the
the higher melting point, and the successive following:
growth of the arms results in the deposition of
more tin. At low-tin contents, for example,
J. Homogeneous bronzes, in which all the tin
has dissolved with the copper and which do
between 2 and 5%, it may be possible for all the
not display coring or residual cast features.
tin to be absorbed into the dendritic growth. This
varies considerably depending on the cooling rate
of the bronze and the kind of casting involved. If
the cooling rate is very slow, there is a greater
2. Cored bronzes, in which there is an unequal
distribution of copper and tin, but no eutec
toid phase present.
chance of reaching equilibrium, and the amount

3. Bronzes in which both the alpha phase and
The Microstructure of Tin Bronzes
26
the eutecroid phase are present. phase and ro produce a martensitic structure) .
4. Bronzes in which the alpha phase is exten
sively cored and where the eutecroid phase is
present.
Hammer marks and oxide scale could then be
removed by grinding with abrasives of various
grades, often on a simple lathe, and then the
object was polished. Surface decoration, if
Most ancient alloys have less than 1 7% tin. At
present, was cut into the surface with drills or an
this level of tin content, bronzes can be cold
abrasive wheel before final polishing.
worked and annealed; however, if the tin content
Although certain vessels made from this alloy
is between 1 7% and 1 9% it has been found that
possessed interesting musical properties, the prin
the alloy is unworkable: it can neither be hot
ciple reason for its use in regions where tin was
worked nor cold-worked. A film of delta forms
plentiful, was its color. The color of typical beta
and this brittle phase then coats the grain bound
bronze resembles gold. Beta bronzes were first
aries with the result that the alloy breaks up inro
found in India and Thailand from the early cen
pieces. However, above 1 9% tin the bronze can
be hot-worked. Bells and mirrors in antiquity
turies B.C. and they spread slowly ro the Near
East. The Islamic alloy, white bronze, safldruy, is
were often made of ternary tin bronzes consisting
an example of a high-tin alloy. It was also found
of about 20-25% tin, 2- 1 0% lead, the remainder
in Java and Korea, but when brass became more
being copper. Alloys of this type were almost
widely known, high-tin bronze use became much
invariably cast. Binary tin bronzes containing
more limited.
more than 1 7% tin often have about 23% tin,
The alloy known as specuLum, which may con
which corresponds closely ro the equilibrium
tain up ro about 35% tin, is said by some ro have
value of the beta phase of the bronze system,
been used by the Romans for the manufacture of
which has been mentioned in connection with
mirrors. However, Roman mirrors were often
peritectic transformations. Above 586 C, a
made by tinning; the alloy itself was often a low
bronze in the beta region can be readily worked,
tin bronze. At high levels of tin, such as those
whereas if allowed ro cool slowly ro room temper
encountered in tinned surfaces, the following
ature, the bronze would decompose into alpha
intermetallic phases of the copper-tin system
and delta and be impossible ro work. One advan
must be considered carefully: ( 1 ) the delta (b)
tage of beta bronzes is that the beta phase can be
retained by quenching. A complete account of
this process is quite complex, bur one of the most
phase which has already been discussed, Cu3 1 Sn
containing about 32.6% tin; (2) the epsilon (E)
8'
phase, CU3Sn, containing about 38.2% tin; (3)
important points is that the beta phase is retained
the eta (11 ) phase, containing 6 1 .0% tin, CU6Sn5.
by quenching as a structure of martensitic nee
Here, in tinned surfaces, the epsilon phase does
dles. This quenched beta bronze is very hard, but
appear and is important in understanding the
a lot less brittle than the same bronze slowly
microstructure. When tin is applied ro bronze,
cooled ro the alpha eutecroid room temperature
layers of both the eta and the epsilon phase can
form. Apart from a few cast figurines, the major
develop by interdiffusion between the bronze and
ity of artifacts of beta bronze composition were
the molten tin, which then can develop layered
made by the following series of operations. The
structures in the following sequence: surface tin,
alloy was made up as accurately as the technology
eta phase, epsilon phase, substrate bronze.
of the time allowed, a blank was then cast in the
Under the optical microscope, tin is light and
approximate form of the desired object, and the
silvery in appearance, the eta compound is
object was shaped by hot-working at a tempera
slightly more grey-blue in color, the epsilon phase
ture of about 650 C. At the end of the working
is the darkest grey-blue, and the delta is light blue.
process, the alloy was uniformly reheated ro about
The range of features that may form on tinned
the same temperature and was then rapidly
surfaces is complicated: CU6Sn5 is common and is
quenched (ro preserve the high-temperature
27
often misdescribed as tin (see Meeks 986).J

Many tin bronzes are leaded. With low-tin
bronzes, typically castings, the lead does not alloy
gram shows that the presence of rwo liquids for
many compositions above 734 C may prevent
quenching from temperatures high enough to
with the copper or tin and occurs as small globules
throughout the srructure. Some gravity segregation
may take the lead down to the base or bottom of
the casting, but generally in cast structures the dis
Ja+ 0 J
retain beta (see Appendix G, Fig. 2 2).
Figure 4 shows a section through a cast toggle
pin from Iran, etched in FeCl3 at x450. The net
work of the eutectoid can clearly be seen in
rribution is fine and random. the interdendritic regions. The toggle pin has a
With a higher percentage of tin, the structure composition of 92.3% copper, 3.7% tin, 0.6%
may become difficult to understand if lead is
present as well. This is especially true if the bronzes
are quenched. There are several Roman mirrors
a
zinc, 0.4% iron, and 1 .3% arsenic. Note that the
phase (the copper-rich component) appears light
in color except near the eutectoid where some cor
made in bronzes approximating to: 24.7% tin, ing occurs. The coring looks as though some of the
3.2% lead, and 73.7% copper. When quenched
from intermediate temperatures, a very fine parti
cle matrix develops that is difficult to resolve + O .
region migrates to join up with
a + 0
tin is being depleted in the region of the
a
eutectoid as some tin from the solid solution
The darker
under the optical microscope. This is due to the
very fine dispersion of the lead and the develop
ment of a Widmanstatten srructure in the
regions around the a+0 phases are copper-rich
compared to the rest of the bronze.
The bronze srructure of the incense burner in
bronzes. If quenching of bronzes of beta composi Figure 42 is atypical, consisting of small polygo
tion is not sufficient to retain beta, then decompo nal grains with patches of the eutectoid berween
sition into a Widmanstatten srructure of fine alpha them and interspersed with small globules oflead.
and delta may occur. Some Roman mirrors have This leaded bronze must have been cast followed
this kind of srructure. The situation is even more by an annealing process during manufacture (see
complicated, in fact, because in leaded-tin bronzes Figs. 1 09, 1 1 0 in Appendix F ) . There are very few
the melting points of the alloys are much lower traces of rwinned grains present and these are not
than in the binary system. The ternaty phase dia- as prominent as the coring that still remains from
FigureIr41.an. Bronze
from right. Castwithtoggl
3. 7 e tipinnand
%
1. 3% arsenic. Etch: FeCI3: x 120.
Fibronze
gure 42.incense
far rigburner
ht. Chiofnesethecast19th
lcentury.
ead. Etch:Bronze
FeCI3wi: x80.th 8% tin and 4%
The Micros/mellire o/ Tin Bronzes
28
Figbeta-quenched
ure 43. top right.bronze
ofSumatra A smalfrom l mi rror
century fromD. tradi
A. KotangCicompl
na. a e10th
x.
x150.
Figure 44.mi rtoprorfarfromrigJava
bronze ht. Ashowihigh-tingn
thebeta-quenched
classic develbronze opmentstructure
of the in
the microstructure. x 130.
Fingureleaded45. bronze
ti22% below riofght.composi
Cast hitgiohn
tinng; 6%structure
lead andafter72%etchicopper
alcoholic FeCI). x80. ng in
showi
Figure 46. belquenched
Laboratory ow far rigalht.loy of
composi
that has tbeen
ion 24%quenched
tin. 76%i n copper
colfinde
water
network at 650 C showi n g a
n this samplofcompl
istructure eneedl es.esThethe phase
occupi
etely wioxith donle y a
few gl o bul e s of copper
present as an impurity. x 180. the cast metal. possesses a highly lustrous dark green patina.
The bronze mirror in Figure 43 has slightly less Despite being a metastable phase, beta bronzes
than the required amount of tin to make a com remain quite stable after thousands of years of
plete beta phase throughout, and small islands of
phase can be seen that often follow the previous
grain boundaries of the high temperature p grains
a burial.
Figures 45 and 46 are examples of laboratory
made bronze ingots, originally produced to study
before quenching the alloy. The type of p needles the structural aspect of ancient alloys. For example,
developed here is sometimes mistaken for strain Figure 45 was cast in a high-tin leaded bronze to
lines in a copper alloy, but the context and type of replicate some of the structures that were found in
lines to be seen is unmistakable. It is etched with a series of Roman mirrors. Figure 46 illustrates the
FeCl3 at x 1 50; about 22.5% tin, 77.5% copper. microstructure for a laboratory prepared alloy
The a islands that are also present in many of
the high-tin beta bronzes, such as the mirror in Fig
ure 43, are sometimes rwinned as a result of hot
made from an ingot of 24% tin, 76% copper
quenched in cold water at 650 C. The structure of
this alloy consists of a fine interlocking nerwork of
working the bronzes before quenching. The mirror p needles.
29
Fiblgaurede fragment
47, top riofght.theJapanese 18th sword
century,
close tong thefoldcenter
showi s i n the offerritheteblgraiade,n
structureonsasuseda resulto tmake
operati of thetheforgiblade.ng
Etch: nital; x 150.
Figure 48,bladetopfragment,
sword far right.clJapanese
osemarten
to the
cutti
siNote n g edge,
te whithechgreat showi
has been n g l a th
tempered.
ture between thedi f erence
center in struc
and
cutti
picraln;gx300. tip of the sword. Etch:
Figureon49,of abelJapanese
secti ow right.sword Part ofblathede
showi
cutti n g ngedgetransiwheretion zonetroosi nearte (very
to
fine beirresol
can seen vabltogether
e pearliwite)thnodules
Wipicraldmanstatten
; x220. pearlite. Etch:
Figure 50,bladebelsecti
sword ow faron,rifurther
ght. Japanese backto
from
the tcenterthe cutti n g
thanis pureedge and cl
Figureferri48.teHereo ser thes
whi e phase
wipearlth iante (fiinfinle ofgreythezones). grai
eutectoiNoted the n
two-phased
section. Etch:slapigcstriral;nx220. gers in the
5 NOTES ON THE STRUCTURE OF CARBON STEELS
The type of srructure seen in Figure 5 1 , below, in

low-carbon steel, could arise from heat rreatment
in the a+ y region of the phase diagram. At room
temperature, the structure will be ferrite
ite, and after heating this will become:
+ pearl
and after cooling the gamma phase will revert to:

Figure 52. Grain boundary structure with subgrain
features.
During cooling some of the ferrite will take a
Widmanstatten srructure.
alpha + Fe3C.
The section in Figure 53 shows small grain
size in the cutting edge and a larger grain size in
the body of a knife. There is some tempered mar
ferrite (a) tensite on the edge.
slightly Widmanstatten (a) t l grains large grains in

Figure 51. Partial y Widmanstatten steel. smal
at edge body of knife
If the cooling rate is very fast then martensite
can form. Even if the cooling rate is too slow for Figure 53. Grain size of knife edge.
this transformation to occur the proportions of This type of structure cannot originate from
pearlite and ferrite in the solid will not be present heating the tip of the blade followed by quench
in equilibrium amounts. The presence of more ing. If the tip was made by heat rreatment from
pearlite than ferrite will lead to an overestimation the same metal then the grain structure would be
of the carbon content. larger. This indicates that the cutting edge must
The structure in Figure 52 shows grain have been pur in at some point during manufac
boundary cementite (Fe3C) with a subgrain ture; it could not have been made in one piece.
structure of cementite + pearlite. How can this
type of srructure arise? When cooling down an
alloy from the gamma (y) region, the alloy con
When etching quenched structures, some
areas of the martensite may etch rather darker
than others. This can be due to tempering of the
tains more than 0.8% carbon. Upon decomposi martensite or, if fuzzy nodular shapes appear, it
tion of the gamma phase, Fe3C will be formed at could be due to the presence of troosite. Troosite
the original austenitic grain boundaries after cool patches appear because the cooling rate is not
ing from temperatures above 900 C. If this alloy, quite fast enough to produce a martensitic struc
typically with about 1 . 2% carbon content, is ture. There is often confusion between the terms
cooled down and then subsequently reheated to troosite and sorbite. It is better to reserve the term
abour 800 C (in the gamma ++[alpha Fe3C]
region), then more Fe3C will be formed on a finer
scale, while the original austenitic grain bound
sorbite for srructures resulting from quenching
followed by heat rreatment (for example, marten
site going to sorbite upon heating) . Troosite
aries will be preserved, so that on subsequent should be used for srructures resulting from the
cooling, the gamma phase will decompose to rapid cooling of a carbon steel, but not fast
Structure of Carbon Steels
32
enough for the production of martensite. In Figure 5 5 , if the alloy is of composition A,

In the banded structure of the quenched then the structure will consist of alpha at the grain
sword blade in Figure 54, the question arises as to boundaries with pearlite infill, but if the alloy is of
why, if the whole structure has been quenched, composition B , then the structure will be cement
are there some areas of martensite and some that ite at the grain boundaries with an infill of pearl
are apparenrly only a mixture of ferrite + pearlite.
There are two possible reasons for the structural
differences. First, the difference may be due to
ite. Small changes in the direction ofB make litrle
difference to the visible amount of cementite at
the grain boundaries, but a small movement in
carbon content. The amount of carbon present the direction of A makes a large difference in the
will affect the production of martensite when the amount of alpha at the grain boundaries.
heated alloy is quenched. It is possible that the
carbon content in the fine ferrite + pearlite
regions is not sufficient to produce martensite.
Second, the shift may be due to other alloy ele
ments in the regions concerned, which would be
apparent with further analysis.
Figure 54. sword

quenched Bandedblastructure
de consi s oftinga of
aHiJU A
I+-II-----.
1 B
very
bandsfinofe martensi
pearlite andte. alternate
msI ms ms martensite (ms)
+ . 1 O.8% C
Figure 55. Part of the Fe-Fe3C phase diagram.
Similarly, if in a homogeneous specimen the
cooling rate is not sufficienrly high to produce a
totally martensitic structure, then it is possible to
get a series of transitions between martensite,
rroosite, ferrite, and fine pearlite, with incipienrly
Widmanstatten ferrite between the pearlite
regIOns.
6 MARTENSITE IN LOW-CARBON STEELS
Martensite is a very hard needlelike constituent of appearance in section than the plate form.
steels that forms when steels are quenched in Mixtures oflath and plate martensite occur in
water or other liquids at room temperature. A steels up to about 1 % carbon, while the plate
steel artifact is usually heated up to the austenite form predominates over 1 % carbon. Sometimes
region of the phase diagram, abour 800-950 c, darker etching networks in bisulfite or nital are
then quickly plunged into cold water, thus form composed of plate martensite.
ing the extremely hard martensite constituent. The hardness of martensite is determined by
Some of the hardness and brittleness could then its carbon content which can vary from about
be removed to various degrees by tempering, usu 300 Hy at 0 . 1 % carbon up to about 900 Hy at
ally at temperatures between 200 and 500 C. 0.6% carbon. Many ancient artifacts, however,
Untempered martensite is difficult to etch in were made under poorly controlled conditions,
picral, but it can be etched in nital or sodium and the martensite may have tempered itself as
bisulfite. There are two essential types of marten the heated steel cooled down to room tempera
site: lath and plate. Most steels below a carbon ture; this is known as self-tempering. Tempered
content of 0.6% give lath martensite. The indi martensite reacts much more quickly to etchants
vidual laths cannot be resolved by optical micros than the untempered variety, and picral etchants
copy even at x 1 000, and what can be seen is an can be used readily, as can bisulfite, although
aggregation of small lath bundles. The number of according to Samuels ( 1 980) there is only a slight
possible orientations for the growth of lath mar change in the response to nita!'
tensite within the parent austenite grain are less During the quenching process it is also possi
numerous than those in plate martensite, which ble to retain some of the high-temperature auste
becomes the dominant constituent as carbon con nite phase. Austenite can often be made apparent
tent increases. Lath martensite has a more regular with Villela's etchant.
7 THE TEMPERING OF MARTENSITE
Although the tempering process simply involves untempered martensite. Similarly the formation
heating the quenched artifact to temperatures of cementite at higher tempering temperatures
that may lie between 1 00 and 600 C, the pro (e.g., 500 C) gives darker etching regions, and
cesses involved are quite subtle and complex; for sometimes a mottled appearance can be seen at
example, a particular form of carbide, epsilon (E) high magnification at x l OOO-x2000.
carbide, forms when steels containing more than When tempering is carried out at 400 C or
0.2% carbon are tempered between 1 00 and higher, carbon is removed from the martensite
250 C, while if the tempering is carried out and grains of ferrite can start to form. These can
between 250 and 700 dc, cementite is formed be platelike, but the morphology can barely be
instead of E-carbide, in the form of small plates of seen under the optical microscope.
spheroidal particles. It is difficult to see any fine The hardness of tempered martensite decreases
detail of these changes using optical microscopy. as the tempering temperature rises, and the influ
Precipitation of E-carbides can only be detected ence that carbon content has on the hardness of
indirectly since they etch more darkly than tempered structures decreases considerably.
Figure 56.cruciA bgood-qual

Wootz l e found intythesteelDeccan
i pril from
area theof Inliddiaof. Thea Figureeval57.kniMartensi
medi fe bl a de tefromneedlArdies inngltheey,cuttiSussex,ng edgeEnglaofnd.a
pril hadybecome
probabl duri n g embedded
agi t ati o n to in thethatcrucia molbletenlininproduct
test g Etched
onleffecty juistsi,nhowever,
picralvablat ex380at thimagni
resol s ficatificoatin.oThen. Theneedloveral
magni es arel
had been
over 0. 8 produced.
%. The area The
shown carbon
i n the content
photomi ofcrograph,
the pril is steel s ; compare thi typis wictalh formartensi
martensite seen te in ilnow-carbon
the cutte.
etched wic grai
austenti th nintalboundari
at x65 eshows
s wi t h some ferriteteneedl
cementi at priesoandr steel bead shown in Figure 59. This is lath martensi
thifi nes pearl
magniitfeicatias othen. dark phase which is not resolved at
The Tempering ofMartensite
36
Fingdiurea. showi
IBroken 58. Photomi
n g the crograph
hi g h carbon of content
part of aofsmalthel kriblasde.from FiFrench
gure 59.cut-steel
A crossbeadsectishowi
on through
n g part anof the18thsupport
centurywire
angul a r fragments throughout
fragments of cementitetheneedlsectiesooccur n. ori e asntedwhite (center ) and thex20.octagonal faceted bead i n section.
Lightly etched;
albackground
ong the di riectis finoelnyofdiworki
v i d ed npearl
g ofitthee wibltahde.practiThecaldarkly no
slag content. Etch: nital; x 150
Figuren60.g welFrench
showi l develcut-steel
o ped pl a beadmartensi
te of thete18that acentury
magnificatiofothen ofcut-steel
content x420. etched
bead i isn about
picral. 1.The2% carbon
carbon. a
very hi g h carbon steel compared
European products of the time. wi t h most other
8 STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF CAST IRON
It is remarkable that ancient Chinese metalsmiths They can be mixed with wrought iron and
in the Han Wei period (206
in the Western Han dynasty (206
B.C.-A.B.CD..-A.D.
534 ) and
24 )
heated to produce a steel by lowering the car
bon content.
were already producing spheroidal graphite cast Grey cast irons may corrode badly and they
iron. Just as remarkable are whiteheart malleable present difficult problems for the conservator.
cast irons from the Province of H ubei, dating to
There are three principal groups of cast iron:
the Warring States period of 475-2 2 1 B.C.
(Hongye and J ueming 1 983). Early apparatus for
grey cast iron, white cast iron, and mottled cast
iron (mixed areas of white and grey) .
providing efficient blasts of air enabled the attain
In the grey cast irons there is free graphite in
ment of very high temperatures. The commercial
the structure-some of the carbon being rejected
production of cast iron in the West did not com
from solution and solidifYing as flakes of graphite.
mence until the 1 3th century A.D., considerably
later. But what is cast iron and what are the dif
In white cast irons all the carbon occurs as
cementite. In the mottled, mixed group, both
ferent microstructures associated with this mate
graphite flakes and cementite can be found in dif
rial?
ferent regions of the same sample, sometimes
Cast irons have high percentages of carbon
deliberately made by chilling part of the mold and
greater than 2% but generally less than 5%-and
increasing the cooling rate, which favors cement
are castable solely because they can be kept in a
ite formation.
liquid state at temperatures as low as about
There are two important factors influencing
1 1 48 C (with a carbon content of 4-5%). Cast
the formation of graphite and cementite: solidifi
irons are difficult to describe fully without some
cation rate and composition. Since the iron-car
analyses for additional alloying elements that are
bon phase diagram (Fig. 30), incorporating ferrite
often present, besides carbon, and that can
and graphite as stable products, is the nearest to
change considerably both the physical properties
equilibrium, slow cooling favors graphite produc
and the microstructure.
tion, while rapid cooling favors the metastable
Present-day cast iron produced in a blast fur
ferrite and cementite system.
nace is essentially pig iron and may contain sili
The most important elements in cast irons are
con, sulfur, phosphorus, manganese, nickel, and
carbon and silicon, a high content of either favor
chromium, in addition to carbon, and each of
ing graphite formation. Other alloying or impu
these elements produces changes in microstruc
rity elements that stabilize graphite are nickel,
ture. The most important alloying additions or
aluminium, copper, and titanium.
impurities as far as ancient and historical period
Manganese stabilizes cementite, although the
cast irons are concerned are silicon, sulfur, and
situation is more complicated if sulfur is present
phosphorus. The special properties of cast irons
as well. Sulfur stabilizes cementite as well, but sul
may be summarized as follows:
fur also has a strong affinity for manganese and
They may be cast into shape in molds. forms manganese sulfide particles if both ele
They have good fluidity and, when carbon is ments are present. This compound, as a result,
precipitated, they expand on cooling and thus has little influence on carbon.
take a good mold impression. Primary additions, for example, of sulfur to
Their melting point is low, on the order of an iron with a high manganese content, tend to
1 200 C. stabilize graphite formation. Phosphorus acts
They have good wear properties since graphite chemically to promote carbide formation, bur the
is a good lubricant. presence of phosphorus produces a ternary
They have a high damping capacity. phosphide eutectic (steadite) between ferrite
They have a reasonable strength in compres (usually with some phosphorus content) , cement
sion, although they are weak in tension. ite, and iron phosphide (a + +Fe3P Fe3C)' This
Structure and Properties 0/ Cast fron
38
ternary eutectic melts at 960 C and thus is the This CE value places the Han cauldron in the
last constituent to solidify. This results in the
Fe3C solidifying slowly and allows any silicon
present to promote graphite formation. With low
y+ hypereutectic region, although since the lede
burite eutectic occurs at 4.3% carbon (at a tem
perature of 1 1 40 DC) , the alloy is quite close to
amounts of phosphorus (about 0. 1 %), graphite the eutectic region. Ledeburite is a eutectic com
can actually be enhanced rather than destabilized. prising iron carbide and austenite.
Nickel, like silicon, dissolves easily in ferrite and
also acts to stabilize graphite. Microstructural Constituents
Because of the complexities introduced by The constituents, apart from graphite and trans
alloying elements beside carbon, a carbon equiva formed ledeburite, are similar to steels and in a
lent value (CE) is often quoted instead: typical grey cast iron would include graphite
flakes, as well as varying amounts of ferrite and
CE = total C% + ---+
(Si
This CE value may then be used to determine

3
P)
whether an iron is hypoeutectic or hypereutectic.

pearlite. The ferrite may be harder than in ordi
nary steels because of the silicon content. The
usual white cast iron constituents are pearlite and
cementite. The grey cast irons may have the fol
In general, the lower the CE value, the greater the
lowing constituents:
tendency for an iron to solidify as a white cast
iron or as a mottled iron.
Irons that are hypereutectic (carbon equiva
1. Flake graphite, formed during solidification,
can determine the properties of the iron by its
lent more than 4.2-4.3%) will precipitate kish shape, size, quantity, and distribution.
graphite ) on solidification with normal cooling Graphite flakes are usually found in the fol
rates. Hypereutectic cast irons solidify by direct lowing forms: randomly distributed, den
formation of graphite from the melt in the form dritic, or rosette.
ofkish, which has a low density and can rise to the 2. Pearlite, which may vary in composition be
surface. When entrapped by metal it generally tween 0 . 5 and 0.8% because of alloy content.
appears as long wavy or lumpy flakes. This phase 3. Steadite, the ternary phosphide eutectic previ
is precipitated over a range of temperatures that ously discussed.
will be examined with the aid of a phase diagram 4. Free ferrite, which appears in appreciable
(Fig. 6 1 ) later in this section, starting at the amounts only in low-strength cast irons. The
liquidus surface and continuing until the remain ferrite is usually rounded in appearance com
ing melt is at the eutectic point when crystalliza pared with steadite or cementite because it
tion of graphite and austenite occurs. This precipitates from the austenite solid solution
eutectic graphite in hypereutectic cast irons is rather than from a liquid. It is often found in
usually finer than primary kish graphite. association with graphite flakes. Free cement
As an example of the application of the CE ite is unusual in grey cast irons.
formula, consider a white cast iran from Nang
Yang City, Henan Province, China, dating from Preparation of grey cast irons by metallo
the Eastern Han dynasty ( A. D . 24-220 ) . The
object is a cauldron with the following elemental
analysis: C 4. 1 9%, Si 0. 1 4%, Mn 0 .09%,
graphic polishing can give rise to problems
because the graphite flakes may be smeared or
removed preferentially upon polishing. Very cor
S 0.06%, P 0.486% (Hongye and J ueming roded grey cast irons can also be very difficult to
1 983). retain in a plastic mount because they may consist
oflittle more than a loose mass of iran oxides in a
graphite matrix. These have a tendency to lose
CE = 4. 19 ++
0. 14
3
0. 486
4.39
part of the friable surface upon polishing wi th the
consequent difficulty of obtaining a good polish.
Structure and Properties of Cast Iron
39
Less corroded specimens polished with diamond Heat Treatment of Cast Iron
abrasives usually do not present major difficulties. Castings produced in white cast iron can be made
A good test to determine if graphite is pol malleable to some extent by a number of tech
ished correctly is to examine the sample in niques. Two such methods are known as white
2
reflected polarized light. Graphite is anisotropic heart and blackheart. These names refer to the
3
and exhibits reflection pleochroism. When respective fractures of the different irons after
examined under ordinary bright field illumina annealing, the whiteheart variery being white and
tion with unpolarized light, graphite flakes appear crystalline due to the presence of pearlite and the
to have a uniform brownish-grey color. If the blackheart being grey or black due to graphite. In
same sample is then examined under plane polar whiteheart structures, annealing oxidizes some of
ized light, some graphite flakes appear light, some the carbon producing a ferrite structure that grad
dark, and some have an intermediate color. If the ually changes to a steel-like mass of ferrite and
sample is rotated 90, the flakes formerly dark pearlite with interspersed nodules of graphite. In
become light. The relationship between the plane blackheart structures, the heat treatment does not
of polarization of the incident light and the posi result in much carbon oxidation and, depending
tion of maximum or minimum brightness is such on other alloying constituents such as silicon and
that when the plane of polarization is at right sulfur, the cementite may break down to graphite
angles to the graphite flakes they appear dark, and aggregate nodules in a matrix offerrite and pearlite.
when parallel they appear light (Nelson 1 98 5 ) . If
the same sample is examined under polarized Temper Carbon Nodules
light between crossed polars, upon rotation When cast iron is in the white condition, anneal
through 360, each graphite flake will lighten ing at temperatures in the range of 800-950 C
four times; this is expected from the hexagonal may produce graphite nucleation. At this temper
anistropy of graphite. ature, white cast iron usually consists of a eutectic
Picral is probably the best etchant for pre matrix of cementite, austenite and, if many impu
dominantly pearlitic grey, malleable, and ductile rities are present, inclusions. Nucleation of graph
irons. Picral does not damage graphite which nital ite then occurs at the austenite/cementite
can, but for ferritic grey cast irons nital is prefer interfaces and at inclusions. Cementite gradually
able. dissolves in the austenite and the carbon diffuses
If the iron is sufficiently below the eurectic to the graphite nuclei to produce nodules. This
value, has a very low silicon content, and contains kind of process of heat treatment appears to be
appreciable carbide stabilizers, or if the cooling responsible for the spheroidal graphite cast irons
rate is fast, then instead of graphite flakes solidifi made in ancient China. Ancient Chinese smiths
cation occurs by formation of austenite dendrites. could cast a white cast iron and then, by high
Meanwhile the interdendritic regions solidify as temperature heat treatment, produce spheroidal
ledeburite, a eutectic mixture of iron carbide and graphite. The graphite is slightly polygonal in
austenite. In appearance, ledeburite etched in shape, but in all other respects is the same as the
nital would consist of light etching cementite in a spheroidal graphite cast iron produced today by
background of unresolved and transformed auste alloying a variery of elements such as cerium or
nite, which usually appears as dark etching magnesium with cast iron. These alloying ele
pearlite. ments do not occur in ancient Chinese examples.
As cast iron cools, the austenite transforms to
ferrite and cementite. The structure of a white
cast iron at room temperature therefore usually
Analysis by SEM indicates that spheroidal graph
ite nuclei are latent in white cast irons having car
bon, low silicon, and the required ratio of
consists of primary dendrites of pearlite with manganese to sulfur.
interdendritic transformed ledeburite.
Structure and Properties o/Cast Iron
40
In the microstructure of a typical cast iron, both of the constituents present at t2.
which cools down quickly, the nonequilibrium
phase Fe3C tends to predominate: the equilib
rium constituent is free graphite. Line AB has
At tr tj Y + (y + FejC)
y (+FejC) +[(y + FejC) + FejC]
----7
been drawn on the iron-iron carbide diagram that
Finally, as cooling proceeds past t3 itself, all of the
represents the cooling of a typical cast iron (Fig.
austenite tell;ds to decompose to pearlite. This
6 1 ) . At temperature t1, the liquid material starts
means that the final change can be represented as:
to solidifY and austenite grains, or rather den
drites, start to form, surrounded by liquid. As the
temperature falls, this liquid cools and reaches the
stage at which a simple eutectic decomposition
At tj Y (ex
(+ FejC) + [(y + FejC) + FejC]
(y + FejC) + FejC +
---7
+ FejC) + FejC + FejC
occurs. This eutectic is called ledeburite and con

This series of reactions leads to the formation of
sists of austenite + Fe3C.
typical white cast iron. There is a different series
At tJ
At t2
LYr-----7-7 Y L2Y (y
+ L2
+ (dendrites of y in liquid)
+ + Fe3C)
of phase changes that may occur if slow cooling is
carried out or if there are alloying additions, such
as silicon, made to stabilize the formation of
As the temperature falls between t2 and t3 on the graphite. The series of changes that take place at
graph, so the carbon content of the austenite t1, t2 ' and t3 are the same, except where Fe3C
decreases and more Fe3C is precipitated from occurs in the phase relationships, it is replaced
diFigagram
ure 61.forPartcastofirFe-Fe3C
on. phase
B D
Structure and Properties o/Cast Iron
41
with graphite (G): in Figure 6 1 would then be represented by:
At
At
trt2l 3LIL----72 --------'7--7 L2 G) tttyxy-LtzI ----+ L2-7 -----7 L2
Y+
+
Y Y ( +
Y+
G)
Y + (Y + G)
Y + G + f(y + + G}
At
At
At
Fe3 C
Fe3C + (y + Fe,C)
Fe3C +
Fe,C + (y + Fe,C)
At t3 + ------7
y + G + f(y G) + G}
y + G+ G+y + G+ G+ G
+
Fe3C (+ y) + f(y + Fe3C) Fe3C}
White cast irons with a total carbon content

of over 4% tend to be extremely hard with no
In practice, the last stage never fully takes place.
elongation at all and are not normally used in the
More typically the first phase change is from aus
fast cooled state. With slow cooling, very large
tenite to austenite + graphite, but the austenite is
graphite flakes can form, and it is possible to get
much more likely to precipitate Fe,C. The phases
quite a large difference in the size of these flakes
at t3 then become:
depending on where they form in relation to the
t(a 3 +(a ------0:>
At Y + G + f(y G) + G}
+ Fe3 C) + G + + Fe3 C) + G + G
phase diagram. Graphite formed with a carbon
content of 3% can be quite small, whereas with a
carbon content of 5% the flakes can be enormous
This should lead to dendrites of pearlite in a (Fig. 62).
matrix of ferrite and graphite which is most likely Although cast iron metallurgy was well devel
in grey cast iron. oped in China, isolated examples of cast iron do
Above a carbon content of 4% the primary occur in other Old World contexts, for example,
reaction would be decomposition of the liquid to
form Fe,C and ledeburite (austenite + Fe,C). The
the 1 st century A.D. find from the classic excava
tions of Bus he-Fox at Hengistbury Head and also
phase changes upon fast cooling of an alloy shown from the Roman period cast iron from Wilders-
iFi1969(E).
ron.gureFrom
62. FlISaOke Standard
Ix 00.te
graphite iRn 945-
cast
a.b. FlCrab-type
ake graphi graphi ttee
c.d. Quasi fl a ke graphi
e.f. Aggregate
Irregul a r oropen-type
or temper carbon
Nodular or spheroidal graphi noduletse
a b c
df (fiI'1) <.JfJ?;.:J;" .J1J ,
1'(:4t" 1""\. 'd,\*.;z.-tl, e&> ir-'l'I.t)rtf..>,%Jr (# , 1?:
4'
J ..": ..'.. ..- -: . . -.
.. ..e.. . .. .-. .-.. .-.e..
d
-';t ->i'J>,'4. ,.:.',.1J\__'_ !.J.'Otl>? ir \1iff
:>- e
. r ,' ..- . . . e .-:
.
.
StYlla"re and Properties o/Cast Iron
42
Fi18thgurecentury.CastTypiironcalscalexampl
63. es frome the
flfrom
kesEnglsurrounded
aborders and, showibyngwhithetegraphite
(ferrichte).hasThevarigrey infil nisg,
pearl i t e,
while theeutecti whi
whitec,spotty a bl
phasee spaci
is thein
ternary
nital; x90. steadi t e. Etched
Figure 64.ofHeavi
fragment a cast ly corroded
irLondon,
on cannonbal l
from
century. the Tower of 18th
tNote
e regitesevere corrositheon of following analysis: C l .98, Si 0 . 1 6, Mn 0 .04,
thecourse
ferrigraphi onsflakesaround andons
pool, Lancashire. Both of these pieces were of
grey cast iron. The Hengistbury example had an S 0.048, P 0 .297.
corrosi
throughout o n of pearl i t
thehavestructure.e regi The twoare
analysis of: C 3.4%, Mn tr, Si 0.38%, P 0. 1 8%,
S 0.035%, while the specimen from Wilderspool Notes
phases that
the steadimateri te eutecti survi v ed best
cthe(thecementi
fine te gave: C 3.23%, Mn 0.403%, Si l .05%, P 0 .76%, 1. Kish graphite is the graphite that separates from
spotty a l ) and
laths (the lox40.ng white crystals).
S 0.49%.
Many of the Chinese examples have lower sil
molten cast iron as soon as it cools to the solid.
It may sometimes float on top of the molten
Unetched; icon content than these, ranging from 0.08% to
0.28% in the examples published by Hongye and 2.
alloy.
Anisotropic substances do not have the same
J ueming in 1 983. The Chinese examples span a physical properties in all directions of the mate
considerable range of different material as can be rial.
seen from the following:
An axe from the Warring States period (475-

B.C.
22 1 ) excavated from the site of Tonglu
3. Reflection pleochroism results from different
interactions in anisotropic solids when viewed
under polarized light. Generally, pleochroic
substances will show some color variation on
shan, H uangshie City, Hubei Province, was rotation when viewed under polarized light.
found to be an example of a whiteheart mal
leable cast iron with imperfect decarburiza
tion and a total carbon content that varies
from 0.7 to 2 . 5 % . The analysis for this axe
gave: C 0.7-2. 5%, Si 0 . 1 3%, Mn 0.05%,
S 0.0 1 6%, P 0 . 1 08%.
An example of a mottled cast iron is provided
by a hammer from the same site with the fol
lowing analysis: C 4.05%; Si 0. 1 9%;
Mn 0.05%; S 0 . 0 1 9%; P 0. 1 52%.
A white cast iron was found at Cheng Zhou
City, Henan Province. This block dates to the
Eastern Han dynasty (A . D . 24-220 ) and gave
the following analysis: C 3.97%, Si 0.28%,
Mn 0.30%, S 0.078%, P 0 . 264%.
An example of cast iron with spheroidal graph
ite was found in the iron workshop at Triesh
enggou dating to the Western Han dynasty
(206 B.C.-A.D. 24 ) . This site is located in
Gong County, Henan Province, and gave the
9 CORRODED MICROSTRUCTURES
Many ancient objects are, of course, covered with also many crystalline and other morphological
corrosion products that may have originated at details are revealed clearly.
the time of manufacture (if the object had been It should be remembered that the interface of
deliberately patinated, for example) , or they may interest may not j ust be between the metal and
have arisen from corrosion during burial or in the the primary (or currently existing) corrosion
atmosphere. Many books on the subject of corro products. Important information may also be
sion do not discuss the types of structures that preserved in some other interfacial event between
occur in ancient metals. Often they are subjected layers of corrosion products of different composi
to several different corrosion processes, resulting tion or structure.
in a nearly composite material consisting of Corrosion products may pseudomorphically
metallic remnants and mineral alteration prod replace the metallic structure that previously
ucts. Normally corrosion produces a buildup of existed. That is to say, the structural orientation
insoluble products, both within and overlying the (for example, dendritic structure) of the metal is
original metal volume. Corrosion products may preserved in the corrosion products that have
be very informative; indeed, they may be all that replaced it. One of the ways in which this can
is left of the original object. Therefore, corrosion happen is by epitaxial growth. This means, in
products should not be cleaned from the surface general terms, the regular orientation of a partic
of antiquities before metallographic examination. ular growth on a crystalline substrate. Most
Loose material, soil, and soil and mineral concre ancient chemical corrosion processes (which are
tions usually should be removed because contin best modeled by electrochemical reactions) , if
ual loss of them during polishing could create a they produce structural information preserved in
very badly scratched surface unsuitable for micro the corrosion products, do so by chemoepitaxy.
scopic examination. It is generally possible to pol This is a subdivision of the epitaxy structure.
ish corroded samples in much the same way as Chemoepitaxy can be defined as a process leading
more robust specimens, although if the material is to the growth of crystalline, regularly oriented
very friable, vacuum impregnation with a low reaction layers on a material resulting from a
viscosity epoxy resin should be considered before chemical reaction between this initial substance
mounting, or the whole sample could be and any other substance. Examples of layers
mounted in resin under vacuum. formed from such a process are cuprite (CU20)
It is most important to examine all features of growing on the surface or into the metal grains
corrosion products before etching the specimen, themselves, and Ag20, the initial thin film that
since many corrosion products are severely can form on silver objects.
attacked by the chemicals used to etch metal sur Valuable information can sometimes be
faces: they could be dissolved completely. Under retrieved from corroded metallic fragments; parts
normal bright-field reflected light microscopy of the structure may remain uncorroded, or there
most corrosion crusts have a grey color. Examina may be pseudomorphic replacement of the phases
tion under reflected polarized light yields a great by corrosion products. Appendix B illustrates
deal of valuable information. The polarizer in some of the types of corrosion found in ancient
reflected light microscopes is usually housed in specimens. Evidence of the authenticity of an
the chamber of the light source and can be artifact can be obtained from metallographic
rotated, while the analyzer is placed in a special examination of small chips of corroded metal. In
holder in front of the eyepiece turret. By adjusting copper alloys, the presence of intergranular corro
one or both of the polarizing elements, the "true" sion, intragranular corrosion, corroded slip lines,
colors of corrosion products can often be twin lines, or cuprite next to the metal would be
revealed. Not only does this aid considerably in very significant. It is extremely difficult to pro
the interpretation of many microstructures but duce coherent cuprite layers by artificial corrosion
Corroded Microstructures
44
over short periods of time, and it is also practically remove smeared material, or ultrasonic cleaning
impossible to fake the penetration of cuprite in baths of acetone or alcohol, may produce a bet
along selective planes in the crystal, such as twin ter finish. One danger is that small specimens will
bands or slip lines. If the corrosion process has not become rounded at the edges and part of the cor
completely disrupted the original volume of the rosion crust or the edges of the metallic constitu
metal but has preserved some interface between ents may then be out of focus microscopically
internal and external corrosion, then this discon compared with the remaining polished surface.
tinuity may be recognized as preserving informa The polishing hardness of corrosion products and
tion relating to the original surface of the artifact. the metal from which they have formed is usually
When corroded samples are mounted for pol quite different. Surface relief effects are therefore
ishing, the difficulty of preparing scratch-free sur common when examining corroded samples. It
faces is evident. Abrasive particles frequently can has been found that a much sharper preservation
become embedded in the corrosion products. of detail in corrosion products is achieved by
During polishing some of these particles may be using diamond polishing compounds rather than
released, producing scratches on the metal. Pro alumina compounds (Figs. 65-68).
longed polishing with intermittent etching to
Figure 65. oTypin ofcsurf

preservati al variaceatidetai
ons ilnasthea earth minerals, quartz grains, etc.
oftiresuloshape
t of corrosi
i n
n of surfmetal
on.oa.n.Preservati
corrosi
ace bywitcorrosi b. Di s rupon
c. Sound h patina.on. original coin
_.,.
surface ..-:o:77?::77T"-;r-
secondary
corrosion products
sound metal corrosion products
earth mi nerals, quartz grains, etc.
r.r:,_-;--- osurface
riginal coin
sound metal secondary corrosion products

_.....'"'_---- original surface
"pati
lacquer,na" etc.(oxi)de, sulfide, grease,
sound metal
9 CORRODED MICROSTRUCTURES
Many ancient objects are, of course, covered with also many crystalline and other morphological
corrosion products that may have originated at details are revealed clearly.
the time of manufacture (if the object had been It should be remembered that the interface of
deliberately patinated, for example), or they may interest may not just be between the metal and
have arisen from corrosion during burial or in the the primary (or currently existing) corrosion
atmosphere. Many books on the subject of corro products. Important information may also be
sion do not discuss the types of structures that preserved in some other interfacial event between
occur in ancient metals. Often they are subjected layers of corrosion products of different composi
to several different corrosion processes, resulting tion or structure.
in a nearly composite material consisting of Corrosion products may pseudomorphically
metallic remnants and mineral alteration prod replace the metallic structure that previously
ucts. Normally corrosion produces a buildup of existed. That is to say, the structural orientation
insoluble products, both within and overlying the (for example, dendritic structure) of the metal is
original metal volume. Corrosion products may preserved in the corrosion products that have
be very informative; indeed, they may be all that replaced it. One of the ways in which this can
is left of the original object. Therefore, corrosion happen is by epitaxial growth. This means, in
products should not be cleaned from the surface general terms, the regular orientation of a partic
of antiquities before metallographic examination. ular growth on a crystalline substrate. Most
Loose material, soil, and soil and mineral concre ancient chemical corrosion processes (which are
tions usually should be removed because contin best modeled by electrochemical reactions) , if
ual loss of them during polishing could create a they produce structural information preserved in
very badly scratched surface unsuitable for micro the corrosion products, do so by chemoepitaxy.
scopic examination. It is generally possible to pol This is a subdivision of the epitaxy structure.
ish corroded samples in much the same way as Chemoepitaxy can be defined as a process leading
more robust specimens, although if the material is to the growth of crystalline, regularly oriented
very friable, vacuum impregnation with a low reaction layers on a material resulting from a
viscosity epoxy resin should be considered before chemical reaction between this initial substance
mounting, or the whole sample could be and any other substance. Examples of layers
mounted in resin under vacuum . formed from such a process are cuprite (CuzO)
I t i s most important t o examine all features o f growing on the surface or into the metal grains
corrosion products before etching the specimen, themselves, and AgzO, the initial thin film that
since many corrosion products are severely can form on silver objects.
attacked by the chemicals used to etch metal sur Valuable information can sometimes be
faces: they could be dissolved completely. Under retrieved from corroded metallic fragments; parts
normal bright-field reflected light microscopy of the structure may remain uncorroded, or there
most corrosion crusts have a grey color. Examina may be pseudomorphic replacement of the phases
tion under reflected polarized light yields a great by corrosion products. Appendix B illustrates
deal of valuable information. The polarizer in some of the types of corrosion found in ancient
reflected light microscopes is usually housed in specimens. Evidence of the authenticity of an
the chamber of the light source and can be artifact can be obtained from metallographic
rotated, while the analyzer is placed in a special examination of small chips of corroded metal. In
holder in front of the eyepiece turret. By adjusting copper alloys, the presence of intergranular corro
one or both of the polarizing elements, the "true" sion, intragranular corrosion, corroded slip lines,
colors of corrosion products can often be twin lines, or cuprite next to the metal would be
revealed. Not only does this aid considerably in very significant. It is extremely difficult to pro
the interpretation of many microstructures but duce coherent cuprite layers by artificial corrosion
45
Figure 66a,bronze
corroded top rigpiht.n from Completely
Palphaseestiarene. Theori g i dark
n al elongatedsulfide
copper
incluanneal
and sions from e d pi the, preservi
n workedng their
oriproducts.
ginal locatiFromon theiin ther preservati
corrosioon n
it isepossi
objeven wasblenottonocast,
ctthough deducebutthatworked, the
x125. metal remains.
Figure 66b,bronze
corroded top farrodright.fromPartI ran.of a
The originalin surface
preserved corrosi ofontheproducts
rod is
ionls clye, ar.butx50.the circular cross section
Figure e66c,telymimidndlerale riizgedht.silver disk;
Compl
radiapatches
andpreserve ting crystalof sislvofersisullverfidchle (dark)
oride
with somethedisshape tortioofn. x65. the object
Figuretipl66d,
Mul e middlone lfarayersright.similar to
corrosi
Liesegangfrom
fragment rings Iirnan.a bronze
Thete andperiodic
preci p i t ati o n of cupri outer
Fe,to theandareas
Cu i contai
m medi natelsomey adjSn,acentCI, Ca,
malbandedachitcorrosi
e resultoinn structure
this finelyin surface
whipreserved
ch surfacein corrosioutlineon.is notx I 00.
some
contentregi(soionsl miofnhieralgh Ca
inclusions)
\....-----t-- oofritheginalobjsurface
ect
Figureon67.of aDrawi
secti bronze ng ofrodthefragment.
cross
The locatilineoscan
n of theis il elustrated.
ectron miA,cro compact
probe
C, andlineDscanindicwas
ate areas ofapproxi
analysis. B, ylayers
cuprithat
prioxindciepialn lsegregated aretin
te andareas
The
matel y at posi t i o n started
I and was onln yintrace amounts of
termi nated at position 2. ti the outer bronze
containimetal
ng 9.5grai
% tinns
corrosion crust
Corroded Microsmtctures
46
Figure 68a-d.
corrosi on of golExampl es ofalloys.
d-copper
Top letheft, a.SiSheet

from e rra gold-copper
Nevada de Santa alloy Top
Tai34.8ronaright,earb.ornament:
Fragment of39.a6% gold, Bottom left,golc.d-copper
corroded Cross sectiallooy nsheet of a FiholBottom
gureic ferri68c,rigcht,chlx300.d.oriEnldEtched
argedivin ealwcoof
Marta, Colronaombisheeta. Awifragment
lgialrgededTaisurfaces. t h depl e oftioan % copper,condi
themagniunetched and 2.tio5n%atsilvaer. In from
bi59.a.6Thethecomposi
Taironatiarea o n of oftheColsheetomis fithrough
ne network of e, reveal
cracks runni inngga
65.4The%structure
15.0.62%%sigollver.d, The composiandtion is
copper, consi sts cracki
results from
fnicgaticanonbeof seen.
x 160,Cracki
extensingve
volumecrackschanges upon %%sigollvcorrosi
7.1internal er,d, the19.4olo%nwcopper,
total
andte. The
andecting
refl
extensive therelatedprintocitheptheallaly loriocupri
y. Some
tginale mimatricracks
x arein
cseenrostruc
lproducts,
argely of dark grey corrosi o n corrosi
under o
the n. Some
surface of the run
al l o j
y. u st conversi o n to cupri
polrodedishedallosectiy wiotnh shows the ofcorfine ture, si n ce a twi n can be in
porositmostl
andas a resul (seeny cupriason.blteaTheckwitholhsound
tofy corrosi goles)d
goltoDeplembri
etion-gi
d-enri ldilnagyerhasmore
cttlhedement createdresisatant lamelappear
lae of sound a number
metal remnants
one
cracks
boundari
grai n area
appear
e s.
and some of
to bemfoleslothewingcrack
Someti
the
grain
metal is white. Unetched; x 160. underlying layer. than the that
been depl e tibri
o g ht.
n-gi l d The
ed andsheet
the has ing appears
grai n structure, to bebutunrelhereatedthereto theis
consi
seen scltentearlygolond-rithechtopsurface
of can be
the some pseudomorphic retention.
section. Unetched; x 160.
47
Figureshowi69, ntop.g interdendri

axe Luristan ceremonit i c poro al The samples illustrated in Figures 69-70 (see
sidendri
ty (dark) with welFeCIl-devel
tes. Etch: 3; x30.oped
also Plate 1 0 and Figs. 1 1 2, 1 1 3) , taken from the
broken end of a hilt of a Luristan ceremonial
blade show a well-developed dendritic structure
Figure 70,tedmidcopper dle (seeresulFigt. i69).
Redeposi
n-depth corrosion. Etch: FeCIng from
ixISO. 3; ex + 8 ex
consisting of an dendritic system with the usual
eutectoid infill, showing that the hilt is in
the as-cast condition. There is some porosity
present in the section resulting from interden
Figure 71, fragment
corroded bottom. Secti from oann of a dritic holes, which could be due either to rapid
Ecuadoriaanl giaxe,ldedfromcopperPindilig,
ceremoni
solidification in the mold or to gas evolution in
the casting. The hilt section has distinct copper
Canton
surface Azogues,
can j u st be Ecuador.
seen as Athigolnd
a
globules, which originate from corrosion effects
within the bronze structure and occur most prob
Thielbriegctrochemi
shtaxelinewasat thecgialldtop
edreplbyaofcement
thethe section. ably in the former eutectoid spaces that are
attacked selectively in this particular bronze in a
plLechtman
ating techni(1982). que descri The bed by
photo
burial environment. The dissolution of the eutec
toid sometimes leads to precipitation of copper
micrographnaryi l upreci
extraordi stratespitatitheon of (as here), somewhat akin to the process of
ofcopper as aTheresulredeposi
t of thetcorrosi on dezincification in brass. The copper globules
the axe.
outlines areasal lofoy,remai ed copper
nhinisg nearly
often display twinned grain structures, barely vis
x
ible here at 1 50.
uncorroded
pure copper. x 120. whi c
10 REFLECTED POLARIZED LIGHT MICROSCOPY
Polarized illumination for the examination of electron microscopy, or transmission-electron

ancient metallic samples has many applications. microscopy. The principal advantages gained by
In bright-field unpolarized illumination, many using polarized illumination are the visual mani
nonmetallic inclusions, corrosion products, festation of the morphology and the distribution
burial concretions, soil minerals, core materials, of corrosion products by color and crystal size.
etc., appear as various shades of grey. By using There are some color effects that can be seen if the
polarized illumination and rotating the polarizer stage or specimen is rotated. Color change is due
and analyzer until most or all normally incident to pleochroism-as the vibrational direction of
light is excluded, fine color differentiation the polarized light is altered by rotation, so the
becomes possible between many of the mineral resulting color of the observed anisotropic mate
phases associated with ancient metals. rial will also change.
Some of the metals themselves also give rise to Grain boundaries in metals, twin lines, and
colored effects under polarized illumination if slip planes may react differently even in isotropic
they are optically anisotropic, i.e., if they have materials such as copper or low-tin bronze. Den
two or three principal refractive indices. Some dritic structures that have preferred orientations
examples of anisotropic metals are antimony, tin, of growth may also show chiaroscuro effects in
and zinc. In addition, some alloys may also pro polished section.
duce anisotropic effects such as prior austenitic Care must be taken to avoid inference from
grain boundaries in martensitic steels, beta-grain the absence of an expected reaction to polarized
structures in high-tin bronzes, different reflectiv illumination: the concomitant absence of the sub
ities in duplex alloys, and strain or slip markings stance sought. For example, cuprite, which is usu
within grains. Most of the common metals of ally a liver-red color in mineral form under
antiquity, such as iron, copper, silver, gold, lead, macroscopic conditions, is expected to appear
and nickel are optically isotropic since they ctys scarlet-red under the microscope using polished
tallized in the cubic system and are either body sections with polarized illumination. Often this is
centered cubic (in the case of alpha-iron) or face how it looks; however, some small cuprite inclu
centered cubic (as in copper, silver, gold, nickel, sions give no bright coloration because the orien
and lead). Nevertheless, even optically isotropic tation of the crystal is not producing anisotropic
metals have grain boundaries, and optical effects effects in that particular position. Although it is
with, for example, cast metals, do occur, although not customary to use rotating stages with metal
they rarely provide new information. lurgical microscopes unless the stage is an
With completely clean and uncorroded sam inverted one, it may be useful to change the stage
ples there may be little advantage in the use of if much polarized light work is to be carried out.
polarized light microscopy. However, this is rare Massive corrosion, such as that preserving the
among ancient metals which typically have both surface detail on a copper alloy artifact, will usu
nonmetallic inclusions and corrosion products ally produce a wide range of colors. The color
present, and often valuable information can be observed with copper corrosion products is very
gained by examining them in polarized light. similar to the color usually associated with the
Voids that appear dark in unpolarized illumina mineral concerned, as evidenced by cuprite. The
tion suggest, for example, that they may be filled same limitations that apply to visual identifica
with quartz or calcite, although the chemical tion apply to this type of microscopic examina
identity of the material examined is not easy to tion. It would not be possible, for example, to
establish. In fact, there is no straightfotward know that a green mineral seen under polarized
guide to the identity of any material of this kind. light was malachite. It is also not possible to say,
The best means of identification is by X-ray dif with a mineral such as cuprite, that the material is
fraction, electron-microprobe analysis, scanning- solely composed of cuprite because a scarlet-red
Reflected Polarized Light Microscopy
50
color is visible under polarized light: there may be

compositional variations or other minerals
present in addition, such as stannic oxide, which
alter the shade of the color. Thus the analyst can
not detect the presence of minerals by this means
alone, although polarized light microscopy used
in conjunction with electron-microprobe analysis
can give very useful information (Scott 1 986) .
Slags and other materials, such as matte, speiss,
cements, and plasters, can also be examined effec
tively by reflected polarized light. Ancient plaster
and cements are usually fine grained or contain
fine-grained aggregates which makes examination
difficult in thin section (usually 30 microns
thick). More information can be gained about the
crystalline and glassy phases in many slags under
polarized light, although mineral identification is
I
not usually possible. An idea of the possible
range of color can be shown by looking at slag
composed of copper sulfides (matte) in globular
form, surrounded by magnetite and fayalite crys
tals in a dark glassy matrix. In un polarized light,
the copper sulfides appear grey, the fayalite laths
will be a different shade of grey, the magnetite is
white, and the glassy matrix is dark grey. Under
polarized illumination, the copper sulfides are
light blue, the magnetite is black, the fayalite is
grey, and the matrix can have various effects, but
can appear translucent and glassy. Crystal size in
cements and plasters can be revealed by polarized
light examination, as can color variation, and lay
ered mineral assemblages, as are commonly found
in wall paintings, painted tesserae, or poly
2
chromed materials.
Notes
1. For more information on the structure of slags
and other metal by-products see Bachmann
( 1 982) where many slag structures are illus
trated, both in color and black-and-white.
2. For further information on polarized light

microscopy (although little information has
been published on ancient metals), refer to the
works mentioned in the bibliography by
McCrone et al. ( 1 974) and Winchell ( 1 964) .
1 GRAIN SIZES OF ANCIENT METALS
A useful quantitative aspect of metallography is to an ASTM number that can be readily com
the measurement of the grain size of the material pared by another investigator. The ASTM has
or the dendritic arm spacing. Dendrite arm spac prepared two typical series for ferrous and nonfer
ing is best obtained by measuring the number of rous materials which are reproduced in F igures 73
arm intersections across a line traverse, the dis and 74. Strictly speaking, ferrous alloys are esti
tance being measured by means of a stage micro mated on a logarithmic scale based on the for
meter or graticle, or on a photomicrograph of the mula:
area concerned. Large, coarse dendrites generally
mean that the cooling rate of the alloy in the mold
was fairly slow, usually implying that heated or where n is the ASTM number, and y represents
well-insulated molds were employed. Finer den the number of grains per square inch. The most
drite arm spacings suggest faster cooling rates. useful numbers in this series are from ASTM 1 to
Grain size can be measured by a number of ASTM 8, with 8 being the smallest defined grain
different methods. One of the simplest tech size. As well as ASTM numbers, it is possible to
niques is to use a grain size comparator eyepiece. refer to a scale that gives average grain diameters,
This eyepiece has inscribed around its circumfer usually from 0 .0 1 0 to 0.200 mm. With twinned
ence ASTM (American Society for Testing and nonferrous alloys, the structure of worked grains
Materials) grain size scales. By direct visual com can sometimes be confusing because the grains
parison at an objective lens magnification of xl 0, appear fragmentary. The intercept method can
giving a magnification of x l 00 overall (the mag also be used to determine the average grain size of
nification of microscopes is obtained by multiply the material. The equation relating the factors
ing the objective lens by the eyepiece lens magni required is:
fication), the ASTM number can be determined.
length ofintercept (mm)
Great accuracy in this type of measurement is sel N(D)
dom required: what is useful is the approximation
= x
magnification no. ofgrain boundaries
Fizge.ureEsti72.matiNomograph
simethod. on based onforHigrail ianrd's 0 300
250 60
200 10 50
2 ...Cl)Cl)L.V>... 2015 4035 0.0::Cl):J
L..
Cl)..0 3 150 0c
'EL.. V> 30 <+=...V>Cl).....
405030
Cl)';Nc:::J; 4 80100 2-..0..
..:L.. E
-.::J 25 u
20 ac
EV>
.:L0.0 5 60 ..uCl)Cl)..
CL.. . L.L... .<+='"u0c 70
100 15 .'"0c0
VIl-.... SO cCl)'" '"0.0
'Ec 200150 u
10 ..CCl)Cl)..
'".Cl)r:r::Cl)c:J 67 4030 '">Cl)L.'"0.0Cl). 300
L.V>.
400
500 87 0Cl)
25 700 6 ..0c:::J
L.E.
8 20 1000 5
4
9 15
Grain Sizes ofAncient Metals
52
Hilliard's circular intercept method can also estimation. The circle is used until at least 35
be used. In this technique, a photomicrograph of grain boundary intersections have been counted.
known magnification is selected and a circle, One of the advantages of the circular intercept
drawn on a sheet of plastic of diameter 1 0 cm or method is that it is easier to apply to deformed
20 cm, is placed over the photomicrograph. The structures. A nomograph for the graphical solu
circle should intersect more than six grain bound tion of the Hilliard method is given in Figure 72.
aries for the method to give a reliable grain size
estisiFizgeuremofati73.steel
ng Typi cal standard
the. Photomi
(austeni ic) graiforn of
tcrographs
samplfores8carburi
0c) hours zanded atslo1700wly cool(930ed
of
toFromdevelSamans op the(1963).
cementiEtch: te network.
nital;
x I OO.
no. I grain size no. 2 grain size no. 3 grain size
no. 4 grain size no. 5 grain size no. 6 grain size
no. 7 grain size no. 8 grain size

53
guremati74ng. Typi
estiFinonferrous gram. calsi.zstandard
e f fored
anneal
bdironze and materi
ni c kel h as brass
asillsv0er.sucActual
x75.ameter of average grain is noted.
0.0 10 mm 0.025 mm 0.035 mm
0.065 mm 0.090 mm 0.120 mm
0.150 mm 0.200 mm
54
Figurem75,ens riinght.silicMounti
speci on ng smalcups.l
rubber
Embeddi
Buehl e r ng residen resiusedn whiherechwassets in
epoxi
about hours.
6-8
Figure 76,sampl
mounted below.e onGriwetndinsiglithecon
carbi
240--6d00e papers;
grit areusual empllyopapers
yed. of
Crain Sizes ofAncient Metals
55
Figure 77.sampl
mounted right.ePol. HereishinBuehl
g the er
Mastertex
I-mi c ron claomond
di th is beisprayng used
abrasi wiveth
and lapping oil l ubricant.
Figuresele78.ctiobeln oisw.bestSamplcarrie estorage
andspeci dgraphy
out i n
storage a l y purchased metal
cabiin anets.varieTrays l o
candiameters
be
obtai n
formounts. ed ty of
storageMostof dioffftheerentsamplsizees here
are I 1/mounted
epoxy 4" diametersamplpoleysester that or
have
labelsforembedded
back easy identiin fplicaatistiocn.on the
56
Fipiggurements79,orrigcorrosi
ht. Examionnproductsation of of
metal rizsedcanligbehtcanbest
polmicaroscope achievedThibys
mialcsroscopy.
reflmounted
ected isampl l umineatis canoonbesobeusedthat for
examined.
imiFinverted
gure 80,stage belometalw. Uselurgiofctheal
s plcroscope
istage topin whiofcthehere.
acedas ionl ustrated h themispeci men
cTheroscope
micproscope
Epicamera, hot attached i l ustrated
to a isdtheeo Nikon
vi
aPol4"aroix 5"daficol35-mm r orcamera
olm back. blDark back, andte
ack-and-whi
fieldbothand
reflveryected pol a ri z ed l i g ht are
metaluseful lograph.features of this
12 METALLOGRAPHY AND ANCIENT METALS
Metallography offers one of the most useful 2. The thermal history of the object. Quenching
means for the examination of ancient metals. It is and tempering processes may produce defi
the study of polished sections of metallic materi nite changes in the microstructure that can be
als using a special microscope that reflects light seen in section.
passing through the objective lens onto the speci
men surface. The reflected light passes back
through the objective to the eyepiece, which
3. The nature of the metal or alloy employed to
make the object. For example, many debased
silver objects are made from silver-copper al
enables the surface structure of the section ro be loys and both constituents are clearly visible
srudied (see Fig. 80 for a typical example of a met in the polished and etched section; they show
allurgical microscope) . Reflected light micros up as a copper-rich phase and as a silver-rich
copy is used for metallographic examination phase. Sometimes it may be very difficult to
because metals cannot transmit light in thin sec obtain any idea of composition from looking
tions in the same way as ceramic or mineral mate at the microstructure and here additional evi
rials. Apart from gold foil, which, if very thin, can dence must be obtained using a suitable ana
transmit a greenish light through grain bound lytical method. One way of doing this if a
aries, metals are opaque substances. sample has been taken and already mounted is
It is usually necessaty to take a sample, which to trim the plastic mount and place the sam
can be quite small, from the object being studied. ple in an X-ray fluorescence analyzer (XRF ) .
I t is possible to polish a small area of a relatively
flat surface on an object using a minidrill and fine
polishing discs, but this method is quite difficult.
4. The nature of corrosion products. Much use
ful and varied information can be obtained
from corroded fragments or pieces of corro
With many antiquities, useful information can be sion crusts. For example, there may be residu
3
obtained from samples as small as 1 mm , which al metallic structures within the corrosion
can be removed from the object with a minimal layers, pseudomorphic replacement of metal
amount of damage. Some methods of sampling grains by corrosion products, the existence of
applicable to ancient material are listed in Chap gilded layers or other surface finishes within
ter 1 3 . The sample itself need not be metallic: cor the corrosion layers, pseudomorphic replace
rosion products, paint layers, core material from ment of organic fibers or negative pseudo
castings, niello, deteriorated enamels, patinations, morphic casts of fibers, unusual morphology
and an array of other compositional materials are of the corrosion products themselves, and
of considerable interest. Examination with a met changes brought about by methods of conser
allurgical microscope is often a useful first step in vation. It should be noted that the scanning
characterizing a particular component of an electron microscope is a very powerful tool for
object. Some typical metallographic equipment is many of these investigations in addition to
shown in Figures 75-80. optical microscopy.
Metallography is, then, an important tool
The principal difficulties with metallography
that may provide clues to the fabrication technol
applied to ancient material lie in the problems
ogy of the object or may assist in answering ques
associated with sampling the object and the selec
tions that arise during the treatment of an object
tion of the sample. If any damage is to be caused,
by a conservator. It may be possible to provide
the owner should always be consulted first so that
information on the following range of topics:
necessary permission is obtained for the work. I t
1. The manufacturing processes used to produce should b e made clear to the owner whether the
the object. For example, whether cast into a sample can be returned when the examination is
mold or worked to shape by hammering and completed, and the kind of information that the
annealing. sample is expected to provide. The owner should
Metfillography find Ancient Metflls
58
receive a copy of any written report that is pre mean that it is no longer necessary to remove as
pared as a result of the examination, together with much sample bulk from the object as many earlier
any photomicrographs of the structure, clearly investigations required. The extent of the damage
identified with the magnification of the print, the is therefore greatly reduced; indeed, with much
etching solution used, and the laboratory number corroded metalwork or fragmentary objects, the
assigned to the sample. It may be necessary to loss may be insignificant and the resulting infor
examine carefully a group of objects in the mation may be very important indeed.
museum or laboratory before coming to a deci The only difficulty with taking small samples
sion as to the number of samples to be taken or is the problem of the representative nature of the
the objects from which it may be permissible to sample compared with the overall structure of the
take a sample. If the damage is such that it can be object. It does not follow, for example, that
repaired by filling the area concerned, the owner because the area sampled shows an undistorted
should be given the option of deciding whether or dendritic structure (indicating that the piece was
not to have the object gap-filled. It is preferable to cast) that the whole of the object will reveal the
fill small holes or missing corners with a synthetic same structure. Obviously there are cases in
resin colored to match the surface color of the which this difficulty would be very unlikely to
object. A fairly viscous epoxy resin can be used for occur: worked, thin sheet-metal, pieces of wire,
this purpose and can be colored with powder pig small items of jewelry, and so on, but with arti
ments. 1 facts such as axes, knives, swords, large castings,
In many museum collections there are exam etc., it may present a very difficult problem. If a
ples where large slices, pieces, or drillings have complete interpretation of the metallographic
been taken from metallic antiquities causing gross structure of an artifact such as an axe is required,
damage to the objects concerned. Missing parts
are sometimes filled with unsuitable materials
then it is almost essential to take
from the axe (Fig. 8 1 ) .
fWO samples
such as Plasticine (normally a mixture based on Another example i s that of a piece o f wire or
putty, whiting, and linseed oil) , which usually rod where both the longitudinal and transverse
creates severe corrosion of exposed metal surfaces
over a period of years in the museum collection.
sections are of potential interest. Here the
sections can be obtained from a single sample by
fWO
Sulfur-containing fillers such as Plasticine should cutting the wire into fWO pieces and mounting
Figuren81,g therigiht.dealDrawi nognofofantwoaxe never be used for mounting, display, or gap-fill them in a mold (Fig. 82).
showi
samplecsexami removed l o cati
forn. Notemetalthat
lo
ing of metallic objects. Great improvements in
metallographic techniques over the last 20 years
The procedures for preparing metallographic
samples are as follows:
graphi
one n ati o
ofd thebe atcutsrightof angl
the e"Y"s tosectithe on
shoul
prii nterpretati
ncipal sidoesn ofof anythe objdi rectiect otonalaid
characteri
structure. stics of the micro mold
widiFigrrecti
uree or82,rodfarmounted
right. Twoin sampl
onsontorelobtai di f
ng tostructural e es of
rent JI cm / \
wire: longitudinal section wire: transverse section
icross
nformatisecti o n. a ti
There n leofngthtenand
are
vidibesfferent
ble in oronediinsecti
iapparent agnostion cthatfeatures
the other. may not
Metallography andAncient Metals
59
231... Selecting the sample

Mounting the sample in a synthetic resin cast
into a small mold
Preliminary grinding of the embedded sample
Note
1. For example, Araldite XD7 25 can be used with
good quality artists' powder pigments mixed
into the resin and hardener mixture. If a missing
45. Polishing, using rotary discs impregnated
with alumina or diamond powders
Examining the polished section with a metal-
piece is being gap-filled and it is required that
the restoration can be removed at a later time
then the metal surface can be coated in the area
lurgical microscope to be filled with a reversible synthetic resin such
6. Etching with a suitable etching solution as Paraloid B72 brushed on as a 1 0% solution in
7 . Preparing a written report toluene applied in two coats. This should ensure
8. Doing photomicrography and drawings, if re
quired, of the section to show microstructural
details
that the fill can be removed, ifit is not keyed-in,
by soaking in acetone for a few minutes.
9 . Employing an orderly system of sample stor

age and documentation.
13 METALLOGRAPHIC SAMPLING OF METALS
There are often severe restrictions on the quantity provide X-ray fluorescence analysis for major
of metal that can be removed from an artifact for constituents.
metallographic examination. On the other hand, 2. A fine jeweller's saw may be employed. These
3
even a very small sample, smaller than 1 mm if are easily broken if they get wedged in the cur,
necessary, can be mounted and polished for so a blade must be selected that is sufficiently
examination, although great care has to be exer robust for the job at hand. It is then possible
cised at all stages of preparation. It is much easier to remove very small specimens quite accu
to work with larger samples, although by museum rately, often with minimal damage to the
3
standards samples of3 mm are already unusually object concerned.
large, unless whole artifacts or substantial frag
ments are available for sectioning.
There are. a number of criteria that samples
3. A hollow-core drill bit can be used to remove
a core that can then be mounted for examina
tion. While only robust or thick-sectioned
should meet: objects would survive this technique, it is
1. The object should be photographed or drawn

before the sample is taken. This is especially
sometimes the only way a metallographic
sample can be taken.
important if the dimensions of the object are

fundamentally altered by the material
removed.
4. A wafering blade can be used to cut a thin
slice or remove a small V-shaped section from
the object. One suitable machine for this pur
pose is the Buehler " Isomet" diamond wafer
2. The microstructure of the samples should not
ing machine with a cutting blade consisting of
be altered in the process of removal.
an oil-cooled copper disk impregnated with
3. The sample should be representative of the
object as a whole or of a selected feature or
area of the object.
diamond powder along its circumference.
The principal problem with this machine is
the inherent difficulty of holding large or
4. The orientation of the sample in relationship
to the entire object should be carefully
recorded and if it is not obvious where the
irregular artifacts, although a variety of
clamps are provided for this purpose. If an
object can be held securely and oriented in the
sample was taken from, the position on the
proper direction, then the machine is
object concerned should be marked on a pho
extremely useful. Not only can the length and
tograph or drawing of the object.
direction of the cut be precisely controlled,
There are a number of possibilities for remov but the speed and weight applied to the cut
ing a sample depending, inevitably, on the nature ting blade can be adjusted. The copper blade
of the object and on the metal or alloy of which it conducts generated heat to the oil bath so that
is composed. the risk of any microstructural alteration is
1. A hacksaw with a fine-toothed blade can be

used to cut large samples; however, high heat
negligible.
Friable material may break along lines of
weakness, crystal planes, fractures, etc. and
generated by friction during cutting can alter
should not be cut using this machine, since
the original microstructure. The blade should
transverse pressure on the blade in motion
be cooled periodically in water or ethanol.
would result in cracking or chipping of the
Removing a sample will usually entail consid
diamond-impregnated cutting edge, which
erable loss of solid as fine powder. This pow
would be costly (approximately $300 each in
der can be kept for analytical purposes
1 989).
although it may not be completely free from
contamination. It can be used, for example, to
5. With thin sheet or uneven edges it may be
Metallographic Sampling ofMetals
62
possible to break off a small piece of metal by

carefully gripping the area to be sampled with
a pair oflong-nosed pliers, medical forceps, or
fine tweezers. Since many ancient sheet met
als are corroded or otherwise embrittled, the
lack of plastic deformability of the material
may assist in allowing the removal of a sam
ple, since slight and carefully applied pressure
may enable the removal of very small pieces.
6 . A scalpel may be used under a binocular
microscope. This technique may enable the
removal of small pieces of corrosion products
or metal for subsequent examination. It is
occasionally possible to detach a specimen
under the microscope by patient chiselling
with a scalpel. Some deformation of the spec
imen may result, but this zone can usually be
eliminated in the grinding stage or, alterna
tively, one of the undeformed sides polished.
7. A broken jeweller's saw blade held in a vibro
tool can be used. There are a number of appli
cations for this technique, which allows the
removal of small pieces from hollow sheet
work, lost-wax castings, cavities, etc., since
the vibratory action of the blade in combina
tion with a gentle sawing action is not as lim
iting as using the blade rigidly held in its usual
frame. A broken blade, about 3-5 cm in
length, is satisfacrory.
14 MOUNTING AND PREPARING S PECIMENS
Once a sample is removed from a n artifact, it

must be mounted and prepared for examination
under a metallurgical microscope. Before the
4. A disk of ash-toughened wax or a small quan
tity of molten beeswax can be poured over the
bottom of the mold. When set in position,
sample is placed in a mold, it should be degreased the specimen can be partially embedded
thoroughly in acetone or ethanol and dried. This before the resin is poured into the mold.
is especially important if the sample has been cut When set and removed from the mold, the
in a Buehler wafering machine. Very small sam specimens will stand in slight relief and will
ples, pieces of thin wire, or thin sheet may require have to be carefully ground before polishing.
physical support at the mounting stage, otherwise This technique is inadvisable for very brittle
when they are embedded in resin and the block is materials.
ground and polished, there will be no control 5. If the sample will be subjected to electrolytic
over the metal surface exposed to view. There are or electrochemical polishing, it can be sup
a number of ways in which this can be achieved: ported by a piece of wire in the mold using the
jig method detailed in No. 2. The wire can be
1. A small brass j ig, specially made for the pur
pose of b.o lding specimens, can be used (Fig.
83a) . The purpose of the jig is to allow the
attached to the specimen using "aqua dag" or
some similar conducting paint applied in rwo
or more coats to effect good electrical contact.
specimen to be attached to a toothpick with a
The wire is cut to allow about 3-5 cm excess
very small amount of acrylic or nitrocellulose
above the top of the mold (Fig. 83b) .
adhesive. The attached specimen and stick
6. Larger specimens, especially if they have been
can then be rigidly held in the jig and angled
cut, can usually be mounted directly by placing
or positioned as required in the mold.
them in the required position in the mold. If
2. Similarly, the specimen can be mounted on a
toothpick and then supported with more
toothpicks or matches laid across the mold as
the embedding resin is then poured carefully,
the specimen should not move in its position at
the bottom of the mold.
shown in Figure 83b. I t is, of course, possible
to support more than one sample in the same Embedding the S ample
mold using this technique, but the samples There are a number of proprietary synthetic resins
are much more likely to move in the mold on the market that are designed as embedding
when resin is poured in, and simultaneous materials for metallographic specimens. Epoxy,
polishing of rwo or more very small samples is polyester, and acrylic resins are the most common.
much more liable to result in the loss of the For routine use, "Scandiplast 9 1 0 1 " polyester
embedded specimens once the block has been embedding resin can be used with peroxide catalyst
ground and polished. "Scandiplast 9 1 02." One drop per ml of catalyst is
3. Some texts suggest adhering the sample to the
bottom of the mold with adhesive or support
ing the sample with a paper clip. These meth
stirred into the resin, which begins to gel after
about five minutes, and thus must be used
promptly. Fifteen ml of resin is sufficient to fill
ods can be used but have disadvantages. For Metaserv or Buehler 1 -inch diameter or 1 - 1 18-inch
example, the adhesive may result in slight diameter molds, which are made ofpolyethylene or
unevenness in the resin layer surrounding the silicon rubber. Curing is best carried out at room
edge of the sample with loss of good edge temperature; samples can be removed from the
retention, or the paper clip may interfere with mold after two-four hours, but do not attain their
the polishing of very soft metals if it is in con maximum hardness until about eight hours. Man
tact with the resin surface. ufacturers state that the slightly sticky surface on
Mounting and Preparing Specimens
64
the set resin is due to oxidation reactions, which There are a number of ways in which this prob
can be minimized by covering the mold while the lem can be tackled. One method is to use an
resin sets. This, however, is rarely a serious problem epoxy mounting system that has low viscosity
and the resin gives satisfactory edge retention and compared with polyesters and to add a filler of
low porosity upon curing. specially graded black alumina granules. These
With many archaeological materials, the are hollow alumina spheres whose hardness can
major problem is to achieve good edge retention. be matched to that of the material to be mounted.
Figurea.83.UseHolofdoneing smal
Top, type l ofsamples. __--adjusting screw
mounti
iMin addlsete,nposi
g jigttoion.hold small samples
support b.overUsemolof dtoothpi
to ck to
attach adjusting screw ..
sampl es. c. Use of wax embedding matchstick or toothpick .. samplesuiheltabld wie celth lHMG
other u lose oror acrylic adhesive
Bottom,
method;
samples. only suitable for small silicon rubber mold brass mounting jig
wood bIOCk ---- ..
...
Use
smalofl sampl
one etype
s in ofa setmounti
positniogn.jig to hold
toothpicks
.. n
/'
sampl
or othere helsuid twiablthe celHMGluloadhesi
se or vacryl
e ic adhesive
toUseattach
of toothpi JI
ck support
to sampl es over mold.
:::: :::::"mpl"
g
OnlUseyofsuiwaxtablembeddi
e for smalnlg sampl
method.es.
65
They also provide good edge retention, although laid on the resin surface next to one edge of the
they are time-consuming to use. mold and the mold is then completely filled with
If the metallographic sample is embedded at resin, embedding the sample without need of a
an angle in the mold, some of the surface area of support stick.
the sample will appear to be greater upon grind
ing and polishing. This technique can be used to Grinding
provide a magnified view of surface layers or other Once mounted and set, the resin block must be
features that might prove difficult to see in sec ground flat. The standard procedure at this stage
tion. The sample, when embedded at an angle, is is to use wet silicon carbide papers with progres
known as a taper section. sively finer grit sizes ( 1 20, 240, 400, 600). The
Other ways of solving the problem include sample must be held so that it does not rock or
electrolytic deposition of protective metallic coat move out of one grinding plane, otherwise it will
ings, such as nickel, or the use of electroless dep be very difficult to obtain an optically flat surface.
osition solutions. Care, however, should be Starting with the coarser grit paper, the sample is
exercised when using these methods since a cor moved backwards and forwards over the paper
roded sample is permeable to the penetration of until a uniform ground finish is obtained. It is
applied layers and they will create a visually con then carefully washed under running water,
fusing result. A label should be incorporated into examined, rotated 90, and ground on the next
the top of the resin giving at least the laboratory grade of paper. This process is then repeated with
number so that samples can be properly identi the finer rwo grinding papers, rotating the speci
fied. men 90 on each paper. It is very important to
Another method of embedding very small eliminate completely the scratches from the pre
samples, which is often used for paint cross sec vious grinding because they will not be removed
tions, involves the use of a rectangular mold half by polishing.
filled with resin (Fig. 84) . The sample is carefully With very important specimens, a fresh strip
Figuree84.s. Embedding small

sampl
silicon rubber mold introduce samples and fil with more resin
half fil with resin and allow to set remove mounted blocks from mold
66
of grinding paper should be used, and successively paste, the sample should be washed in water,
longer grinding times are necessary as the paper rinsed in ethanol or acetone, and dried. It can
becomes finer. This ensures thorough removal of then be polished on one micron diamond for at
deformed material at the specimen surface before least five minutes. For many routine purposes this
polishing. The quality of 600 grit paper seems to is sufficient, and the sample should then be care
vary, and if any large particles are present they will fully washed to remove all traces of polishing
produce surface scratches difficult to remove compound and oil before it is ready for examina
later. The care taken with metallographic prepa tion under the metallurgical microscope. For very
ration of soft metals, such as gold alloys, zinc high-qualiry work, finish by final polishing on
alloys, or some copper alloys, has to be much one-quarter micron diamond.
more rigorous than is necessary with iron, steels, Electrolytic or electromechanical polishing
or cast iron specimens in archaeological contexts. can be employed from the grinding stage and may
give a more perfect finish than that obtainable
Polishing from hand-polishing. Disadvantages occur with
For most ancient metals, the best results are to be many archaeological samples because of the
obtained by polishing on diamond-impregnated extensive corrosion that they may have under
rotary polishing wheels lubricated with mineral gone; the presence of these corrosion products
oil. Diamond powders are usually supplied as means that local anode/cathode reactions may
tubes of paste or in aerosol cans in an oil-based occur with excessive sample dissolution as a
suspension. The usual range of diamond powder result. If one phase of a two-phase alloy is slightly
sizes are: six microns, one micron, and one-quar corroded it may be preferentially attacked at an
ter micron. Some of the polishing can be carried accelerated rate. Mechanical methods are gener
a
out automatically using variery of machines or
polishing attachments. Hand-finishing, however,
ally preferable unless there is a particular reason
for the use of other techniques. For example,
is usually preferable for best results with one granulated gold spheres, difficult to etch, were
micron or one-quarter micron diamond paste. polished and etched at the same time using an
Polishing with diamond powders produces less electromechanical polishing technique on an
rounding of surface details than is apparent when adaptation of the Struers "Autopol" machine.
using a-alumina, y-alumina, or magnesium oxide A freshly polished section should be examined
pastes. Alumina often can be used for less detailed metallographically as soon as possible: some sur
work and is frequently satisfactory for the prepa faces tarnish rapidly and will have to be repol
ration of iron and steel alloys. Magnesium oxide ished. Ancient metal samples should always be
has to be used fresh as it undergoes atmospheric examined in the polished state to begin with since
carbonation and the resulting magnesium car there may be many features already visible under
bonate that is formed may have a coarse crystal the microscope.
form.
Polishing is carried out by holding the speci
men against the rotating polishing cloth. It is dif
ficult to quantifY how much pressure must be
used: too little pressure retards the rate of polish
ing and may result in some pitting of the surface,
too much pressure may distort the surface. The
correct polishing pressure varies with different
metals and can only be learned through experi
ence.
After initial polishing on six micron diamond
15 RECORDING RESULTS
Visual evidence should be described, preferably

with accompanying photographic records of the
microstructure at suitable magnifications. Inclu
4. Grain sizes, or surface deformation features,
or heat-treated zones at cutting edges and
worked surfaces.
sions or corrosion products that are present when
the section is examined in the polished condition
should be noted because these will either be dis
56.. The distribution of inclusions, weld lines, slag
particles, or porosity.
The presence of any surface coating or gild
solved or partially obliterated by etching. If nec ing. Sometimes careful examination at high
essary, a photograph should be taken in the magnification is necessary to establish the
unetched condition to show the range and type of presence of surface coatings, leaf gilding,
inclusions present. They should also be examined amalgam gilding, etc.
in reflected polarized light, which may assist in
identifying the range and composition of non
metallic material that may be evident.
7. The distribution of any corrosion products
present and the existence within corrosion
layers of pseudomorphic remnants of grain
It is important to obtain an overall view of the structure or other microstructural features,
specimen at a low magnification (about x30-x50) the presence of any remnant metallic grains,
before proceeding to look at particular features at and layering or unusual features.
higher magnifications. Some specimens will
appear almost featureless before etching if the
metal or alloy is uncorroded and relatively free
8. Indications of grain boundary thickening or
precipitation of another phase at the grain
boundaries.
from slag particles, oxide inclusions, or other 9 . The presence of twin lines within the grains
impurities. In these cases, it is permissible to pro and whether the twin lines are straight or
ceed to an etched surface quite early on in the curved.
examination. The details of the etching solution
used should be recorded; it is not customary,
IIO.. The presence of strain lines within the grains.
Whether dendrites in cast alloys show indica
however, to quote the time of immersion in the tions of coring and the approximate spacing
etchant because the conditions of use and (in microns) of the dendritic arms, if these are
strength of solutions vary from laboratory to lab clearly visible.
oratory, making exact comparisons difficult. The
magnification should, of course, be recorded with
any notes made about the structure, once detail
12. Do not forget that a polished section is a two
dimensional representation of a three-dimen
sional object. If the structure is complex, as in
can be observed. pattern-welded steel blades, for example, sup
The range of features that may be made visi plementary information, such as x-radiogra
ble by etching is variable, depending on the type phy to reveal the internal pattern, will be
of specimen examined. Details not apparent available.
using one etchant alone may become visible after
another reagent has been tried, so the assumption
that all microstructural detail is evident by using
1143.. The presence of intercrystalline or transcrys
talline cracking in the specimen.
Indications of grain-boundary thickening.
one etchant should be resisted.
I.
The following features should be noted:
The range and type of grains present. Their

5 The presence of second-phase precipitation at
the grain boundaries (discontinuous precipi
tation) or precipitation within the grains (as
in the case of Widmanstatten precipitation).
size can be compared with, for example, an
eyepiece marked with grain sizes or with
ASTM standard grain size numbers.
2. The presence of different phases.
16. Evidence of martensitic transformation or
heat treatment used in the fabrication process.
There may be, of course, other important

3. Gross heterogeneity or differences between
various areas of the sample.
structural details but this brief list covers most of
the features that may be visible using the metallo-
Recording Results
68
graphic microscope.
Care should be taken not to confuse notes
made on specimens under different conditions of
polish or etching because it may be very difficult
later to reproduce exactly the examined surface.
Also, if careful note of the specimen number is
not kept, it may become very difficult to establish
which specimen had been examined. The same
care should be applied to the photographic
recording.
16 ETCHING AND ETCHING S OLUTIONS
A satisfactory metallographic specimen for mac ide). Once the surface of the sample has been
roscopic or microscopic investigation must exposed to the etching solution, it should not be
present a representative plane area of the material. touched; it can be dried, after rinsing in ethanol
To distinguish the structure clearly, this area or acetone, by placing it in front of a specimen
must be free from defects caused by surface defor drier for a few seconds. Sometimes, at this stage,
mation, flowed material (smears), plucking of the very obvious staining of the specimen occurs
surface (pull-out), and surface scratches. In cer around the edges where it meets the resin mount.
tain specimens, edges must be well-preserved in This is a consequence of the etchant seeping
order to investigate gilding, tinning, etc. Even for down any fine crack that may be present and then
routine examination, poor specimen preparation being drawn to the surface upon drying. Some
can result in problems because the observation or specimens require considerable care if this prob
conclusions may not be valid interpretations of lem is to be avoided. For example, it may be pos
the visual evidence. sible to dry the sample more slowly in air, or to
Polished metal surfaces do not reveal details of dry it using a stream of cold air. After the sample
structure. In order to examine grain boundaries, has been etched, it is important to examine it
other phases, and effects of alloying additions the immediately, as stored and etched specimens can
polished metal surface must be attacked with rapidly become tarnished, and this obscures the
selected chemical reagents that will reveal differ surface detail the etchant is trying to reveal. The
ences in grain orientation and microstructure. sample, ifvery delicate, should be leveled in such
There are three ways in which etching a polished a way that the impact of the leveler does not fall
metal surface can be carried out: onto the etched surface of the metal. Damage to
the surface structure can result if the leveler is
1. With chemical reagents either as a solution o r
as a gas.
2. With electrolytic etching, by applying small
depressed into soft alloys, such as gold and silver.
Sound metallographic principle dictates that
all specimens should be examined in an unetched
AC or DC currents to the specimen immersed condition before proceeding to the etched exam
in an electrolyte. ination. This is partly because etching will often
3. With electromechanical etching, which is a
combination of anodic dissolution in an
electrolyte and mechanical polishing of the
dissolve out any inclusions that may be present
(this would mean repolishing the entire speci
men) , and partly because etching may not be nec
speCImen. essary with some archaeological materials. If the
specimen is two-phased or has surface enrichment
This section deals with etching solutions that
or other visible features, all this should be noted
are appropriate for archaeological metals. The
in the unetched condition before proceeding to
polished metal surface must be free of all traces of
etching.
oil from polishing, and of polishing compounds,
grease, and particles of dirt. The usual procedure
Etchants for iron, steel,
is to pour a small quantity of etching solution into
and cast iron
a small petri or crystallizing dish so that the spec
imen can be immersed for a few seconds or min Nital
utes, as necessary. Some solutions need to be 1 00 ml ethanol, C2H50H
freshly mixed before each use since they either 2 ml nitric acid, HN03
undergo very rapid chemical reaction (such as Picral
solutions of potassium cyanide mixed with
1 00 ml ethanol, C2H50H
ammonium persulfate) or they slowly deteriorate 2 g picric acid, C6H2{OH) {N02)3
(such as solutions mixed with hydrogen perox-
Etching and Etching Solutions
70
This is the most common etchant for wrought 24 g sodium thiosulfate, Na2S203
iron and iron carbon steels. Often useful for iron 3 g citric acid, CH2COHCH2(COOHh .
and heat-treated steels, pearlite, and martensite. H20
Fe3C is stained a light yellow. Nital and pieral can 2 g cadmium chloride, CdCl2 . 2H20
Oberhoffer s reagent
1
be mixed together in 1 : proportion.
500 ml distilled water, H20

Use for 20-40 seconds. Chemicals must be
dissolved in the sequence given. Each constituent
must dissolve before adding the next. Store in the
.2 ')
500 ml ethanol, C H OH
42 ml hydrochloric acid, HCI
dark under 20 C. Filter before use. Solution
remains active for only four hours. Used as a tint
30 g ferric chloride, FeCl, etchant for iron and carbon steels. Ferrite is
0.5 g stannous chloride, SnCI2 (add HCl last) stained brown or violet. Carbides, phosphides,
and nitrides may be only lightly stained.
After etching, the section should be rinsed in
With Beraha's reagent, ferrite is colored but
a 4: 1 mixture of ethanol and hydrochloric acid.
cementite is not, so that both proeutectoid
Useful for steels and for segregation studies in
cementite and cementite in pearlite are in strong
irons (e.g., arsenic segregation).
contrast to the ferrite, which can make even thin
Heyn s reagent films of cementite easily visible.
Alkaline sodium picrate
20 g copper (II) ammonium chloride,
2 g picric acid, CGH2(OH) (N02)3
CuCI(NH4)
25 g sodium hydroxide, NaOH
Copper precipitates must be wiped from the 1 00 ml distilled water, H20
surface with distilled water or washed off with dis
This solution is useful for distinguishing
tilled water from a wash bottle. Useful for phos
between iron carbide and ferrite in steels. It can
phorus segregation in steel.
be used as a boiling solution for ten minutes or
Klemm s reagent longer if required. The iron carbide, Fe3C. is
50 ml saturated aqueous solution of sodium darkened by the reagent, while ferrite is unaf
thiosulfate, Na2S203 fected. Etching in this solution may provide a
1 g potassium metabisulfate, K2S205 good indication of pearlite lamellae spacing.
Phosphorus segregation in cast steels and cast Beaujards reagent

Irons. 20 g sodium bisulfite, NaHS03
Baumann s print solution 1 00 ml distilled water, H20
1 00 ml distilled water, H20 To ensure that the specimen is evenly wetted,

5 ml sulfuric acid, H2S04 it is often a good idea to etch in nital for two to
Silver bromide paper is saturated with the four seconds beforehand. Beaujard's reagent can
solution and firmly pressed against the specimen then be used for 1 0-25 seconds; the surface
should be very carefully washed and dried, other
surface. After one to five minutes, rinse and fix
wise the deposited surface film will be disturbed.
with a solution of 6 g Na2S203 in 1 00 ml H20.
Wash and dry. Useful for verification, arrange The reagent produces good contrast between fer
rite grains and between lightly tempered marten
ment, and distribution of iron and manganese
sulfide inclusions. site and ferrite, as well as delineating cementite
networks. The reagent works by depositing a
Beraha s reagent complex oxide-sulfide-sulfate film on the metal
1 00 ml distilled water, H20 surface, in various shades of brown.
71
Dimethylglyoxime nickel test Sometimes useful for variable carat gold jew
Some ancient steels contain nickel as an elry alloys and Au-Cu-Ag alloys.
important impurity. A simple test is to take a
nickel print by pressing a blotting paper soaked in Etchant for tin
dimethylglyoxime against the polished section Ammonium polysulfide
when the nickel-rich areas are revealed by brown
A saturated aqueous solution of ammonium
staining on the blotting paper.
polysulfide. Use for 20-30 minutes. Wipe off
Vilella s reagent with cotton wool after etching. Can be used for
1 g picric acid, C6H2(OH) (N02)3 all types of tin alloys. Nital or picral can also be
1 00 ml ethanol, C2H50H used (see etchants for iron, steel and cast iron).
A reagent that can be used 5-40 seconds and Etchants for zinc
reveals clearly the needles of plate martensite. It is Zinc alloys are difficult to prepare mechani
useful for exposing the austenitic grain size of cally. Fake microstructures are common because
quenched and tempered steels if this feature is at deformation is difficult to prevent.
all discernible. s
Palmerton reagent
s
Whiteley method 1 00 ml distilled water, H20
5 g silver nitrate, AgN03 20 g chromic oxide, Cr03
1 00 ml distilled water, H20 1 . 5 g sodium sulfate, Na2S04 (anhydrous) or
3 . 5 g sodium sulfate, Na2S04 . 1 0H20
A technique for revealing sulfide inclusions in
steel and other alloys. Soak the polishing cloth in Can be used for seconds or minutes.
the freshly prepared solution. The cloth is then 50% concentrated HCl in distilled water
washed to remove all excess solution. The pol 50 ml conc. hydrochloric acid, HCI
ished surface of the sample is then rubbed care 50 ml distilled water, H20
fully over the prepared surface of the cloth. Any
This solution is sometimes useful for swab
sulfide inclusions that are present should be
application as well as immersion.
stained a dark brown.
Etchants for lead alloys

Etchants for gold alloys
See ammonium persulfatelpotassium cyanide Glycerol etchant
(p. 72) used for silver alloys. A very useful solu 84 ml glycerol, HOCH2CHOHCH20H
tion for a wide range of gold alloys. 8 ml glacial acetic acid, CH3COOH
8 ml nitric acid, HN0 3
Aqua regia
Use fresh only. Gives grain boundary con
40 ml nitric acid, HN03
trast. Nital can also be used (see etchants for iron,
steel and cast iron) .
Used for a few seconds or up to one minute.
Use fresh. Aqua regia is a strong oxidizing solu Glacial acetic acid
tion and highly CORROSIVE. In most alloys it 1 5 ml glacial acetic acid, CH3COOH
provides grain contrast. 20 ml nitric acid, HN03
Useful for lead solders and Pb-Sn alloys. If

Hydrogen peroxide / iron (III) chloride
difficulty is experienced in the preparation oflead
1 00 ml distilled water, H20
alloys, a good technique is to try finishing the pol
1 00 ml hydrogen peroxide, H202
32 g ferric chloride, FeCl3
ishing with fine alumina powder (l or 1 /4
Etching find Etching Solutions
12
micron) suspended in distilled water with a 1 % 5 g potassium ferricyanide, K2Fe(CN)6
solution of aqueous ammonium acetate. 1 00 ml distilled water, H20
This etchant can be used to darken some pre
Etchants for copper alloys
cipitates such as CU3P which may coexist with
Aqueous ferric chloride
30 ml hydrochloric acid, HCl
alpha + delta eutectoid. CU3P can be seen as a
putple shade against the very pale blue of the delta
phase. After etching in FeCI3, the distinction is
1 0 9 ferric chloride, FeCl3 lost. Some difficulties may be overcome by using
Produces grain contrast. Very useful for all a relatively high amount of aqueous ammonia in
copper containing alloys such as the arsenical the final polish (e.g. , 5% NH40H).
coppers, bronzes, brasses, etc. Etching time is
given as a few minutes in some books but ancient Etchants for oxide layers on iron
metals etch faster. Reduce time to 3-5 seconds at Solution 1
first. 1 0 ml distilled water, H20
5 ml 1 % nitric acid, HN03 solution
Alcoholicferric chloride
5 ml 5% citric acid,
1 20 ml ethanol, C2HsOH
CH2COHCH2(COOH)3 solution
5 ml 5% aqueous thioglycollic acid,
1 0 9 ferric chloride, FeCl3
HOCH COSH
Same as aqueous ferric chloride, except that
Swab for 1 5-60 seconds. Etches Fe20 3 ;
there may be some advantages in using an alco
Fe3 04 is not attacked.
holic solution (less staining, for example) .
Solution 2
Aqueous ammonium persu/fote
1 5 ml distilled water, H20 and
5 ml formic acid, HCOOH solution (a)
10 g ammonium persulfate, (NH4)2S20 S
1 5 ml H20 and
Only a few seconds are necessary for all these 5 ml fluoboric acid, F2B03 solution (b)
etchants unless specified to the contrary. Pro
Swab for five seconds with solution (a) fol
duces grain contrasts. Must be used fresh; will not
lowed by solution (b) for two seconds. Etches
keep.
Fe304 only.
Saturated solution of chromium (VI) oxide
Chromium (VI) oxide solutions should be Etchants for silver alloys
handled with great care. Mixtures of Cr03 and Acidifiedpotassium dichromate
organics may be EXPLOSIVE. Grain boundary 1 0 ml sulfutic acid, H2S04
etchant. 1 00 ml potassium dichromate, satutated
K2Cr207 in water
Ammonia/ hydrogen peroxide
2 ml sodium chloride, saturated NCI solution
25 ml ammonium hydroxide, NH40H Dilute 1 : 9 with distilled water before use. Can
5-25 ml hydrogen peroxide, H202 also be used without the sulfuric acid addition.
Useful for silver and copper-silver alloys.
Make up and use fresh only. Adding larger
amounts of H202 creates better grain contrast; Ammonium persu/fote / potassium cyanide
adding less H202 creates better grain boundary 1 00 ml distilled water, H20 and
etching. 10 g ammonium persulfate, (NH4hS20 S (a)
1 00 ml H20 and
5% potassium ferricyanide
73
1 0 g potassium cyanide, KCN (b) POISON
Solutions (a) and (b) must be mixed before

used in the proportion 1 : 1 . After use flush down
I
Acidified thiosuLfate acetate
1 2 g sodium thiosulfate, Na2S203 . 5H20
1 .2 g lead acetate, Pb(CH3COOh . 3H20
l . 5 g citric acid, CGH S 07 . H20
the sink with plenty of water. Never mix with
acids. The solution of potassium cyanide is POI 50 ml distilled water, H20
SONOUS. Also useful for gold alloys, silver Use after first pre-etching with ammonium
alloys, copper alloys. Make up the persulfate solu persulfate. A very useful etchant for copper alloys
tion just before use. but must be made up fresh as the solution will not
keep. Dissolve the thiosulfate before adding the
I
Ammonia hydrogen peroxide
50 ml ammonium hydroxide, NH40H
50 ml hydrogen peroxide, H202
other ingredients. Best made by placing the pre
pared solution in a refrigerator for rwenty-four
hours when a clear lead thiosulfate solution
Must be used fresh. should form with a sulfur precipitate.
Acidified thiourea I
Acidified suLfate chromic oxide
1 0% aqueous solution of thiourea, SC(NH2h 50 g chromium trioxide, Cr03
5-10 drops of either nitric acid, HN03 or 5 g sodium sulfate, Na2S04
hydrochloric acid, HCI 4.25 ml 35% hydrochloric acid, HCl
Interference film etchants for
color effects Interference etchants for iron, steel,
and cast iron
It is sometimes useful to investigate the applica
tion of color metallography to ancient metallic 6 g potassium metabisulfite, K2S20s
object specimens. One of the potential advan 1 00 ml distilled water, H20
tages to interference film metallography is that This etchant is useful for both carbon and
coring and segregation may be revealed when alloy steels.
conventional metallographic techniques fail. 2 g sodium molybdate, Na2Mo04 . 2H20
Color metallography may also be used to enhance 200 ml distilled water, H20
the visual appreciation of microstructural fea
Acidify to pH 2.5 to 3 using dilute nitric acid.
tures. Further details concerning the techniques
Useful for cast irons after first pre-etching with
which may be employed can be found in Yakow
nital.
itz ( 1 970), Petzow and Exner ( 1 975), and Phillips
60 g sodium thiosulfate, Na2S203 . 5H20
( 1 97 1 ) . Some of the useful recipes are set out
7.5 g citric acid, CGH S 07 . H20
below.
5 g cadmium chloride, CdCl2 . 2H20
Interference etchants for copper alloys
Useful for cast iron and steels without pre
Acidified seLenic acid
etching. Must be freshly made. This solution will
2 ml 35% hydrochloric acid, HCI
not keep longer than a week.
0.5 ml selenic acid, H2Se04
300 ml ethanol, C2HsOH Saturated thiosuLfate soLution
This solution can be used after first etching 1 00 ml saturated sodium thiosulfate,
the polished sample for a few seconds in a 1 0% Na2S203 . 5 H20 in distilled water
solution of ammonium persulfate. Dty after etch 2 g potassium metabisulfite, K2S20s
ing in persulfate before using the selenic acid Can be made up fresh and used for cast iron
etchant. and steel alloys.
Etching ({nd Etching Solutions
74
Selenic acid solution

1 0 ml 35% hydrochloric acid, HCI
4 ml selenic acid, H2Se04
200 ml ethanol, C2HsOH
Can be used for ferritic and marrensitic steels.
Interference etchants for aluminum

alloys
Molybdate / bifluoride
2 g sodium molybdate, Na2Mo04 . 2H20
5 ml 35% hydrochloric acid, HCI
1 g ammonium bifluoride, NH4FHF
Can be used for etching both aluminium and
titanium alloys.
Notes on use of these reagents for color

etching and tinting of copper alloys
Pre-etching, which is sometimes necessary,
should be carried out with 1 0% ammonium per
sulfate solution, after which selenic acid etchant
or thiosulfate/acetate etchant can be employed. In
either case it can be difficult to follow the change
of colors in very small samples. The pre-etched
sample should be immersed in the interference
etchant and the color change observed. The
sequence of colors should be from yellow, orange,
red, violet blue and finally bright silver. Etching
should not be allowed to continue beyond the
blue or violet stage.
Chromic acid/sulfate etchant should be used
without pre-etching and is useful for improving
grain contrast. The thiosulfate/acetate etchant,
thea a a- a
for example, when used on an brass results in
grains turning light green, while the
grains become orange-yellow. With a 5% cast tin
bronze, the dendritic regions are colored blue,
yellow, or brown depending on orientation; the
+b eutectoid can also be colored brown in the
thiosulfate/acetate etchant (after pre-etching in
ammonium persulfate).
17 MOUNTING RESINS
Mounting resins come i n different types and eight minutes; it can achieve a workable hardness
some manufacturers offer several grades for differ after 45 minutes. The polymerization of the resin
ent purposes. The most suitable are epoxy or can be accelerated by heating to about 45 C. I n
polyester resins that have been specially adapted fact, the manufacturers recommend heating
for metallography or mounting of small speci because extended hardening time at room tem
mens . perature may result in some surface oxidation,
Two suitable resins used by the author are which can lead to incomplete polymerization and
given as examples, one an epoxy resin and the a lowered chemical resistance of the cured resin,
other a polyester. although this is rare. Similarly, to avoid a tacky
surface on the set resin, it should remain in the
Epoxide mold until it cools down to room temperature.
Manufactured by Buehler Ltd., 4 1 Waukegan This prevents oxidation reactions at the surface of
Road, P.O. Box 1 , Lake Bluff, Illinois 60044, the hot resin. Because of excessive heat genera
U.S.A. tion, the resin should not be cured in a drying
oven or any similar closed container.
Epoxide 20-8 1 30-032, with hardener 20-
The sample should be thoroughly cleaned and
8 1 32-008, is a cold-mounting epoxy resin system
degreased; this will aid in the adhesion of the
which is excellent for almost clear mounts for
polyester resin to the sample. Scandiplast 9 1 0 1
metallographic samples. The resin adheres well to
will cure fully after eight hours and can b e ground
samples and shows a very low shrinkage rate dur
and polished to give a perfectly adequate mount
ing curing. It sets in about eight hours at room
ing material. The manufacturer maintains that
temperature. Although the setting time can be
there will be a complete absence of air bubbles in
inconvenient, it is better to wait for room-tem
the cured resin, but this is not always the case. In
perature curing than to speed up the process by
any event, care must be taken when pouring the
curing in an oven at a higher temperature; shrink
resin into the mold so that air bubbles do not
age would be more likely to occur. Buehler Ltd.
become trapped on the surface of the sample,
also manufactures a complete range of good qual
since they will interfere with the production later
ity metallographic equipment and many other
of a scratch-free surface by retaining abrasive
resi n types.
particles.
To ensure particularly good edge retention of
Polyester
the sample, a small amount of the resin can first
Scandiplast 9 1 0 1 UK Distributor:
be made up and poured into the bottom of the
(Hardener 1 % Scandiplast 9 1 02)
mold to form a layer about 1 -2 mm deep. Once
Manufactured by Polaron Equipment Ltd.,
this layer has cured, the mold is then filled up in
60-62 Greenhill Crescent, Holywell Industrial
the usual way. (For further details concerning the
Estate, Watford, Hertfordshire, U.K.
molds and sample preparation see Chapter 9,
This polyester resin, which is green, can be
p. 43.) The best molds are made of silicon rubber;
used as an embedding resin for sample examina
Polaron Equipment supplies Scandiform embed
tion in reflected light or as an adhesive for some
ding molds which are excellent for this purpose as
applications. Scandiplast 9 1 0 1 is used with a per
the Scandiplast resin is easily removed from the
oxide catalyst, Scandiplast 9 1 02 . One drop of cat
silicon rubber surface.
alyst is added for each milliliter of resin. Stirring
Scandiplast 9 1 0 1 is not suitable for vacuum
should be carried out carefully and not violently impregnation, and if a vacuum-potting technique is
so that air bubbles are not incorporated into the
necessary a low-viscosity epoxy resin is preferable.
resin. The polyester must be used within six to
18 MICROHARDNESS TESTING
Metals are rather different from minerals in that on the Vickers scale and are available as attach
Mohs' scale of hardness cannot be used accurately ments for inverted stage metallurgical micro
to assess the hardness of a metal. Usually, meth scopes, such as the Vickers metallurgical
ods must be used that deform the metal in a hard microscope, or as attachments for stage micro
ness-testing machine under a certain load, em scopes that use reflected light.
ploying a specially shaped indenter to press into One such instrument is the McCrone low
the surface of the metal. level micro hardness tester which can be attached
An early method, avoiding the need for defor to the Vickers metallurgical microscope. Four
mation at the surface, was to drop a steel ball onto readings of the hardness of a sample are taken, the
the surface of the object and measure the distance sample must be mounted in embedding resin in a
that the ball rebounded after impact. Although 1 " or 1 - 1 14" mold and the surface must be pol
this device, called the scleroscope, is now a histor ished, otherwise the impression of the indenter
ical curiosity, some early archaeological reports may not be visible.
refer to this method of hardness testing, thus its The exact relationship berween the macro
mention here. hardness and the microhardness of a particular
Brinell hardness testing (HB) was the first sample may be difficult to compare because of a
method to find universal acceptance. With this number of complications that may arise. One
technique, a steel ball of known diameter is forced example is grain size: if the microhardness inden
into a metal surface under a certain applied load. tation falls across only one or rwo grains it may
The diameter of the impression left on the surface not compare with a macrohardness reading which
can be measured accurately and a scale of hard averages the result of deformation over many
ness calculated. Subsequent industrial develop grains and grain boundaries.
ments have brought other scales and methods
into operation, such as the Rockwell method
(HR), the Knoop method (HK), and the Vickers
method (Hy) . The only suitable scales for archae
ological metals are the Brinell and the Vickers
scales. The Vickers method utilizes a four-sided,
1 36, diamond pyramid indenter and the results
of the scale are sometimes quoted as DPN num
bers (from Diamond Pyramid Number) . This is
the same as the Hy, merely being a different
abbreviation for the result. The Brinell and Vick
ers scales are roughly the same, although for accu
rate work they differ and a table of equivalents
must be resorted to for some comparisons (see
The Metals Handbook, 9th Edition for the most
recent information) .
Macroscopic scale hardness tests leave impres
sions in metal that can be seen with the naked
eye-in most ancient metals, sound metal is not
found at the immediate surface and hardness test
ing must usually be carried out on a micro rather
than a macro level on a polished and mounted
section using a special microhardness testing
machine. Microhardness testers usually operate
APPENDIX A COMMON MICROSTRUCTURAL SHAPES
Figure 85.steelShapes
carbon s. of ferrite in low Figure 86. Common descriptive
terms.
grain boundary allotriomorphs
equi-axed hexagonal grains
Widmanstatten side plates annealing twin

/\1\/\/\
Widmanstatten sawteeth
strain lines (sl i p lines)
idiomorphs mechanical twinning
asintracrystal
transgranullinear)(alcrack
so known
intergranular Widmanstatten plates
intercrystalline (crack)
massed ferrite
polo
ygonal
acicular
dendritic
Appendix A
-
- 8 0
banded lenticular
fibrous
fusiform
G CJ
c::J o
nodular
(-
triple point
botryoidal
o
discontinuous p,,,ipirn,,

rhomboidal
angular fragments

martensltlc (needle-like)
coIumnar grains
APPENDIX B MICROSTRUCTURE OF CORRODED METALS
intergranular corrosion pitting corrosion
intragranular corrosion uniform corrosion through metal

Cstress-cracking corrosiJ on
selective corrosion
c ./1{\. ]
selective corrosion (parting)
ginalosurfn products
oricorrosi ace over the
cavitation corrosion
remnant metalliocngrains in a
mass of corrosi
slip lines outlined by corrosion
twin l i nes outlined by corrosion

dicorrosi
sruptioonn products and
of the surface
warty corrosion J
APPENDIX C MICROHARDNESS VALUES FOR DIFFERENT
ALLOYS AND METALS
The values given in the tables below for the vari Metal or Alloy
ation in micro hardness of some of the copper
pure copper, cast 40-50
based alloys illum'ate the advantages of using tin
pure copper, worked and annealed 50-60
bronzes for obtaining hard materials, The
pure copper, cold worked 1 00- 1 20
increase in the Brinell hardness for arsenical cop
70:30 brass, annealed 50-65
per in the range of 1 -3% arsenic is of some inter
70:30 brass, cold worked 1 20- 1 60
est, since the proportion of arsenic included in the
gunmetal, cast 65-70
alloy beyond the 3% level has relatively little
1 . 8% arsenic copper, cast 48
effect on the ability of the alloy to be hardened
1 . 8% arsenic copper, worked 65-70
any further by working.
2.6% arsenic copper, cast 65-70
This is in contrast to the tin bronzes where
2.6% arsenic copper, worked 1 50- 1 60
increasing amounts of tin produce successively
cast leaded bronze, 1 0%5n 5%Pb 70
harder alloys when they are cold-worked. An even
cast leaded bronze, 1 0%5n 1 0% Pb 65
greater effect is noticed when the tin bronzes are
cast leaded bronze, 9%5n 1 5%Pb 60
compared with low-zinc-content brass and
pure lead 3-6
cupro-nickel alloys, both of which are not greatly
pure tin 6- 1 0
hardened by cold-working at the 50% reduction
pure aluminium 1 4-22
level. These figures have a practical importance.
pure silver, cast 1 5-30
The color of the product upon casting may be
silver, work hardened 80
strongly affected by inverse segregation of arsenic
20% copper 80% silver, annealed 45-50
to the surface of the mold but as far as srrength or
hardness is concerned there is little or no advan
tage in having 7% arsenic in the alloy compared
with 3% arsenic. It should be borne in mind from
1 2% tin bronze, fully worked 220
a practical point of view, that it is very difficult to
0.45% C steel, water quenched 546
compare the results of hardness tests on ancient
0.45% C steel, annealed 400 C 418
alloys where different hardness scales have been
0.45% C steel, annealed pearlite 1 84
used.
0 . 5 5 % C steel, water quenched 876
The scale used should always be specified and
0.9% C steel, water quenched 965
the same scale employed whenever possible for all
0.93% C steel, normalized 323
comparisons with similar materials in different
0 . 93% C steel, water quenched 836
degrees of working or composition.
ancient file, tempered martensite 535
The following list gives some values or ranges
ancient arrowhead, tempered martensite 390
for the microhardness of materials of interest in
knife blade, tempered martensite 720
the Vickers 5cale (Hv) , which is one of the most
ancient saw, ferrite 1 85
generally useful scales.
mortise chisel, ferrite 1 29
axe, pearlite and ferrite 269
sickle, pearlite and ferrite 17l
83
Appendix C
Hardnesses of some imponant alloys on the
Brinell Scale (HB) in the 50% reduction cold-
rolled (i.e. , worked) condition and in annealed
condition.
Alloy
Bronze
50% Reduction
HB Annealed
1 % Sn 1 10 50
2% Sn 115 52
3% Sn 1 30 54
4% Sn 1 40 59
5% Sn 1 60 62
6% Sn 178 72
7% Sn 1 90 80
8% Sn 195 82
Arsenical copper
I % As 118 50
2% As 1 38 51
3% As 1 44 52
4% As 1 46 53
5% As 1 48 54
6% As 1 48 55
7% As 1 49 56
8% As 1 50 58
Cupro-nickel alloys
I % Ni 1 02 52
2% Ni 1 04 52.5
3% Ni 1 08 53
4% Ni 1 10 54
5% Ni 112 55
6% Ni 1 14 56
7% Ni 119 57
8% Ni 121 58
Brass alloys with low zinc content

1 % Zn 1 02 51
2% Zn 1 04 5l.5
3% Zn 1 06 52
4% Zn 1 07 52.8
5% Zn 1 10 53
6% Zn 1 12 54
7% Zn 1 14 55
8% Zn 1 18 56
APPENDIX D ALLOYS USED IN ANTIQUITY
Copper Iron
copper-tin (bronze); also high-tin bronzes iron-nickel (meteoric/unusual ores)

such as saffdruy and speculum)
iron plus slag (wrought iron)
copper-arsenic (arsenical copper or arsenic
Iron-Carbon Alloys
bronze)
grey cast iron (free C)
copper-antimony
white cast iron (no free C)
copper-zinc (brass)
Steels
copper-silver (shibuchi)
hypereutectic (>0.8)
copper-gold (tumbaga, shakudo)
hypoeutectic 0.8)
copper-zinc-lead (bidri)
iron-nitrogen (nitriding)
copper-zinc-tin (latten, sometimes Pb)
iron-hydrogen (embrittlement in steels)
copper-cuprous oxide
copper-tin-arsenlc Lead
copper-nickel (cupronickel) lead-tin (soft solders, ancient pewters)
leaded bronzes, brasses, etc.

Gold
lead-gold (for gilding)
gold-mercury (amalgams)
gold-copper (tumbaga) Tin
gold-silver (electrum) tin-lead (ancient pewters)
gold-platinum (sintered alloys) tin-antimony (modern pewters)
gold-iron (Egyptian rose golds) tin-copper (e.g., coatings, such as CuGSnS)
gold-lead (sometimes used for gilding)
Silver
silver-copper
silver-gold
silver-lead (sometimes from cupellation)
silver-silver oxide
silver on iron (example of gama hada)

APPENDIX E TERMS AND TECHNIQUES IN ANCIENT
METALWORKING
Joining Techniques Casting and Working Techniques
MechanicalJoins Casting
CrImpIng casting on
overlapping seam lost-wax
overlapping sheets solid
riveting over a core
tab-and-slot from a master matrix
other refinements (e.g., mold carving)
MetallurgicalJoins
centrifugal casting
brazing open mold
hard soldering piece mold
fusing welding (2 parts locally heated) two-piece
fusion weld multi-piece
filler of same composition in solid state slush casting
filler of same composition in liquid state
Working
pressure welding (solid state)
reaction soldering (as in granulation) annealing
soft soldering chasing
cold-working
Surface Treatment Techniques drawing
engraVIng
Surface Coloration
filing
chemical solution treatments hot-working
gold powder in binding medium machining
pigments and dyestuffs turnIng
drilling
Surface Coatings
boring
amalgam gilding milling
arsenic coatings pIercIng
fusion gilding punching
gold-iron alloys quenching
gold or silver electrochemical deposition raISIng
leaf gilding repousse
platinum coatings spInnIng
silver coatings over copper stamping
tin coatings tempering
Surface Enrichment
depletion gilding of Au-Cu alloys

depletion silvering of Ag-Cu alloys
gravity segregation
inverse segregation
natural corrosive processes
selective surface etching
selective surface removal
APPENDIX F METALLOGRAPHIC STUDIES
This section contains a miscellany of microstruc iron, and steel, and some examples of silver and
tures with a limited amount of information con gold alloys.
cerning the composition of the objects studied. The Metals Handbook, Volume 9, published
Most of the microstructures have been chosen by the American Society for Metals, includes
because they are of good quality and illustrate a
wide range of features seen in ancient metallic
many microstructures relevant
ancient metals and the 9th edition has been
to the study of
alloys, many of which have no modern equi expanded to cover precious metals, such as silver,
valent. It would be ideal if the section included
representations of the full range of microstruc
so that the text is more useful
ence. In order to make this appendix accessible.
to a broader audi
tures to be found in ancient and historic metal

work, but this is velY difficult to achieve. The
examples are indexed with regard
microstructure. alloy, object. and period or prov
to type of
selection that follows is therefore somewhat arbi enance. These appear in italic type in the index at
trary, but includes a good range of copper alloys, the back of this volume.
Silver-copper alloy coin

This is a late and degraded form of the drachm,
whose origins may be traced back over 600 years
to the Indo-Greek kings. This coin bears the
king's head on the obverse side and a fire altar on
the reverse. It is small, thick, and struck in a
much-debased silver-copper alloy that was almost
certainly surface-enriched by pickling, resulting
in copper depletion at the outer surfaces.
In the un etched condition, the rwo-phase
nature of the coin can be seen, although it
becomes much more evident upon etching in
either potassium dichromate or ferric chloride.
The dendrites, which are silver-rich, are not con
tinuous, indicating a rather low silver content,
about 1 8% , analogous to other struck silver
copper alloy coins. The silver-rich phase is elon
coiIFingdiurena.ofc.87.Skandagupta.
Base silver-copper alloy gated and flattened along the length of the coin.
Western
A.D. 470. I I mm. Also, the contours follow the depressions in the
surface suggesting the coin was struck while hot.
The corrosion is quite limited and does not
extend much below the surface into the interior of Figure surf
struck 88, top.
a ce. Low magni
Note the fication showi
curvature i n thenstructure
g part of theas a
the alloy.
result of deformation. Etch: FeCI3; x32.
Fiseengurewi89,th thebottom.
fl a The remnants
ttened copper-ricofh grai the nsislvcaner-rinowch be
phase tpassi
dendri i c ng along arethe notlengthcontiofntheuouscoibutn. Note
remnants occur theas
disectiscreteons,eltheongated
si l v er plcontent
ates. From
can simroughl
be ilar casty estiandmworkedated at
about 15-20%. Etch: FeCI3; x 123.
87
Appendix F
Islamic inlaid inkwell cast in a copper
tin-zinc-Iead alloy
The inlay on this fine inlaid inkwell has been car
ried out in silver, copper, rock asphalt, and prob
ably, ground quartz. It was made in the eastern
Iranian province of Khurasan, probably in Herat
during the period from the late 1 2th through
early 1 3th century A.D. The inkwell measures
1 03 mm high (with lid) and has a diameter of
approximately 80 mm. The composition of the
metal used in the manufacture was found to be:
copper 65%, tin 5%, zinc 20%, lead 1 0%, with
Fingkwel
iprovi ure l90,fromabove. the Islamic iInranilaidan
eastern
smaller amounts of iron and silver.
A sample taken from the rim of the body of
nce of Khurasan. the inkwell was removed using a fine jeweller's
evilFiegad.dureent,The91,aslatoparergerrisome
ght. Cori ngeiss of saw. Although there are four major constituents,
dark gl o bul
holestructure
s are
the alloy can be considered a ternary mix of cop
per, zinc, and tin because lead is immiscible in
porosi t y i n the al l o y. The copper. There is a random scatter of lead globules
ofviis sdicori
fficnulg.t toSomeinterpret
iFeCIbl3e; x63. strai
(near bottom right). Etch: n fullinlyesbecause
are visible in the polished section. The section etches
well with alcoholic ferric chloride and reveals a
cored structure to the grains showing that the ink
well has been cast to shape. The inner areas of
viFiinegalwurecofohol92,theicmisectiddleonrigatht.x21Overal etched l each grain are richer in coper and the outer areas
ead globules,FeCland3 compl showinegx coring, richer in zinc and tin. Also evident in this section
lstructure. are a number of holes that are due to some poros

ity present in the casting. The prominent coring
shows that the inkwell was not extensively worked
Figuresecond
thegamma 93, bottom phase right.maySomebeof
areas or annealed following fabrication. However,
zicolncoredsystem phasewhifromch appears the copper-ti as l i g n

ht
some strain lines can be seen near the surface sug
gesting some final working in the as-cast condi
obulregi3e;sox41.appear
ns in thedarkpicture. grey.The
tion, probably due to chasing of the surface to
lEtch:
ead glFeCI receive the inlaid metal strips (see Plate 1 1 ) .
Appendix F
88
Cast bronze arrowhead

This arrowhead is from Palestine and was exca
vated by Sir Flinders Petrie between 1 930 and

. " .. . '!O. : :..:... .... .. . . . 1 938 from the site at Tell Ajj ul. During his exca
vations Petrie found many artifacts associated
Figure 94. Drawi

arrowhead from nPalg ofesticastne. bronze
with buildings and graves dating to the early
XVIIIth Dynasty. This arrowhead, as well as the
Palestinian bronze sword (below), were found
during the excavations.
The composition of the arrowhead is a ternary
copper-tin-arsenic alloy with some lead present
(Ghandour 1 98 1 ) : Sn 9 . 86%, Pb l .49%, As
3. 87%, Zn 0.85%, the remainder copper. The
arrowhead is 30 mm in length and triangular in
shape with three fins and a hole for the socket on
the tang.
The microstructure of the arrowhead can eas
ily be observed after etching in ferric chloride for
3-5 seconds. The central region of the arrowhead
as well as the three fins, which are seen here in sec
tion, all have the same undistorted, cast, dendritic
pattern. This is clear evidence that the arrowhead Firicghuredendri 95, top.
t es Finthe,eutectoi
wi very long,d inandfil ofundistortedphasescopper
a.+ I)
was cast in a mold directly to shape and that the
fins were not beaten out or work-hardened after
betweenEtch:theFeCI
pores. arms.): Note
x32. the occasional interdendritic
manufacture. At low magnification, very long and
finely developed dendrites can be seen together
with some of the interdendritic eutectoid infill. theatFigthiureoccasi
96, obottom.
nal
a.+I) Theeutectoi
dendrid tareas
ic structure
are
s magnification than at x32. Etch: FeCI): x65.
is clresol
more ear andved
The eutectoid itself is difficult to resolve, some
structure becoming apparent at x600.
Figuresword.
Age 97. Drawi
Etch:nFeCI
g of Late
). Bronze Palestinian bronze sword
This sword is dated to the Late Bronze Age. It has
an intact tang rectangular in cross section and a
blade about 285 mm long and 3 1 mm wide at the
= . ==:r:
maximum width. There is a pronounced midrib
(see "Cast bronze arrowhead," above, for a brief
background reference). in alcoholic ferric chloride reveals the grain struc
The sword is composed of Sn 8.20%, Pb ture to be rather variable. Toward the cutting
0.27%, As 0.66%, Zn 1 .72%, the remainder cop edge of the sword the grains appear quite large,
per. In the unetched state, some grain boundaries possibly from over-annealing during some stage
are evident, as well as quite large but irregularly in its working. Toward the midrib, the grain size
distributed pores. There are no visible sulfide or is smaller but still rather variable in size. Some of
oxide inclusions present in this section. Etching the grains are clearly twinned with straight twin
89
Appendix F
Figuren98,g intercrystal
showi right. Overallinel cracks,
view
thelargesectigraionn.s, Unetched;
and some porosi
x30. ty in
Figuren structu
grai 99, farrerigwiht.thRecrystal
twi n ned lized
crystal
bands. sEtch: and corrosi on along slip
FeCI3; x62.
lines, showing that the sword was finished by a lining many slip bands in some pans of the srruc
final annealing operation. The dark, thick lines ture. The extenr of these slip bands suggests that
that oudine most of the grain boundaries are due the final annealing operation was not sufficienr ro
ro corrosion advancing through the alloy in an remove the srresses within all the grains as a resulr
inrergranular form of attack. The copper has also of working the sword ro shape (see Plate 1 7) .
corroded along slip planes within the grains, out-
Roman wrought iron

This sample is a section from a large Roman billet
(bar) of iron about 25 x 7 x 7 cm and weighing
about 6 kg. It represenrs the primary forging of
the bloom. During this stage of production most
of the incorporated slag was squeezed out and the
iron was consolidated in preparation for rrade or
manufacrure inro functional anifacrs.
As with the bloom, this iron can have varying
degrees of carburization. Forging can remove or
inrroduce carbon depending on the area of the
forge ro which the iron is exposed. Near the tuy
ere (blast of air) , conditions are more conducive
Figure 100.ironViewiwthshowi
wrought extensing vvarie slaablgeparti
graicnlesiszande ofsome
the
ro oxidization and carbon is lost from the struc larger slalaand
materi g fragments.
typi c al l y Note
consi thatts ofthewustislagteis (FeO)
s a two-phased
asnital;
ture. Variable carbon conrenr can be advanra
geous when iron is forged, since ferrite regions rounded
x83. dendri t i c shapes i n a gl a ssy matri x . Etch:
(low-carbon areas) are malleable and easily
worked, while peariitic regions are rougher.
Appendix F
90
Gold-copper alloy sheet

This fragmenr is a circular disc approximately analyzer revealed a composition of about 80.6%
1 1 0 mm in diameter. These gold-copper alloys copper, 1 7. 1 % gold, and 2.6% silver.
are usually referred to as tumbaga alloys. They The polished section shows a typical worked
were usually finished by a depletion-gilding pro sheet with small grains and a lot of inrergranular
cess. This particular fragment has deep-yellow corrosion. The grains can be etched, with diffi
colored surfaces with some patches of purple culty, in an ammonium persulfate and potassium
brown staining. A circular hole has been pierced cyanide mixture that shows the nature of the
through the sheet which shows some fine surface gold-enriched surface as well. The grains are
scratches in the metal surrounding the hole.
Figure 10alI.loDepl etion-gi lded digolsc dof
twinned with most of the twin lines being
tumbag y showi
andmadeburniby surface-etchi n g
shed gold surface matte design
These scratches probably arose as a result of fin
ishing the pierced hole when metal burrs were
straight, but a few are nor. There are some cuprite
inclusions as well as cuprite lamellae running
enrildicnhed n g the
goldtheafterMunideplcieptiiooofn
removed with an abrasive. Analysis of sound
metal grains with an electron microprobe
along the length of the section which also appears
to be very even in thickness (see Scott 1 983).
giPupi g.alesFrom
in the Department ofand
Nari
probabl ii o , southern
yabout
datesI from Col o mbi
thecentury a ,
Piartal
peri
AD. o d, 0-12th
Figure 102.of theTheworked

surface depletisheet
on-gildisedclestructure
arl y evi d on theThe
ent. andfFiogl ureothewin103.gsmalsomeNote
l gloofbulthetheesvery eventethithatckness
ofgraicupri can of theseensheet
be
etchant
whi l e hasnlgeftthethegraigolnsdwhi
etchi -richchsurface largelvisiyblunattacked ongatedon ltoamelcuprilartregie durionsnngareboundari es.byThesomedark,
talphased. ght twin l i nes. Thex200.alloy is esinasglerecrys
lized wiEtch:th straiKCN/(NH4hS20S; are now elcorrosi caused
burial. Unetched; x64.
Ecuadorian copper-alloy nose-ring

The object is one of several metal finds from the of a two-phased silver-copper alloy.
secondary chimney urn burial at La Compania, There is a very clear demarcation between the
Los Rios province, Ecuador. It is of intermediate applied silver coating and the copper body of the
size in the collection of nose ornaments from this nose-ring. The polished section was etched in
burial of the late Milagro phase. The section alcoholic ferric chloride, resulting in a well
through the nose ornamenr shows that the copper formed twinned crystal structure with perfecrly
incorporates a considerable amounr of cuprous straight twin lines in the copper grains. The
oxide inclusions that run along the length of the grains near the cenrer of the nose-ring are quite
object in a striated form, typical of worked cop large with prominenr twinning (ASTM grain size
per. The nose-ring has on its outside surface a number 2-3), while on the outer surfaces of the
very thick (about 0. 1 mm; 1 000 microns) coating nose-ring, which have received slighrly greater
Appendix F
91
hammering and recrystallization during manufac enriched, or depletion silvered, as is apparent

ture, the grain size drops to about ASTM 4-5. from a metallographic examination of the intact
The silver coating is a duplex structure con surface. This is not uniformly apparent on the
sisting of copper-rich islands of alpha phase with section taken because some has broken away dur
an infilling of the copper-silver alpha + beta
eutectic in which the eutectic phase forms a con
tinuous network throughout the alloy. The junc
ing burial as a result of corrosion or during prep
aration for metallography during the cutting
stage. The observation that the silver alloy coating
tion between the applied silver coating and the has itself received only slight working and has,
copper base is quite abrupt, and the silver coating essentially, a slightly modified cast structure,
has not received anything like the degree of defor means that it must have been applied hot, i.e., in
mation and recrystallization to which the copper a molten condition, probably by dipping the
has been subjected. I t is quite apparent from this cleaned nose ornament into a molten silver-cop
fact, and from the very narrow diffusion zone per alloy. The manufacturing process can there
between the silver alloy coating and the copper, fore be almost entirely reconstructed from the
that the silver alloy must have been applied at a metallographic evidence.
velY late stage in the manufacturing process, i.e.,
when the nose-ring was practically completed.
The copper-rich alpha phase in the silver alloy
I. A raw, cast copper blank, which contained
extensive cuprite inclusions as large globules,
coating betrays occasional slip lines and a few was worked and annealed in cycles to shape
bent twins are also evident. This suggests some the nose-ring.
relatively light working and annealing followed
by some cold-working of the coating after appli
cation to the shaped copper base.
23.. Oxide scale was removed from the surface to
present a clean surface for coating.
An alloy of silver and copper was made up
The silver coating has itself been superficially containing about 30-40% silver, which melts
at approximately 200 C below the melting
Finature
gure 104, of therigsiht.lver-copper
View showialnlgoythe point of pure copper. The alloy had to be held
coati
recrystal ng over
l i z ed worked
grai n s. andfew bent
A
in a suitable container whether dipping or
surface brush coating was employed.
twisi lvner-copper
s in the alalphaloyregicoationngofsuggest the 45.. The copper nose-ring was dipped or coated
with the molten silver alloy.
someicatiligohtn worki
appl of the ngcoatifollongwitongthethe The nose-ring received some final working to
shaped nose-ring. Etch: FeCI);

x120.
smooth out the silver coating and the surface
was cleaned by an acid plant or mineral prep
aration to remove oxidized copper and to cre
Figurefic105,atiofarn viriewght.in Lower
magni
ate a good silvery appearance.
ns ofethed. Thewhibasecthihcopper
twiarenclnedearlgraiy reveal the
c k ng
siislvweler-copper al l o y surface coati
chloridl-contrasted
e etchant. x78.by the ferric
Appflldix F 92
Cast arsenical copper axe
Simple axes of this kind were common, not only clearly evident upon etching. The fact that the axe
in many parts of the New World but also has a recrystallized grain structure with twin lines,
throughout the Old World, and the methods of as well as coring, and virtually undisturbed poros
production and manufacture are essentially the ity, indicates that it was finished by a working and
axeFigurefrom106.Guayas.above.Ecuador. Small copper same. Many of these axes were made by casting annealing process, probably to improve the shape
70 mm. into simple, open molds. The molds themselves

could be made of stone, clay, or metal. It is some
of the axe rather than to work it extensively. The
grains have straight twin lines indicating that the
Fiis gsurpri
ure 107.singltopy clriegan.ht.There
The structure
ismetal
the times possible to obtain evidence for the position final process was either hot-working or an anneal
expected
but nosubtloxiedshadi porosi t y of
e or nsulg fpassi a cast
ide inngclacross
usions.
of casting by metallographic examination. For
example, slag and dross may be segregated to the
ing operation.
The achievement of casting the copper alloy
The
theor thegraicasti
ns isngduethattopersi residstsualdespi
corintge
top surface of an open-mold casting with the
result that one side viewed in section looks quite
into a mold and making an axe like this with no
apparent oxide or sulfide inclusions present dem
theclearltwiy vinnedsiblegrai. Etch:ns whiFeCIch3:arex32. clean while the other may contain more oxide
inclusions and gross impurities in the form of
onstrates considerable metallurgical skill.
debris or slag. This is not the case with this axe,

Figuretwi108.
thethat n l i n bottom
es are right.ghtNote
strai showi thatng although we know from other examples that axes
probabl an yannealthe inngal process

fi stage i n wasmanu were cast horizontally into one-piece molds.
Bushnell ( 1 958) believes that the axe is from
ftheacture.
absence The ofrelstrai
ativelnylilnaes.rgeandgrains. the Manteno period. Spectrographic analyses
showed that the axe was made of arsenical copper
undiamount
storted ofporosi
theextensi worki tynigndiwascatenotthat with about 1 % arsenic content. The other ele
ve. Etch: FeCI3: x65. ments detected were present only in very small
amounts (all less than 0.05%). These were anti
mony, bismuth, iron, lead, manganese, nickel,
and tin.
It is difficult to cast copper into open molds
wi thou t extensive oxidation occurring and yet the
microstructure of this axe is remarkably clean:
there are no cuprous oxide inclusions to be seen.
The axe has been cast-that is evident from the
,
pattern of distribution of porosity as well as from
the coring resulting from dendritic segregation.
Coring occurs as subtle patches of darker etching
material that ignores the grain structure and is
Appendix F
93
Chinese bronze incense burner
The fragment mounted for study shows a cross
section through the lid of the incense burneLThe
sample shows an undistorted cast structure with a
fair amount of delta tin-rich eutectoid.
Fibegureclearly10.seen.TheTheoutlaine+ ofeutectoi
I
8 the equid-axed
phase structure
occupi e s canthe
grai unsiboundari
iins clunusual es forthrough
ons forscattered the mostthepart.sectiwiotn.h Thismals lstructure
cuprite
Figure 109.incense Chineseburner.
19th century annealing. Etcheda normal cast icbronze
in alcohol FeCI3;andx98.indicates
plHeiacedght on190themm.ancestral tablusuale. ly
ancestral
Thai bronze cast bell
A bronze bell from Ban Don Ta Phet (see Rajpi
tak 1 9 83) with a smooth surface and dark green
patina. cast by the lost wax process. The compo
sition is Cu 85 .6%, Sn 3.5%, Pb 1 5 . 5%, As
0. 1 %, Ag 0.3%, Ni 0. 1 %, Co 0 . 0 1 %. The micro
structure shows the bell was cast in one piece. It
has a coarse dendritic structure with extensive
porosity which is evident in the section.
Figure vI e I.corrosi
extensi INoteothen. especi
large.acoarse
l y dendrithetbottom.
toward es. the and
the segregati
areas. Etch: FeCIon of3; thex35.lead and tin to the interdendritic
Appmdix F 94
Luristan dagger handle
The materials used to make the handle and blade
were well-chosen. The tin content of the handle
is about 20%, while the hilt of the blade has a tin
76.onFigure6in%.a tiSnI n12.-ri20.Fragment

Pb 0.of9anal%,a NiLuri s5tan%. The
bladehandl
frome wasI ran:cast
Cu
content of about 1 3 . 5% . The casting-on of the
handle over the finished blade involved the use of
8ch %,bronze; 0.
CuLength83.689%, Snmm.13.5%, Fe 0.3%,ysiPbs of0.the8%,dagger As 0.4hi%,ltNiyie0.ld6ed:%.
a clay mold built up around the blade into which
molten bronze was poured.
It is important that the alloy used in casting
on has a lower melting point than the metal to be
incorporated in the cast-on product. This was
facilitated in this case by the careful selection of
materials. The blade has a worked microstructure,
but the structure of the hilt incorporated into the
handle is an annealed casting. The hilt is equi
axed compared with the heavily dendritic struc
ture of the handle.
The redeposited copper that occurs in the
crevice between the rwo components may have
been caused by low oxygen availability in corro
sive burial environments. That sort of situation
would be ideal for this form of corrosion-redepo
sition phenomena. A slight potential gradient hionFiglturehandl
of theI 13.e ofblThe left lsiedthee ofregitheonphotomi
athede, whi
dagger.tThe on the
irregularesul
crirograph
g ht i
r stritipngbetweens iscast
the the
the
could also be set up berween the rwo components
themselves, that is, berween the hilt and the blade.
two
corrosi regi o ns i s redeposi
oonn ofof thethe exbronze. ed copper from
This isdthephaseresulin ttheof thehigher tin
Redeposited copper also replaces delta, tin-rich corrosi
content alloy of the handle. x90. 8+ eutectoi
regions in the hilt (see Plate 1 0 and Figs. 69-70).
Fragment of a Thai bronze container

This fragment is part of a circular container with Sn 22. 1 9%, Pb 0.3%, As 0.03%, Sb 0.0 1 % ,
a polished outer surface and a rough inner sur F e 0.03%, A g 1 .2%.
face. Also, the alloy is corroded on the surface, Examination of the container reveals a well
rim, and part of the body. The diameter is developed dendritic structute with an infilling of
approximately 3.4 cm and the thickness of the a matrix that appears superficially to be scratched.
metal about 1 . 5 mm. However, this structure is due to the development
The object is one of a group of metal finds of a martensitic structure in the bronze as a result
from Ban Don Ta Phet, a village in the Arnphoe of quenching the bronze alloy following casting.
district of Phanom Thuan, Kanchanaburi Prov The quenching procedure prevents the bronze
ince, southwest Thailand. The date of the site is alloy (which is high-tin) from decomposing into
thought to be about 300-200 B.C The composi
tion of the alloy was determined by inductively
coupled plasma spectroscopy as eu 70%,
the usual alpha + delta eutectoid structure. This
was carried out as a deliberate process in the man
ufacture of the container with the result that the
Appendix F
95
Figure 1 14,oftopcoredright.alpCast
structure ha grai dendri
n s wi ttihc delra-phase formarion is suppressed and, insread,
an infil seem
There of beta-phase
to be two needl
types es.of a bera-phase marrensire grows due ro rhe reren
rion of rhe high remperarure bera phase. The
needl
needl eess andpresent:
thi c fi nelemartensi
ker nti c ul a r tic microsrrucrure makes ir possible ro reconsrrucr
needles. Etch: FeCl3: x62. rhe manufacruring process of rhe container. The
objecr was firsr casr in a mold. Afrer casring, ir was
FiviegwureofI the15, same

bottomarearight.in whiEnlcahrgedthe briefly annealed and rhen quenched. The remper
arure ar which rhe quenching was carried our is
beta siblemartensi
viphase tic structure
.isThedesineedl e l i k e is clearlticy
martensi esrimared ro have been 586-798 0c.
dendri t i c gnatedchI phase
copper-ri and theis the The needlelike marrensiric phase is designared
as bera, and rhe dendriric copper-rich phase is rhe
alments
pha. Miwerecrohardness
made and measure
gavetic phase
results
alpha. Microhardness measuremenrs were made
and gave resulrs of 1 88 Hv for rhe dendriric phase
ofand188227HvHvforforthethedendri
Etch: FeCl3: x250. beta phase.
and 227 Hv for rhe bera phase.
Colombian cast Simi ear ornament

This rype of fine filligree ear ornamenr was origi
nally rhoughr ro be made by rhe soldering
rogerher of a number of wires. H owever, merallo
graphic examinarion has proven rhar rhey were
made by rhe losr-wax process.
The secrion cur rransversely rhrough rhe ear
ornamenr shows rhe casr narure of rhe gold-cop
FiguretheI 16.SinPartG zoneof ani nearnorth
from ornament per alloy.
western Colombia. 42 mm. The loop for suspension is slighdy uneven ar

rhe rop, as is common in many orher ear orna
menrs from rhis area, showing rhar rhe probable
FiricghureregiI o17.n ofThetheoricored
entatidendri
on of thetes corroded
reveal s the copper
originlikale
casring posirion was wirh rhe funnel and channels cast structure
thi(NH4hS20S of the
s are difficulort toHN03/HCI gol d -copper
etch satis.factori al l o y. Structures
laly owinethwieiltheronlyKCN/
siruared above rhe suspension loop, arrached ro ir
ar rhe uppermosr poinr.
copper-ri c h gol d al l o ys wi t h FeCI
up to 3 about 30% gol d etch
by
The polished secrion shows an undisrorred
casr dendriric srrucrure in which considerable
weight. Unetched; x36.
corrosion has raken place. An esrimarion of rhe
dendriric arm spacing gave a value of 33 microns
averaged over nine arms (SCO(( 1 986) . Analysis
yielded: Au 1 6.9%, eu 7 1 .2%, Ag 1 .7%, Pb
0 .07%, Fe nd, Ni nd, Sb nd, As nd (nd = nor
derecred) .
Appendix F
96
FigurengI 18,thetoplargeriggraphi
showi ht. Overal t e fl l kesview
a Cast iron cannonball from
wiwhithte,inunetched
fil ing of pearl ternary ite andphosphi the de Sandal Castle
eutecti
resol v c, atwhithichs magni
ed cannotficbeatioreadi n. Etch:ly This polished fragmenr is a section from a can
nonball used in the siege of Sandal Castle in 1 645
nital; x70. between J uly and September of that year. One of

the reasons for examining these cannonballs is to
FipearlgureiteI wi19,thmivariddlaetiriognsht.inFithene size see if there are any differences between the 64-
ofxISO.the graphite plates. Etch: nital; pound balls brought from Hull specially for the
purpose, and the 32-pound cannonballs used ear
lier in the campaign. The structure of both types,
Figureite120,is clbottom
pearl e arl y vi s riibgleht.. Some
The in fact, proved to be the same. (Further details
,." .... .... . "' .
pearl
spaci nitgeandregiappear
ons havegrey.veryThefinwhie te concerning the history and the cannonballs them
selves can be found in Mayes and Buder 1 977.)
phase
eutecti onc, steadi
the letfte,iswhithelephosphi carbon, dien Examination of the sample shows the cannon
ball to be made of a fairly typical grey cast iron. J. \\S'-". :ft\"'. ,.'.,
theas dark
formliofnes.graphi Etch:tenifltaalkes,; x390.appears The structure consists of rather variable-sized but
quite large graphite flakes set in a matrix that is
principally pearlite. Some of the pearlite eutec
toid is very finely spaced and is barely resolvable
at xl 000 magnification. Much pearlite can clearly
be seen, however, and there are a few areas that
look ferritic. In some places, a white phase can be
seen that has a patchy appearance with small
globular holes. This is a ternary phosphide eutec
tic between ferrite (usually with a little phosphide
conrenr), cemenrite, and iron phosphide, Fe3P'
This ternary eutectic, called steadite, has a melt
ing poinr of about 960 C (Rollason 1 973) and so
it is the last constituenr to form as the cast iron
cools down. It is a very brittle phase, but is usually
only present in small amounts scattered as iso
lated islands (see Plate 1 3) .
97
Appendix F
Bronze Age copper ingot
The small plano-convex ingot illustrated here was the copper produced would need refining or
sectioned. It is typical of the convenient products remelting and alloying before being used to pro
used for trading cast copper. The cut face shows a duce small artifacts because of the unusually high
columnar appearance, which suggests directional cuprite content, otherwise the grain boundaries
solidification. XRF analysis detected a small of the material would be very weak.
amount of nickel as an impurity in otherwise pure
Figure in121,associabove.ationCopper
found wi t h ingot
Bronze copper.
Age
Englamateri
nd. 27amm. l in Hampshire, The microstructure shows a remarkable scat
ter of cuprous oxide inclusions. Grains are large
(ASTM 1 -2), with no annealing rwin or slip lines
Fishowi
gureng122,therilagrgeht. Overal
grai n l view es
boundari present, indicating that the copper was cast. The
and
atthethegraithegrainscatter
ns. Note of cupries tande glowibulthiens
boundari
purity of the copper explains the absence of cor
ing and visible dendrites. The large and numerous
ofthesome porosi t yalinsothetheinpresence

gotes orand
globular oxide inclusions occur both within the
grains and as slighdy lenticular shaped discs that
strai absence of any twi n l i n

Etch:n FeCI
lines3;i nxtheI 05.copper grains. run along the grain boundaries. There is some
porosity present. With this particular cast ingot,
Roman brass coin

Many Roman coins were made from brass rather
than bronze. The microstrucrure of this coin,
etched with ferric chloride, shows a typical recrys
tallized grain structure with extensive evidence of
deformation produced in the process of striking
the coin. Both rwin lines and slip lines can be seen
in the sections. Many fine sets of parallel slip (or
strain) lines can be seen, both at x66 and x 1 32
magnification. Some of the twin lines are more
difficult to observe, and there is some variation in
their appearance. Many of the twin lines seem
quite straight, while others seem curved, indicat
ing either hot-working or some cold-working
after the final stage of recrystallization. Since the
usual manufacruring technology involved strik
ing heated coin blanks, there may be a dual char
Fiis gfrom
ure 123.the ThiperisoRoman
d of brass coin
Augustus,
acter to these type of structures.
who
centuryreigA.nedD. duri
48 mm. ng the first
FiFiggureure 124,
125, top. RomanSamebrass.as FiEtch:
bottom. g ure FeCI
120. 3Etch:
; x66.FeCI 3 ;
x132.
Appendix F
98
Thai bronze container fragment

This is a fragment from the rim of a Thai bronze
container from the site of Ban Don Ta Phet with
an associated radiocarbon date of 1 8 1 0
The alloy is 77.22% copper, 22.7% tin, with
traces of iron and lead.
B.P.
210
Examination of the section reveals alpha

phase copper-rich islands, which are sometimes
jagged and occur in areas with specific orienta
tions as well as random scatter. The background
matrix of these alpha-phase copper islands is dif
ficult to establish. It could be either gamma phase
or a homogeneous beta phase. Banded martensite
is present and this modification is sometimes
called beta'. The acicular martensite is often
labeled as betal '
1 udging by the microstructure and composi
tion, one can say that the object was probably cast
initially and then allowed to cool. It was then
heated to between 520 and 586 C, which corre
sponds to the alpha + gamma region of the phase
diagram. After annealing, the container was
quenched, preserving some of the high-tempera
Figuren boundary
grai 126, top.regi a-phase
ons. Etch: islands,FeCIsome3; x40.clearly outlining
beofFigtheurestaina127,lpreci
ines,bottom.
butpitatesareTheisnot.notveryNote
finethat needl es eappear to
ture beta phases.
Microhardness readings from the two princi
randomar forms.the ori
but occurs ntati
as o n
pal phases gave the following results: alpha phase,
grai
form n boundary and as i n tragranul Thi s
FeCI3of; x280. martensite is called banded martensite. Etch:
257 Hv; gamma or beta grains, 257 Hv.
--------------
<)<J iJP/ ' l I rfi.\ F
Gold necklace bead
The bead consists of eight small gold spheres
joined together. It comes from a necklace in the
collection of the Museo del Oro, Bogota,
FigureCol128.ombiGola.dCalnecklimaaceculbead
from tural
Colombia.
This bead weighs 0.245 g and is 2.4 1 x 2.39 x
't . ...
area. 2.38 mm. It is from the area of Calima-style met
alwork in the zone of the western Cordillera of
Colombia. The necklace bead was faceted on two
opposing sides after j oining.
In the polished state the beads appear to be
,
made of a homogeneous gold-rich alloy. There is
some porosi ty present, mostly as spherical holes,
but there are no inclusions present.
Etching is best carried out with a potassium
cyanide and ammonium persulfate mix, when the
slightly cored dendritic structure can be clearly
seen. There are also a few recrystallized grains in
the vicinity of the joins between the spheres,
showing that the bead was made from eight indi
vidual small gold spheres welded together with
out the use of copper salts to create a granulation Figure 129,showitop.ngUnetched
spheres porosity. vix55.ew of join region between
mixture. The heating of the positioned spheres
had to be carefully controlled to avoid melting the
bead entirely.
Figureng130,dendribottom.
showi Etched inx55.cyanide/persulfate
tic structure.
Analysis by atomic absorption spectropho
tometry showed the bead to be made of a gold
alloy containing 84.3% gold, 1 3.3% silver, and
0.8% copper. It is a typical native gold composi
tion for this area of Colombia.
Gold alloy nail and gold ear spool

The ear spool is made up of sheets of beaten gold gold sheet. The nail did not appear to have a large
that were held to some internal support by means head but instead tapered slowly to a point rather
of fine gold nails that pass through the sheets. like a wedge.
This internal support, which was probably The polished section showed no visible inclu
wooden, has now disappeared, leaving the small sions, little porosity, and no sign of any depletion
nails projecting out on the inside of the sheet. gilding. The section was etched in a diluted aqua
Figurespool131.madeFragment
earFrom i n a ofd-ria Calch alimloay.
gol This form of construction is characteristic of the regia which revealed the grain structure.
mm. pre-Hispanic Colombia. 45

Calima style of working. Large equi-axed grains with prominent twin
A section was cut through the sheet so that a ning can be seen. The twinned grains were
nail could be examined together with the sur slightly deformed by working after the final
rounding sheet. The polished section examined annealing as the twin lines are slightly curved .
showed that the object consisted of three layers of The nail appears to be made of the same gold
Appendix F
100
alloy as the sheet itself. It has been worked rather

more heavily, as the grain size is smaller and there
are some flaw lines resulting from lamination of
the structure during working.
M icrohardness Weighr Diagonal average Hy

1 5 0g 1 5.5 56
2 5 0g 1 6. 5 49
3
4
5
5 0g
5 0g
5 0g
1 5 .0
1 9. 0
1 6. 5
60
37
49
Results 1, 2, and 3 were obtained from the

nail, with the highest reading of 60 obtained from
the nail tip. Results 4 and 5 were taken from rhe
gold sheet and show that the hardness values are
quite low. However, it seems unlikely that the
nail would be able to penetrate the sheet effec
tively and the evidence suggests that the sheets
were pierced after positioning them and before
the nails were applied. Analysis: Au 83.7%, fFiogldureed gol132.d above.
sheet andSectitheonoveral throughl shapea naiofl showi
the naingl. thex60.
widefFigtureohrmati
large133.otwinbottom.
nafternedfigrainGolal nanneal
sdandsheetibent
etched inshowi
aquangregisomea
eu 1 . 5%, Ag 1 2.8%, Fe nd, Pt nd, Sb nd, Ni nd,
As nd, Pb nd, Si 50 ppm.
twi
ng. x 160. n s
Figadeurefrom
blArdi 134. atoplaterigmedi
ht. Tang
e val si andte at Blade section
ngley. Sussex. The section through the blade reveals that a steel
strip was welded to a principally ferritic strip.
Figuretransi135.tiobottom
themartensi n zone right. This is
between Therefore, the variations in structure are due to
through taeWiat dthemanstatten

right side. the change in the rate of cooling and in carbon
content between ferrite grains and tempered mar
structure
ferri te graitons.theEtch:beginintnialn; gx of140.some
tensite. The angular holes evident in the micro
structure correspond to the position of slag
inclusions, many of which have fallen out during
grinding and polishing.
A blade forged from a strip of steel and a strip
of wrought iron was a fairly common method of
manufacture.
Vickers DPN hardness measurements on dif
ferent constituent areas of the blade gave the fol
lowing results: ferritic area in the center, 89-93
Hy; tempered martensite towards the edge, 1 8 5-
294 Hy.
Appendix F
101
Iron knife
The polished and etched section shows that the
entire blade was made from carbon steel
quenched to produce martensite throughout.
Martensite etched in nital is a dark straw color
toward the edges. Slag content is moderately low
with glassy fragments flattened out along the
length of the section. The martensite near the two
surfaces of the blade appears tempered with occa
sional suggestions of troosite. The fact that the
martensite etches darker could be due to a change
in the carbon content near the surface or to tem
pering after quenching. No weld lines are evident
in this section. The carbon content near the mid
dle region of the blade shows some banding, oth
erwise it appears to be very even. atFigArdi
ure n136,gley,top.Sussex.
Blade section from a late medieval site
Figureng137,and bottom.
etchi dark etchiShows
n g transitiomartensi
tempered n betweente towards
light
a cutting edge of the blade. Etch: picral; x280.
FiDomi
guretia138.n whiCoichndates of thefromEmperor A.D. Roman copper alloy coin
81.COS.It YisI from the

DES.VTheI I (RomanMi n t of Rome,
Imonperional
The structure shows a well-formed, recrystallized
grain matrix with straight twin lines and very lit
Coi n
the obverse age 237). i n
is ITMIAP.NCAES.scri p tiDIP.VM.I tle porosiry present. The inclusions present are
VESP.
withP.a head F. DOMI laYureate. AUG.
TheI I P.reverse
not attacked by ferric chloride during etching,
c. , i s
suggesting that they may be sulfide inclusions
TR. COS. I DES. Y P . S . rather than cuprite inclusions, which are exten
jMiavelVinerva
ienwandofadvanci
hol d i
theed etched,
ng,g abrandi
n round
twithnpart
shishingeald.
ned,ofand
sively dissolved by ferric chloride solutions. The
inclusions are flattened out along the length of
recrystal
thecoinmishowi l i z
dsectingonascrackgrai n s wi through the
the coin and are small-smaller than the grain
size, which is about ASTM 6. There is no evi A deep crack penetrates the midsection of the
that a bl a ck l i n e. Note dence of any second phase. X-ray fluorescence
phased.the Etch: structure FeCI 3appears

; x39. single
coin. This crack does not appear to have been
analysis carried out on the coin itself showed that formed as a result of corrosion of the coin, but
only minor alloying constituents occur, with cop rather as a manufacturing fault. Midsection
per being the only major constituent; tin, zinc, cracking is often associated with over-working at
and antimony were detected in small amounts. some stage during manufacture. This can pro
This evidence fits the metallographic evidence duce cracks in the worked alloy which, although
that the alloy is single-phased. the grains are recrystallized upon annealing, are
not removed by subsequent working and
annealing.
Appendix F
1 02
Figuresite139.of InRoman
theScotl chtuthi lir, onPerthshi
nail from
re, Roman iron nail
and. 140 mm. At the Roman Agricolan fortress built at Inch

tuthil in Perthshire, an enormous mound of iron
7
Figureng140.smalPartl ferrioftthee grainainlsshank
showi wingth nails was uncovered. The outer crust of the nails
elaloongngated sl a g stri n gers passi had corroded and protected the interior of the
ag strithen(ggersllaessyngthinmatri
thiofsthexnaiandlshank.
arewustitwoThete,
mound from extensive corrosion. The cache of
slphased nails, numbering hundreds of thousands, dated
the abandonment of the settlement by the Roman
FeO).
structure.This Etch:
is a typinitcalal; wrought x90. i ron army to A.D. 1 00 80.
The section taken from the nail is a longitudi
nal cut through the head of the nail shank. The
shank and head appear to have been made in one
piece by forging from bloomery iron. A few slag
stringers can be followed from the section
through the head as they curve down along the
length of the nail. These slag inclusions do not can be seen under polarized light to be red-brown
recrystallize when the iron bloom is heated by the and are typical features of ligh t1y corroded iron
blacksmith to forge the nail and, as a result, they work.
become elongated into stringers upon heavy There is a slightly corroded area near the head
working. This can be seen in several areas in the of the nail where iron oxides outline some parts of
polished section. Toward the center of the nail the grain boundaries of the wrought iron. No fur
shank there is a large, elongated slag inclusion ther features are visible in the unetched condition.
which at a magnification of x 1 00 can be seen to The nail was etched in nital for 5- 1 0 seconds
be composed of two phases. There is a glassy and this revealed a primarily ferritic grain struc
dark-grey phase with a fine dispersion of globular ture with no indication of carbon content. The
dendritic wilstite precipitates (FeO) . This kind of raw material varies somewhat in carbon content,
two-phase slag inclusion is a common feature of because another nail from the same site showed
ancient bloomery iron, although high-quality some pearlitic regions. The grain size in the shank
products may show very litrie evidence of slag of the nail is slightly larger (ASTM 5-6) com
content. The veined, grey areas intruding into the pared to the heavier worked area of the nail head
nail surface are scale and corrosion products that (ASTM 6-7) .
Native copper
This sample is cut from a dendritic mass of native In the etched condition (etch in alcoholic
copper. In its polished condition, there are few FeCI3), large grains can be seen with some very
inclusions present in the copper mass which long twin lines that are quite clearly curved. In
appears to be broken up into a number of large some parts of the specimen, strain lines are evi
segments. The cracks between the different seg
ments are filled with cuprite and green-colored
dent, but there are other features to be seen as
well. Long-zoned lines appear to mark the posi
Figure Lakes
Great 141. Natiregivoencopper
i n from the
North
copper corrosion products. The outer surface of
the cut sample also shows the ingress of corrosion
tion of impurities or growth spirals within the
cross section of the dendritic arms.
America. 42 mm. with patchy conversion to cuprite.
Appendix F
103
Figure 142,thetopdendriright.te Cross

through arm sectioinn
etched
andwiFeCIthiunusual
), x20, showi ng largefeatures
structural
n the grains.
grain size
viFiunusual
egwureof143,Fifeatures
guretop138farwiatrithigxht.n165theAshowi
closerng
grainess.
and well-defined grain boundari
Fimagnigurefic144,atiolnoviwerewriofght.FigAurehig138h at
x500
preci pshowi
i t ates noccurri
g a fi nentraig wintofhinsmall
banded
arms that regimayonsbeofdeposi
the dendri t i o te
nal
features
growth occurring asinatheresulnatit ofve
phenomena
copper.
Head of a toggle pin

This fragment is the head of a toggle pin, proba
bly dating from the Late Bronze Age to the Early
Iron Age period. The microstructure of the toggle
pin head can be clearly seen after etching in ferric
chloride for 3-5 seconds. The micrograph at x50
magnification (Fig. 1 46) shows that the structure
is of cored dendrites with considerable interden
FigureIran.145,20above.
from mm. Toggle pin head
dritic porosity, which appears in the photomicro
graph as black zones between the dendrite arms.
Figure 146, top right. Etch: FeCI ) ;

x50.
The structure is heavily cored, as can be seen from
the photomicrograph at x l 00.
The eutectoid infill that also occupies the
Figure); x147,I 00.bottom right. Etch:
FeCI spaces between the dendrite arms has a different
character from that which can be seen, for exam
ple, in Figures 9 5-96. Because of the range of
composition and of the different rates of cooling,
the extent of coring and the appearance of the
eutectoid in tin bronzes can be quite variable.
Appendix F 104
Javanese iron blade
This blade fragment from Java is thought to date grains that show subgrain strucrure. The grains
from about 1 0- 1 2th century A.D. It is potentially
of interest since very few Javanese objects of this
themselves are quite large (ASTM 4) and they
etch a light straw color in nital. The subgrains
date have been examined. It is thought that nickel appear as occasionally equi-axed small areas out
occurs in some of these products as an additional lined by fine dark lines that may be, in some cases,
alloying constiruent in addition to carbon. fine precipitates (not resolved at x l 000) . At high
A section taken through the complete length magnification some precipitates can be seen at the
of the blade fragment reveals quite a complex grain boundaries in this region. The carbon con
structure. There are a number of different fea tent is greater in one of the piled strips and the
rures that should be described. Overall the frag amount of pearlite is greater and the grain size
menr has a piled structure made from a number smaller (ASTM 8). Towards the butt end of the
of differenr components forged together. A draw blade the iron strip has clearly been folded over.
ing of some of the fearures is illustrated in Figure There is a middle piece also, which occurs clearly
149. in the midsection region of this sample, and joins
Parts of the structure show flattened ferri te with one of the hammered over pieces toward the
grains, which is rather uncommon. This may cutting edge.
have arisen from cold-working of the iron at some The area that contains a large scatter of angular
stage during manufacture. There is some pearlite slag inclusions passes along the length of the sec
present at the ferrite grain boundaries as well as a tion. The slag is a glassy-phase material which here
few small slag inclusions. This region also displays appears homogeneous, and it has been broken up
a banded structure. The bands are free from pearl into small angular remnants upon working.
ite and have only occasional grain boundary pre There is no indication that this blade was
cipitates crossing the bands perpendicular to the quenched. The carbon content is well below the
length. This type of banding is generally associ eutectoid composition, and in some areas would
ated with other alloying constiruents besides car not have been sufficienrly high to produce much
bon, such as nickel, arsenic, or phosphorus. change in properties upon quenching.
Toward the other side of the blade there are some The etching has revealed in some grains the
Fiirongurebla148.de. IFragment
"ex veining" substructure that arises when the
10 mm. ofJavanese
nital attacks subgrain boundaries as well as grain
boundaries (Samuels 1 980). It is thought that this
develops as a result of etch pitting at the walls of
Figureon 149.of i ronI l ustrati

secti blade.on of cross
the dislocations at the subgrain boundaries. Both
the development of subgrain structure and the
ease with which the etch pits develop is depen
some loossn through

flattened ferrite grains corrosi
dent on the physical and thermal history of the
sword. It can arise from hot-working or from
quench-ageing effects due to the emergence of
- E
carbide growth and etch pitting in ferrites due to
(i
corroded tip
heating at low temperatures (e.g., 50- 1 50 C will
suffice).
strip
carburi zed surface
areas near slangul
ag inaclr usions
105
Appendix F
Figure 150,wirithght.carburi
structure Part zofedthesurface,
angulns.arEtch:
grai slag reginitalo;n,x70.and ferrite
Fingclureusio151,
isubgrai wifarth risome
nsn structure ght. Angul
pearl atre and
i
passithatdark
asferriveitenedgrailinns.esVery can be seenthe
ng through
regiwhionsch
areare mostl
angulayrglslaassyg fragments
inclusions. Etch: nisitnalgl;ex280. -phased slag
Bronze axe fragment

This fragment is thought to be a part of a
Luristan-sryle ceremonial bronze axe dating to
about 8- 1 0th century B.C., from Iran, composed
of 87. 1 % copper and 7.2% tin, with no other ele
ments detected by X-ray fluorescence analysis.
FigureIran.152.90Bronze
from mm. axe fragment
The sample is taken from the cut end of the trian
gular fin which was probably integral with the
blade. The triangular plate is carefully made and
has smooth surfaces with a flange around the cir
cumference on both sides of the plate. The sample
removed for examination is a transverse section
Figurety153,andabove.
porosi recrystal Sliglht'izedcorigraingnsviswiibtleh together
wel l - wioped
devel th
through part of the broken end of one of the pro
jections of the plate. Thitwishapensnedevianddcrystal s. Notethat
encelightlsuggests thatthetheaxetwinwaslinesroughl
ythefinisfihednal fabri
by worki nng process.
are ystraicastght.to
and annealEtch:i ng, with
anneal i n g bei
FeCI 3 ; x62 (see Plate 19). n g c ati o
Figure 154.graiWeln lstructure,

hexagonal -developedusually Laboratory cast 60:40 brass
outl
phase ined(thewicopper-ri
th a precicphitatiwhiotnerof u This 60% copper, 40% zinc alloy is etched with
asorimateri
resulal)otshowi
ofns indithefngevari
rentbrass:agrai
tionnin color
FeCl3 in which case the phase region appears
aentati darker or black. Note the well-formed Widman
Zn, u brass. Etch: FeCI603Cu,; x31.40

+P ducing a a
statten precipitation of within the grains pro
precipitates only on certain crystal
planes. See page 20 for a brief discussion of the
Widmanstatten precipitation.
Appendix F
106
Figure 155. 60 Cu40brassZn brass.

Two-phased aa+ showing Note that the fundamental difference
detai l
formati of the Wi d manstatten between the Widmanstatten and martensitic
crystalso. nEtch:of FeCIplates3; xwi00.thin the

transformation is that the Widmanstatten
I
into twoone one
involves the decomposition of solid phase
phases while the marrensitic transforma
tion involves the rapid cooling of one phase pro
ducing metastable phase on cooling.
Gilded silver earring

The complete earring, drawn in Figure 1 56 is one tron probe yielded 92.9% silver, 2.9% chlorine,
of a pair from the site of Tell Farah in Jordan and 1 .47% copper, and 0.7% gold.
is dated to the Middle Bronze Age (first half of the
second millennium B.C.) They were both made
from gilded silver, the second example being in a
fragmentary condition from which a sample
could be taken across the broken end by careful
siFilgvureer earri 156,nabove.

g fromDrawi Jordan.ng22ofgimm.lded
sawing with a fine jeweller's saw. Both objects
were decorated with granulated gold spheres
golFijoginured ifoin the157, topnriggwiht.thPartoverlofathepped attached to the gilded surface. The terminals of
l coveri the earrings end in loops, which are secured with
diouter gold foil. The foi l twisted gold wires. Before conservation, both
hassilverbeenbeneath. ffusiNote
on-bonded to
thatwitheth few the
silver
objects were covered in dark grey corrosion of a
rod i s heavi l y corroded waxy consistency. X-ray diffraction analysis .,[ .

remaining sound
Unetched; x21. metal regions.
showed that the main constituent of this corro
sion was silver chloride. Conservation work was
.. .,,r/ It'fl\;;,,. ".
'
carried out both chemically and mechanically
Figuren boundari
grai 158, midedls einritheght. siHexagonal
lveron,rod.and using 1 5% ammonium thiosulfate and hand
r
The dark
the graiarennotboundari areas are corrosi
es lthat canThisbeis a
tools. The corrosion products had erupted
through the gilding in several places and had
seen
consequence strai g ht i n es.
of thepastage3,500of theyears,
forced the gilding outwards. Characteristic fea
tures of leaf gilding were observed, in particular
sicopper
lver. Over the
rodhasandpreci pgrai
itatedn boundari
from thees the overlapping and corrugating of the thick
sihavelvermoved the gold foil.

",-'''_''IIII a
acix200.dified potassias aumresuldicthromate; . Etch: The metallographic sample, revealed a par
tially corroded silver substrate covered with a
thick layer of gold. The gilding had become
,.''..,.
Figuren boundari
grai 159, bottom e s as riagresul
ht. "Wit ofggly" detached from several corroded areas, but in some
areas a good interface between the gilding and the
dicopper
scontifrom nuoustheprecisilvperitatialolony.ofEtch: silver could be seen. This interface is several
microns thick and suggests that a deliberate diffu
acix500.dified potassium dichromate; sion bond was created between the applied leaf
gilding and the silver core. Analysis with the elec-
107
Appmdix F
Fibrassguremedal
160, toplionrifrom
ght. Fragment
the La of a Fragment of a brass medallion
Perouse,
Australwhiia inch1726.
ofx20. sank Unetched;
off the coast This brass has major constituents of copper and
zinc, with minor amounts of tin, lead, iron, and
chromium. The first micrograph, unetched at
FiFeClgure3; x75.
161, bottom right. Etch: x20 magnification shows the remarkable depth of
corrosive penetration into the brass. Corrosion
has outlined the dendritic forms of the cast brass
medallion which has been lightly etched with fer
ric chloride. Nthough loss of both copper and
zinc has occurred here, it should be noted that the
dendritic arms have been preferentially corroded
while the interdendritic areas are in some regions
preferentially preserved. This is evident in the sec
ond photomicrograph at x75 magnification and
suggests that the dendritic arms are rich in zinc
compared with the interdendritic fill, since nor
mally zinc is lost preferen tially in sea-water burial
such as this shipwreck site (see Plate 4).
Fragment of a small Simi ear ornament

These ear ornaments were cast as pairs by the lost
.wax process and represent very skillful "false-fili
gree" wire work. The whole ornament is modeled
in wax in one operation and then cast.
Figure 162.Pre-Hi
fragment. Sinu earspaniornament
c Colombia.
Figureng163.extensi
Unetched, lowomagni ficatigolond-copper
view at x20alloy Fienrigurechment164. Enlin golargedd atvitheew surf
at xaIces00 showi
as welnl gasthethelight
showi
wihasrebeen
secticast v e corrosi
on. Theby loevist-wax n to
dencewishowsthe that the ornament selresulectit vofe cori
retenting oofn theof some areas ofaltheloydendri tesng.as a
gol d -copper on casti
dendritic structure of the alloy is clearly evidnent.g. The
t hout any worki The grey matrix is principally cuprite.
Appendix F 108
miatiFigorurerorn. etched
165.
fragmentSectioatn x35of a magni Romanfic
inngalthecoholpreciic ferripitatic on
Roman mirror fragment
The early examples of Roman mirrors made in
chlof loargerideleshowi Europe, in a specialized production center in Ger
ofsidthee ofcasttheadmipiglcroture).
rorbul(onesTheatthethegrailebottom
ft-hand
na
many, were often made in a leaded high-tin
bronze which is partially quenched to fragment
boundari e s can
resulatceofwitheth diferrifferent j u st be
etchiseen as
ngIoft isthea
the IX+0 eu tectoid phase. The mirrors date to the
early centuries A.D. and this example is from
surf
very fineshowi c chl o ri d e.
tructure fordespia castte the Roman Canterbury and dates to the 4th century
bronze n g that A.D. It is made in an alloy o f 8% lead, 1 9% tin
gross thesegregati
ulfaests.enough cooltoinogprevent
nofofthetheallleoady wasglob and 73% copper (see Plate 5 ) .
dendri t i c structure from the usual

developi ng.
Figure 166.figurinextne ofpage.RomaRoman

bronze AD. Roman bronze figurine
40-68. This small figurine, about 33 em in height, is

A.D.
Figcurerostructure.
miface 167. right.TheRomaproper bronzesur from the J ulio-Claudian period of
and she is shown wearing a short Amazonian
40-68
lgraph
eft hand of thesidRoma e of thicastis photomi
ng is tocthero tunic. The torso and head were hollow cast in one
piece with the left leg j ust above the knee. The
cast which shows

structure of the thebronze.
annealTheed right arm was attached by casting-on or solder.
grai
sisulofnsindes.siofzelEtch:
eadis laandrgeFeCIcopper
with smaloxil dinescluor The legs and feet were then cast-on. The Roma
was cast in a leaded bronze of 89.8% copper,
3 ; x90. 7. 1 % tin, 2.7% lead, with traces of zinc, iron,

nickel, and silver.
Appendix F
109
There is an unusual feature on the back of

this Roma: a series of hexagonal networklike
structures appear in the metal. A core sample was
taken in this area on the back to try to resolve the
question concerning the nature of the grain struc
ture in this area. The microstructure is shown
here in Figure 1 67. The structure is etched in
alcoholic ferric chloride with the cast surface of
the Roma at the left of the photomicrograph. The
structure of the bronze is essentially that of an
annealed casting. The ex grains appear hexagonal
in shape in many areas of the section with the
8ex ex +
eutectoid preferentially occurring at the grain
boundaries and outlining some of the hexagonal
grains. Small oxide or sulfide inclusions can be
seen scattered through the section along with
some small lead inclusions and porosity. The
absence of a typical dendritic structure suggests
that there may be a microstructural explanation
for the network of hexagons observable on the
surface of the bronze, since the hexagonal
annealed appearance of the section is unusual for
a cast bronze. The microstructure shows that the
grains are not mammiform but are equi-axed.
The coalescence of these hexagonal grains during
solidification could be responsible for the surface
appearance of the bronze.
FigureGenoa
from 168. Renai
datedssance
to silverA.basiD. n
about Renaissance silver basin
1625. 755 mm. This basin is an elaborate repousse work with

many cast additions and soldered components.
It has been finished by chasing, engraving, and
the addition of many components to the worked
sheet of the basin itself. Before the late 1 6th cen
tury, forks were uncommon in Europe and eating
was carried out using the fingers. This bowl was
probably only for show, and many were probably
melted down when they went out of fashion and
turned into silver knives and forks.
The plate is made of an alloy of 94.9% silver,
3.2% copper; small amounts of lead, arsenic, zinc,
tin, and antimony are also present (Scott 1 99 1 ).
Appendix F lIO
The samples for study were removed with a

diamond-tipped core drill, 1 . 5 mm internal dia
meter, after removing some of the components of
the silver basin, so that no damage was visible
from the front of the object when the parts are
reassembled.
It was customary in the Renaissance to start
important projects by preparing a detailed wax or
gesso model, usually full-scale. The silversmith
then carefully copied the model in silver, first
working the parts that needed to be raised. This
repousse working was carried out to enable the
metalsmith to model the location of the cast addi
tions. The cast components were modeled in wax,
Figurea 169.
from repai Partr to ofthea outer
solderradibloabl most probably on the basin itself and then
removed and prepared for casting. When cast and
panel
morphol . Theogysolofdtheer shows
copper-ri a castch and soldered in place. all the surfaces were finished by
siequilver-rilibricuhmphases.phases whiof thech aresi lvernot chasing and engraving exactly as if the entire
basin had been made in one piece.
copper
ndividualbifrom
iremoved nphase
ary system.
composi buttiohave ns Figureon170.through top ritheght.basiPhotomi crograph ofdparr of the
thei r predi c ted secti
potassitheum dicontichromate n
under . etched
parti wi t h aci
anl ystructure if i e d
polarizedofligtheht to
valdendri ues.tThiic morphol
s structureogy ofis typialternate ceral of reveal n uati o n of the grai
many cast si l v er-copper sol d alofsiltvered
er crystal
zone. s Thiacross
s mi therograph
c boundary i l u into athesurface
strates continyuity
thealsi llvoer.ys.sol50%
The overalherel composi
der used i s about tio50% n of
very the overal l mi c rostructure wi t hi n two apparentl
x30. copper. Etch: FeCI); x155.dif erent structural regions of the silver basin.
Fiplguureg from171.themisiddllveerribasight.nOveral . The topl viesurface
w of a core-dri
of the l edn
basi
andibasis uppermost
nature
n . An of
unusual
ithen thisurface-al
s photograph
feature i s t ered
the
andzonesshowsof thethesiextent
surf a ce crack and lver
correspondi ng osurroundi ng zoneareofdueoxitodiztheed metal. The Figure etched
sheet. 172. bottom
i n aci dabove.
i f i e d Viewuofmpart
potassi di c of the silThe
hromate. ver
surf a ce al t erati n zones here grai n structure ofnotthestraisilvgerht andcan have
be seen.a "j iThe grain
toaggl
absorpti
omerati
cupri t e. onnceofsicopper
si l v
owin tdurih theng copperer i s particsuscepti
very les and btheile tor oxioxygen
annealintog. Thimakes oxygen
dation
canEtch:then
boundari
appearance e s are
in places.as conti g saw"
but ntheuousprecizonespitatiatontheofgraicopper
combi n e cupri t e. seen
boundariheree occurs
s. suggesti n g that the basi n had been n
heated
acidified potassium dichromate; x50.
forsubsequent
the castitong iofts manuf
the smalacture. l addiprobabl
tions. x40.y for repairs and
Appendix F
III
Figure 173,is toptypicrialght.of aOveral

structure cast al l,lothey; Circular bracelet from Thailand
theand bracel
j o i n ed etnearhas thebeencenter
cast inregitegralon.ly This is a transverse section cut across a circular
bracelet from Thailand. It is from the site of Ban
Large
aresmalclleeareas y eviofdsometi
arlr zones, extensi
ent togetherve porosiwitthy Chiang and is dated to about 500 B.C. In compo
corrosi o n and, i n teresti mesnglfiyl, eadpatchwith sition, the bracelet is a tin bronze with 89.2%
copper, 5 .4% tin, and 0.6% zinc. The inclusions
ofholcastiw nbetween
lthe obracel g core materi the twoal inregitheons of present in the metal are copper sulfides and when
been prepared et. Theas casti

a fin ngmicorex andhas
e
analyzed one was found to contain 76.5% copper,
0.5% tin, and 1 9 . 1 % sulfur, with silver, lead, and
appears
micoreneralappearsin reflectedage. lThe
assembl ight casti
as a grey nmig n
zinc undetected. The second inclusion studied
contained 7 1 .8% copper, 5.7% lead, and 1 8 .3%
erai ins composi to be pri n ci p al l

tioOnen witorh notwoorgani y cl sulfur with tin, zinc and silver undetected.
debri
areas apparent.
that areofofthedarker coleutectoi smal
or mayd,
Cuprite inclusions also occur and the tin content
can vary up to about 1 0.7%.
benowremnants ex + () Examination in the unetched condition
thicrather
k crustngcorroded. There is also reveals a number of different features. Toward
asurroundi ofthecorrosi o n
surfaces of the some of the shaped edges of the bracelet fine
bracelTheet secti o n.
dendritic structure of the
cross-hatching outlined in corrosion can be seen,
which indicates that there has been some working
bracelet has probably been modified of the bracelet following casting, probably to fin
by heating during manufacture since ish the surface rather than to produce a great
it is not very pronounced, and the change in shape.
coring that remains is subtle.
Unetched; x40. Ficgohol
ure 174, micdchldleoririgdht.e. Some
Structure after etchi ng inin the
alstructure ic ferri cori n g can be seen
astogether
evicupridentte corrosi pseudomorphi
o n
with evic remnants
crust adj
dence for islniptheplaprinesnci(some
a cent to the remai n i n gpally
metaln)g. Some
etchi i n thi s of theandinclmayusiobenscopper
way are notsulafffiedcted e i n cl byusions;
other
metal l irather
c regi odark
ns, greych agai
whi regionnssuggests appearremnants to be corroded of sthe
eutectoi
sampl d phase.
e isdtheregimany Another
copper-col i n teresti n g feature
ored areasblpresent of thiisn the
eutectoi
copper, o ns or as smal l scattered o bs. Thi
nsufficiecunal
imorphi ntreplmelloayedcement
tingwiinththeoftintheori, maygoriinbealgincastpresent
or as
al as aeutectoi
ex + () asaapseudo
result of
d
regi o
corrosi ns. I t i s
on-redeposi more l i k el y to be present resul t of
ix70.
n the corrosi on ofttheion timechanin-rich phase sms thatpreferenti
have resulal yt. ed
Figureng175,a smalbottom
showi l gl o rigeht.(l iHightgh-magni
bul i n col o ficofatioredeposi
r) n view ted
copper
copper isuln afidcorroded
e i n cl u si o exns+(lightregigrey)on, together
() and bronze withmetal
showing strain lines from working. Etch: FeCI3; x 170.
Appendix F
1 12
Roman bronze bowl

The sample was examined carefully in the
unetched condition. Extensive inrergranular cor
rosion has occurred oudining most of the grain
boundaries with cuprite very clearly. Some
srraight lines of cuprite corrosion can be seen
passing occasionally inco a grain inrerior suggest
ing that the metal must have been stressed at
some stage during manufacrure co produce some
slip, alrhough no twin lines are apparenr in the
section before etching. Some of the inclusions Figure. The176.bowl
bowl Sectihason from
a the basetionofofa87.Roman
composi 0 % bronze
copper.
and1 1.5%irontinundetected.
. and 0.9% arsenix I 00.c. with silver. lead. zinc. sulfur
presenr in the metal are of cuprite, often conrinu
ous now with the network of corrosion through
the grain boundaries. There are other regions
where the rypical variegated surface appearance of
lead inclusions occur and these are more concen The section has co be etched for about 1 0- l 2
rrated in the thicker region of the section where seconds i n alcoholic ferric chloride co bring out
they appear CO have segregated. Note also that
there is considerable porosiry as well as some areas
the grain conrrast. The grains are not twinned
which shows that this sample is essentially an
where lead globules may have fallen out as a result annealed casting. Some of the grains show coring
of grinding and polishing. That the alloy in ques where the disrribution of copper and tin in solid
tion here is a leaded tin bronze, can almost cer solution is still unequilibrated. Note that the thin
tainly be deduced from the occasional presence of srrip that appears co be benr back co produce a
some regions of the ex + 8 euteccoid. Where the
euteccoid phase occurs, it is usually surrounded
by islands of corrosion where the copper-rich
uniform edge has multiple srrain lines apparent in
the crystals. A small island of metal grains in this
region oudined by corrosion is also heavily
grains have been attacked. In this example then,
the primary corrosion process is the attack of the
ex ex
grains surrounding the ex + 8 euteccoid region:
srrained. The ex+ 8 euteccoid is much easier co see
in this section in the etched condition, and the
grains have color contrast as a result of differing
the within the euteccoid is also attacked. orienration in the polished section.
If the corrosion crust is carefully examined, The overall structure is a cast one that has
some areas of remaining euteccoid can be clearly been annealed and then partly worked in some
seen within the corrosion surrounded by copper areas co produce the srrain lines visible in some
oxides. This is an inreresting example of the pref regions. The casting has resulred in some segrega
erenrial retenrion of the copper-rich ex
Careful examination of the corrosion layers under
polarized light is also useful in the study of this
phase. tion of the lead componenr, while anneal ing has
not been extensive enough co eliminate all of the
euteccoid.
material since the crust can be resolved inro dif
ferenr layers.
1 13
Appendix F
Figure 177,
etched i n al topoholriigcht.ferriBrassc chlsheet,
c oride Early M edieval brass sheet
andHeavithenly etched
potassisectium odinchromate.
revealof thes the
This fragment of a broken bronze sheet has three
studs pushed through the plate. The sheet is
cored dendri t
brass.i nSmalinterdendri i c structure
l lead glotibulc regies canons.bexSO. English from the Early Medieval Period and has
seen 83.6% copper, 1 5 .7% zinc.

Before etching, the sample was examined in
Figlureized 178,and bottom
talstructure heavi l y right. Recrys
worked graiy n
the polished state which reveals the features of
hammered of the stud probabl

at thisThepoingrait tonattach to
corrosion to be seen in the section. Corrosion of
the bronze stud head can be clearly seen outlining
theheavibrass sheet.
ly strai naddi
ed andtionaldeformed, s are the worked and recrystallized grain structure in
this part of the artifact. Corrosion has selectively
probabl y by
aftotershapeworkithengstud.
and anneal hammeri
i n g cyclnegs removed part of the grains of the metal, advanc
outl i n ed some of the Corrosi

strai n ol inneshasby ing along twin boundaries or slip planes.
After etching in alcoholic ferric chloride for a
dark corroded
through the grai regins. Etch:
ons passi
potassi ng u m few seconds followed by etching in potassium
dichromate, the microstructure can be examined.
dichromate; x 140. It is immediately clear that the sheet brass has
been cast to shape, as is apparent from the undis
torted dendritic structure, which is cored. There
are some depressed areas on the surface of the cast
sheet that show the presence of strain lines from
some surface working of the casting. The stud, on hammering to attach the cast plate to a backing.
the other hand, has been extensively worked to The stud appears slightly bent when exam
shape and has a completely recrystallized grain ined by eye and this may have been caused by
structure in which most of the twinned crystals hammering into place, although the cast plate
have straight twin lines indicating that a final would probably have had the holes for the studs
annealing operation overall was the last stage in cast in situ. Hammering through such a thickness
manufacture. However, just past the area of the of metal could not have been accomplished with
cast metal sheet, there is a zone of the stud that this stud, and there is no indication of deforma
shows a concentration of slip lines that could only tion to the cast structure in the vicinity of the hole
have resulted from severe strain of the bronze stud which would have occurred had the hole been
in this particular region. This is perhaps due to drilled for the insertion of the stud.
Appendix F
l f4
Fimigcurerostructure 179. Part showi of thenarrowhead'

g a typi c al s Romano-Greek iron arrowhead
wrought
(dark i n irons photomi
thi with slacgrograph)stringers This small iron arrowhead is square in cross sec
tion and tapers to a point. It is Romano-G reek of
rises, almost certainly due to deli berare carburiza
passing The
arrow. alonggraithen silezngth e of of theferrite
the about the 2nd century A.D. and is made of
tion here, since there is no carbon conrenr to be
seen elsewhere in the seerion. The ferrire begins to
piikis envaridceofofablvariebloandaomery
it is typi ctoal forfinda this wrought iron. assume Widmanstarren characreristics and pearl
tiomaterii r on
n in apparentl ynital;
In the polished state the wrought iron shows
a scatter of slag inclusions, some of which are
ire makes up the infill showing thar a sreel edge
has been produced here. The depth of pencrra
homogeneous
x75. a l . Etch: elongated across the width of this section while rion of carbon is quire limired, as might be
others are rounded and globular. All look like expecred for a case-carbu rized sreel.
wiistite in a glassy matrix. The ingress of some
iron oxides as corrosion products can also be seen
on the surfaces of the section.
After etching in nital for about 1 0- 1 5 sec
onds, the ferritic grain structure can be seen. The
ferrite would technically be described as massed
ferrite grains and, if properly etched, the subgrain
structure can be seen within some of the ferrite.
The grain size in many areas of the arrowhead
approximates to about ASTM 8. Toward one
surface of the arrowhead, the carbon content
Figure 180,
corrosi o n top rigthrough
pattern ht. Unusualthe Byzantine leaf-shaped blade
bronze blisoladeatioresuln oftismal

gradual ng inl grai
the n The secrion from rhis small Byzanrine leaf-shaped
blade is raken across parr of rhe edge of rhe blade.
remnants
The i n gress in ofa matri x ofoncupri
corrosi i s al toe.
s Ir is made in a low-rin bronze wirh abour 92%
severe
ade areandonretai
blcorrosi bothnedsurfaces
i n a thi ofck the copper, 7% tin.
There is very lirrle metal remaining in this
crust. Unetched; x70. sample, which has mosrly been convened to
Figure 181,
etched vi e w, bottom
i n whi crihgsome
ht. Heavily cuprite. The meral thar does remain shows rarher
fine disseminarion of cortosion ar rhe surface,
assurface scratchesgraiarens andvisicorrosi

ble as welonl suggesring rhar rhe grain strucrure is quire fine.
crust,the bronze
showin nlignestwijunstnedevigraident.ns wiTheth
After erching wirh alcoholic ferric chloride,
rhe grain strucrure can be seen, in faer, to be very
some strai
toishadi ngngi nfrom
the metal licgarea is due small suggesring that rhe alloy used to made the
cori
ngot,nstig landnotanneal the ori i n
entirelinyg,removedal cast by
blade has been well-worked and annealed in a
number of cycles to shape the blade. Many
worki
grai and the rwinned crystals are visible as well as exrensive
slEtch:ightlnsyFeCI
conti nue across
different
) ; x 160.composi areastion.of strain lines throughour rhe grains. There are some
blue-grey inclusions in rhe metal that may be
small sulfide inclusions hammered out along rhe
lengrh of the secrion.
115
Appendix F
Figtheure corroded
ofdarker 182, top riblght.adeOveral showi lnvig ew Medieval iron knife
cutti n g etchi
ti p ng regitheon carbon
where toward This iron knife blade is from Medieval Britain
and is mostly wrought iron rather than steel. The
content
corrosi oins greater.
products, Outermostl areas
y i r on are sample taken is across the cutting edge.
oxides. Etch: nital; x30. In the polished state the heavily elongated slag
stringers can be seen passing along the length of
Fiwelgured where
183, midifderent
dle rigpiht.ecesVieofw iofrona the section. Corrosion of the surfaces is also
have
carbon beencontent
joinedi ntogether.
the upper Theand apparent: the structure of the corrosion here does
not reveal any pseudomorphic preservation of the
lcenter
ower zones tri a is agreater
ngul r regi o nwhiis jleustthe structure of the iron.
After etching in nital, the comparatively large
wrought
stringers.irEtch: on winithtalsome; x70.slag size of the original austenitic grains can be seen
toward both long surfaces of the section, where
Figure 184,steelbottom
carbon area of ritheght.blaLowde with decomposition of the austenite has occurred
partitael Wianddmanstatten
ferri pearl i t e. Etch: structure
ni t al ; of upon cooling resulting in grain boundary ferrite
with an infill offerrite and pearlite. In some areas
x120. the beginnings of a Widmanstatten structure can

be seen in the ferrite, but this is not very pro
nounced which means that the blade has been
cooled fairly slowly from the austenitic region and
has not been quenched, at least not in this part of
the structure. The low-carbon steel edges gradu
ally grade into a ferritic grain structure.
Another steel region with low carbon content
appears about midway through this section which
suggests that some welding of different carbon
content pieces may have been used to fabricate
the blade.
Set of panpipes
This is a fragment of tumbaga alloy from a set of passing along the length of the curved section
panpipes from the Department of Narifio, which are areas of loss due to some segregation
Colombia, dating to about the 8- 1 0th century passing over from the cast ingot into the worked
A.D. Found in the municipio o f P upiales. The
analyses of this sample gave 2 5 .9% gold, 62.4%
sheet of the panpipes. This segregation from cast
ing has resulted in unequal distribution of the
copper, 4.0% silver, and 0.0 1 % platinum. gold and copper of the alloy, with the conse
The structure has become quite corroded as a quence that the copper-rich segments of the
result of burial and the fact that it is a tumbaga worked sheet are preferentially corroded. Apart
alloy (a South American gold-copper alloy) that from this gross removal, there is also corrosion
is quite debased. There are some dark striations along twin bands, slip lines, grain boundaries,
Appendix F
116
Fiingcyani
ure 185.
d Thi s fsecti
e/persul ate. oThen is etched and through some of the grains themselves, isolat
depltopetioofn githeldedphotomi
theThe surfacecappears
rograph. at ing small patches of residual metal. Note that in
some areas there is very good pseudomorphic
copper lamelallolayr structure

i n teri o r i s icreated
n the golbyd replacement of the original grain structure with
diworked
f erentiandal corrosi
anneal oend ofsheet.the Some cuprite, especially along some twin lines. Corro
sion has already outlined most of the features of
twidn alcrystal
golwas s cannbeg thatseenanneal
ltheoy,finalshowi in theing this gold-copper alloy, and there is little point in
attempting to etch the sample. The grain struc
x65. stage in manufacture.

ture can be seen to be worked and annealed with
recrystallized grains and predominantly straight
twin lines. Careful examination of the surface
cuprite layers reveals a thin line embedded in the
corrosion which is more golden in color than the
alloy itself and which is, in fact, the remnants of
the depletion gilded layer on this tumbaga alloy.
The depletion gilded layer here is deceptively
thin and could easily be mistaken for some other
form of gilding if the alloy itself did not contain
gold, and the technology of the region was not
understood.
Figureof 186.
part the Photomi
bl a de edge, crograph
showi nofg a Byzantine dagger blade
low-carbon
statten si d e steelateswiandth sawteeth
pl Widmanin a This is a fragment of a Byzantine iron dagger
blade, with the section taken across the cutting
The edge of the blade, the detail of which is
ferri4%tecarbon.
0.xIOO. and pearlEtch:iteVisteell ela'ofs reagent;
about edge of the blade.
still preserved in corrosion, can be seen to have
the same structure as the carbon-rich zone in
In the unetched condition, the sample section which the Widmanstatten ferrite and pearlite
is quite corroded, wi th thick crusts of iron oxides appears to continue down into the edge, showing
evident. There is a fine scatter of glassy slag inclu that the blade had not been quenched, but had
sions, slightly elongated, toward the center of the been made from a low-carbon steel.
blade section and some finer slag stringers more
heavily elongated along part of the length of the
blade.
After etching in nital for about 1 0 seconds,
very little relief could be seen and instead, Ville
la's reagent was used for about eight seconds. This
revealed that the blade has been made from a steel
of variable carbon content. One side is predomi
nantly rich in carbon with Widmanstatten side
plates and sawteeth visible. The carbon content in
this region must be of the order ofO.4%. In most
other regions the structure is that of blocky fer
ritic grains with some fairly uniform pearlite
infill.
Appendix F
111
Fiegwureof187,the bottom
vistructure coi n , showi left.nOveral
g a cast l Roman coin of Victoren uA.D.s
recrystal l i wiedthgraisuperi
z n mposed
structure
This is a debased silver coin of the Roman
Emperor Victorenus, from 268-270. In
Here there are some recrystallized and twinned
grains superimposed on the as-cast structure
suiiFeCI
nditcablatiensig zthate andthethenflan was castEtch:to a composition the coin is about 96. 1 % copper, where some limited working of the coin has
3; x30. struck. 2.5% silver. occurred.

The corrosion products were examined under This type of partially recrystallized structure is
Figure 188,ofbottom
structure the coi ringiht.s clThe
e arl ygrain reflected polarized light. Below the immediate
surface, a very crystalline mass of green corrosion
very suggestive of hot-working of the cast coin
flan. There is some silver content to the alloy, but
shown
The in this sarephotomi
crystal l i g htl y ctwirograph.
ngnedand products are to be seen and there are some blue the amount of the silver-rich phase, which can be
showi n g
annealbeening carri that some
(in thieds case worki
hot-workin ng)
crystals also, and adjacent to that, some bright red
cuprite layers together with corrosion products
seen elongated along the length of the coin, is not
very great.
hasparti csleares present out.
between The l i g ht
theles.
passing into corroded metal. Passing along the section one sees the heavily
grai
Vari n si l v er-ri c h parti c There are deep blue azurite crystals on the worked grain structure; again the form of the def
n thea3ti; orioxn145.gininshadi
al castngstructure.
is due to coriEtch:ng surface of this coin, while in the microstructure inition of these grains against the slightly cored
iFeCI there are thin zones of grey corrosion which

appear to be formed around some of the grain
background suggests hot-working to shape. Note
the flow in the grain structure of the coin towards
boundaries. parts of the design which are less heavily worked
After etching in alcoholic ferric chloride for by the die. Strain lines also occur in this region.
about 1 0 seconds, the grain structure can be seen. Passing along to the ocher end of the section,
Parts of the structure of the coin betray an almost there is a very uniform degree of grain size appar
cast structure towards one end of the coin flan ent, with twinned crystals in which the twin lines
where it has not been effectively deformed on are straight.
working: the punch has not touched this region.
Appendix F
1 18
Figtheure cast
ofshowi 189, itopron rimight.crostructure,
Overall view Grey cast iron
flferriakes.te.nLigEtch:
gdihtstriareas
butioaren ofmostl
graphiy te This grey cast iron of the early 20th century con
tains about 4% carbon and a little phosphorus.
nital; x3S. Before etching, the outlines of some of the
theiFingfiurel graphi
190,tebottom right.pearlVieitwic of thick graphite flakes can be seen at low power,
fl a kes and while at higher power the coarse nature of the
wipearlth. itheThe whiteteareas associte.atedThe structure is apparent. After etching in nital for
graphi
tetheis mostl are ferri
y darkng grey here
about 8 seconds, the high carbon content of this
due
ferri to fi n e spaci of the cast iron can be seen, since the whole of the infill
x130.te and cementite. Etch: nital;

surrounding the graphite flakes is made up of
pearlite of different spacings. Some white,
unetched regions in this cast iron are of the ter
nary eutectic, steadite. This is a common constit
uent of many cast irons because of the
phosphorus content.
Fistructure
gure 191,oftopthisriigron-carbon ht. The castalloy Grey cast iron
canrevealbeeseen d by ietchi
n someng dendri
i n ni t tiandc areas
al
This is a grey cast iron, circa 1 920, with about 3%
carbon and 0.2% phosphorus.
picral. Grey areas are fine pearlite.
x40. In the polished state, the fine graphite flakes
can be seen in this fairly typical grey cast iron,
flFiinagfikesurel ofin192,
apearlferribottommatrirignht.xinwigGraphi
h an te
together with small inclusions that are probably
tite econtai tsome sulfides. In some areas, clear rosettelike regions of
steadi
picral;txe 130. patches. Etch: nital and growth of the graphite flakes can be seen, together
with some zones in which thicker flakes have been
deposited. After etching in nital for about 8- 1 0
seconds, the structure can be seen to consist of
small graphite flakes in a ferritic surround with
fine pearlite accounting for the remainder of the
structure. These are the typical constituents of
many modern and historical cast irons.
Appendix F
1 19
Figure 193,oftopwhiriteght.castOveral
structure i r on l Wh ite cast iron
showi
smal l ngobullongarcementi
gl regi o nstofe lapearl
ths andite. This white cast iron dates to the early 20th century
and has about 4% carbon and 2% phosphorus.
Etch: picral; x40. Before etching, some structural detail can be
Figure 194,in Murakami

etched bottom ri'sgreagent
ht. Cast andiron seen in the form of slightly whiter and harder
needlelike growths in a more cream-colored
picral. Thete, dark

cementi solid grey
whitezones
areasareare matrix. Note that there are several intergranular
cracks that affect this sample, as well as a region of
pearl
metal itliec wiinclthusioccasi
o ns onalthenonfinely
and porosity on one side of the ingot.
structured
spots are whittee iareas
ferri n a whi witethmatri
darkx After etching in picral, the structure can be
seen to consist of cementite laths with a fine infill
ofx160.iron carbide and iron phosphide. of pearlite some of which can be resolved under
the microscope. The remaining material between
the cementite laths and the pearlite is the ternaty
eutectic, steadite. Here it tends to be present as
fine particles of ferrite, sometimes showing a her
ring-bone effect set in a white matrix of iron car
bide and iron phosphide.
Using alkaline sodium picrate etch or picral
wilI darken the carbide, although it should be
used hot, while Murakami's reagent can be used
for examination of the iron phosphide in these
cast irons.
Tin ingot from Cornwall

Many tin ingots have been recovered from marine
excavations off the coast of Cornwall, England.
This smalI tin ingot is heavily corroded and frag
mentary with little metallic structure remaining.
The components are now mostly the tin oxides
cassiterite, romarchite, and hydroromarchite.
The first of these is Sn02 while the other minerals
Figure 195,l. 85above.

Cornwal mm. Tin ingot from
are SnO and hydrated SnO respectively.
andtiFingureincorroded
196, rigfragment
ht. Heavilyfromveintheed
gots therein whianychclnoearmetalpseudo
remains,
nor
morphi i c retentiofontheofithengot.oriTheginal
cast
shape structure
ofy inthecorrosi
ingotoisn preserved
enti
Unetched; x35. products.
r el
APPENDIX G PHASE DIAGRAMS
The following phase diagrams have been selected ternary mixtures that may occur in ancient
as being the most useful for investigations into metals and are given here because of their use
ancient metals. Many of the figures drawn earlier fulness as reference material. For further details
in the text are schematic representations of the concerning phase diagrams the reader is
complete phase diagrams included here. In most referred to the books by Cottrell ( 1 975), Lord
cases the different regions of each diagram have ( 1 949), West ( 1 982), and Bailey ( 1 960) . Since
which the phase region concerned is usually

known. Some ternary diagrams are given

been labeled with the appropriate Greek letter by the phase in ancient bronzes is not present
below about 28% in tin, some different ver
sions of the copper-tin diagram are included to
although discussion of their application has not represent the variable limits of a solid solution
been dealt with in the text. They have a direct in practical terms, such as under normal cast
relationship to some of the binary phases and ing conditions or if well annealed.
Fiimgpact
ure 197.
val u Tensi
e, and lehardness
propertiofes, 1 20 ,------,--- 300
wrought copper-tin alloys.

1 00 f------+---+--f---,f--1 250
80 200
OJ..,s
Nbo.:LuEE 60 Zc:c-3 1 50
40 1 00
20 -------+--f--+_---- 50
o o _________!L___=r _
5 10
Tin Percent
15 20 25
0
Appendix G
122
Figure 1 98. Copper-tin system. C ,-----,-----,-----,------,-----,-----,-----,-----,,-----,-----,

1000
11-\---.---- --+---------+ ----I_--_ --+_----+_----+_----_+_----+----_1
900
\a+ L
---------1------r-----T-----+-----+------+------r----
1__,,
800 -- I "'-13 .......

.5
700 --_+-11_+4r
79Sh2
a+
s. ------_r----_r------_r--
+
-- --d_----r_--_+--------r_--
64
(a)
600 ---i-- ,,
a rr Y
V 'L1I
t_
_ 0 II
tjlHt----!_----t-- ..--
.. t_ ----I_--_I
I
500 ----+_r-
.8
)
'20' V
....+--...&.1-I., E+L
s +_--'Y+. - - +-----+---------1------r-
a+8
9.
, ! ...... -+----
,
400 l-I ___/-t-tII __+-__ 8 --- ,=======s1
_' / 4
l ===t==ls='=t==== 92
.4
3 50 '
300 ! 1 1 .0
a+E E"
E + T]
T] .,.,
T] + L
1 .968
2
\
227 '
200 ---r----t_--_t--==== == nn '
=+T] + +=
I 189' T]'..... 10, '
E + T]' 60. 3 '
Sn
(Sn) __
Cu 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Sn
Weight Percent Tin
Appendix G
123
tiFicondi
ngurediatgram
1 99.
ions.
Part
underofdithef erent
copper
1 1 00 I I 00 ,---,----- -,----- -,----- I 1 00 ,-
1000 I OOO 000
I r-;\-
- -tT-'\----------1
900 \\ a L L a, L \ .'\ 900 4_-----
800 1\ 1\ 0 798
, f3 ..r.. y+--yy,L+ L r--\-.-\\ ....!\
800
II-I +_a___'_+--.!f3=-H- r+hI--R-L"'FVYy-/+L 79.;;..;.8 '
-\-4-;.
__. -'--f+-fi+ ---1
700 700
f3 f
600 oJ ,0 IT
a a a y+V84li1;,+ a+8 .0.01I -"""";. aa++y8-'&y+V8" 1;,+T
" al 600 en:0 If
Y520 5 2!)'
500 sOO I----
-+
400 J I 8 +
/ 350'
-- .-5::_:J Ii.I c:::J ---HH-
400 400
300 /I a+ -- 8 + 300
f-- jf-
+-
I -I f- -- -- 300
-- -
- -f--- }
-f-+ +_-I-I
__
200 200 +_1-----+-
100
1 00 L-
!
__L-__L-__llJ_ L-__-'--__-'--__L-.L-L-----1l 1 00
10 20 30 Sn% 10 20 30 Sn% 10 20 30 Sn%
Full Equilibrium Annealed Usual Casting Conditions
Appendix G
124
Figure 200. Copper-arsenic system. C \\: 5.

1000
\ \1\ L
900
800
\n L 828
/,
\6.77 "'\ Il n
700
"'
2 1 .0
600
a 11
0 .... y
+
6 - - --
50. 1
-- AsatS 03C
blimes
500
a+
4.00
11 + X 3 5
9
7.8 325 or
+ _ 25
300
11 XI (As) __
200
Cu 10
+0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 As
Weight Percent Arsenic

Appendix G
125
Figure 20 I. Copper-lead binary

system. C
...."'-- l
1 000
Cu + l 1.,. 701 r-- ,
900
36. (l) a + l 955" 87.'
800 \\
700
Cu + a(l)
600
500
400
300
_ (Cu) Cu + Pb
326"
j
27.502
99.9
(Pb) __
Cu 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Pb
Weight Percent Arsenic

Appendix G
126
Figure 202. Copper-iron binary

system.
DC
L 148 '
1 500
--- ..:.:l. .t'

-- II 1394'
V'f
V
1 400
I ,
I
1 300
liquid s lid
+Y '\\ Y - Fe
1 200
I
. 4.1084.0 ' 1095'
I
1 1 00
1 000
,..(E) I\
\\ 912'
solid olid
900
836'
E+ Y \)
\L',/,
800
solid olid a
E+ - Fe -Pf
Cu 10 20 30 40 so 60
Weight Percent Iron

70 80 90
,
Fe
,
Appendix G
127
Figure203. Copper-gold binary

systems.
DC
4S
- t--. L 1 1 064
1 000
900
r-t-==
::: 9 1 D a + L
a + L F==:
[tlv.\
800
700
a
600
500
C/'I" \' 85O

40
0
/1 I
400
/ -a' , "," aI""

/ TT\t,0"'....'..,-....
300
n !
200
Cu 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Au
Weight Percent Gold

Appendix G
128
Figure 204. Copper-antimony

binary systems.
C I\, " 084S
\
1 000
\
\ L
\
900
\ 1\
\
800
700
600
ex , 645 0
\' 3 1 .5
31.0l4 \ f3 , 1"> 0 '/
1 1 .0 6 3/
500 .I
4RRO YJ -- l,..,\"".-/.. I. " IIIII 71-."- ...... .62.0
/... .. 526 0
.
400 / 400 0
\
{, --,jl1 y K
300 t" t
'- _ _--III ! tr
I (Sb) __
200
I/ IiIl
il
Cu 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Sb
Weight Percent Antimony
Appendix G
129

Figure 205. Copper-silver binary C
system.
1 000
\,
............. L 961.93
A
900
SOO
a so 'ov ......../.. -f---/
a
/
+ L 71.9 '2
V
700
7
\\
600
500
a+
400
Cu 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Ag
Weight Percent Silver

Appendix G
130
Figure206. Copper-nickel binary C

system.
L 145
1 400
l..- -- 1- - - -
- -- -- -
1 200 ----
I---
a
- + L
- _-
,.. - - - -
1 000
I
-- --
IOS4S
SOO
a
600
400
/ 35S'
200
/ /" ,/ / ./'
Man.
Tr, ns.
Cu 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Ni
Weight Percent Nickel
Appendix G
131
207.
I 84S
Figure Copper-zinc binary C
system.
ex 9
1 000
...... L
3 1 '\
900
r+ L
835'
800
ex ,\ I y I
\
700
600
+\ +y V 1.:\"'/
468' I 558' 1\E \ ,\ 9.\8'
456'
/
500
42
ksl, 48.9 ,fr" "" 88 97.3
400
I -,
ex/.,/ ' 'II ' +y I IIIII IIII III ..III ...
I (Zn)
300
250'
Cu 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Zn
Weight Percent Zinc

Appendix G
132
Figure 208. Iron-carbon system.
1535 --- - --- ---'--'T"""---, 1550

C
liquid
1400
& cementite liquid 1450
solidus
1 130
ou...,'::J
r:.,D-E 910
y( ) & ---
austenite - -- --
o_______-'-______....__... __....-1.
austenite cementite
1400 0.2 0.4
Percentage of Carbon
0.6
The 8-Region of the Iron-Carbon Diagram
695 --- - --
eutectoid horizontal
695
ferrite
pearlite
&
&Ii ------------ pearlite cementite
% carbon 2.0 4.3 6

The Complete I ron-Carbon Diagram
Y+y 1000
a
austenite
0.04% 7100
ur:.,D-.,
o..'::J., 0u...,'-::J 600
&
austenite
'"
'-
D-
.,
& I-E a+
ferrite austenite cementite 400
I-E ferrite 200
Fe3C
0 0 0.006%0.05 0.1
& &
pearlite ferrite pearlite cementite
0.15
% carbon 0.8 1.4 Percentage of Carbon
Constitutional Diagram Indicating
The Steel Portion of the Iron-Carbon Diagram Solubility of Carbon in a-Iron
Appendix G
133
Figure 209a. The lead-tin system 350
\
327"
(pewters).
300

250 f\ jo.ft ...,-... Liquid
\,
..
252
200
I SO
a
/' 9.2
a L
IW ..... ---- ...--' J\

6 1 .9
+L
97.5
I n.
soo II
1 00 R
o Wt % Sn
10 20 30 40 SO 60 70 80 90 1 00
Figure 209b. The gold-silver system. 1 1 00
1 050
1 000
-
-
950
900
10 20 30

oL-_________L__________L__________L__________L_________
40 SO 60 70 80 90 1 00
Wt % Au
Appendix G
134
Figure210. Copper-silver-gold
ternary liquidus.
Au
Cu 10 20 30 40 Wt % Ag 60 70 80 90 Ag
Appendix G
135
Figure21 I. Copper-silver-gold
ternary solidus.
Au
Cu 10 20 30 40 Wt % Ag 60 70 80 90 Ag
Appendix G
136
Figure212. Copper-tin-Iead
ternary system.
Sn
Schematic of Pb
Pb Corner
40 80 90
GLOSSARY
Acicular Amalgam further described by such terms Bee

Possessing an elongated or An intermetallic compound or as stress-relief anneal, solid Body-centered cubic. A unit
needle-shaped structure. mixture of mercury with other solution anneal, normalizing, cell in which atoms are situated
metals. Mercury may form an etc. at each corner of a cube with
Admiralty brass amalgam with gold, silver, tin, one atom in the center of the
An outdated term for an alpha zinc, lead, copper, and other Annealing twin cube. Each atom at the corners
brass in which some zinc is metals. The microstructure of In FCC metals, a process of is shared by each neighbor.
replaced by tin; usually only these amalgams may be com recrystallization (often of Because of the close packing,
about 1 -2% tin is added. plex. worked and annealed metals) BCC metals such as barium,
in which a mirror plane in the chromium, iron, molybdenum,
Age-hardening Amalgam gilding crystal growth results in two tantalum, vanadium, and tung
The process of hardening spon The process used for the gild parallel straight lines appearing sten cannot be heavily worked
taneously over time at ambient ing of many copper alloys in across the grain when the metal but they have a good combina
conditions. Some steels age ancient and historic times. is etched. tion of ductility and strength.
harden as do other alloys. The Gold becomes pasry when
process was first studied in mixed with mercury and may Anode Bidri
aluminium-copper where be applied as a paste over a sur Component of a system that is Name for an Indian copper
coherent regions of different face. This can be followed by usually corroded. In an electro zinc-lead alioy, finished by sur
structure form as the first stage heating to drive off most of the chemical reaction, the electrode face treatment to color it black
of the process. mercury, or the mercury can be at which oxidation occurs. and often inlaid with silver.
applied to the clean surface of
Alloy the object to be gilded, fol Arsenic Bloom
A mixture of two or more met lowed by the attachment of Element with atomic number A roughly finished metallic
als. The term alloying suggests gold leaf or foil. 33, atomic weight 74.92 1 4 , product; specifically, the
the mixture was deliberate. specific graviry (grey form) spongy mass of iron produced
Antimony 5.73. The usual variety is grey in a bloomery furnace in which
Alpha brass Element with atomic number arsenic which sublimates at the iron is reduced in situ and is
An alloy of copper and zinc 5 1 , atomic weight 1 2 l .75, mp 6 1 0 C. Arsenic is a steel-grey not molten during reduction.
with no more than 38% zinc. 630 C, specific graviry 6.62. A color with a metallic luster and The crude iron bloom must be
In antiquiry, the cementation lustrous metal with a bluish sil was the first alloying element of extensively worked at red heat
process for the manufacture of very-white appearance. The importance. Arsenical copper to consolidate the iron and
brass meant that only up to metal does not tarnish readily alloys precede the use of tin remove excess slag and char
28% zinc might be absorbed in on exposure to air and can be bronzes in most areas of both coal.
the copper when the zinc ore used as a decorative coating. the Old and New Worlds.
was reduced in situ. Most Antimony is found in some Arsenic contents usually vary Brass
ancient brasses do not contain copper alloys of antiquiry and from about 1 to 8%. An alloy of copper and zinc,
over 28% zinc. in the region of 3% has a con usually with copper as the
siderable hardening effect. Bainite major alloying element and
Aluminum A term more commonly zinc up to 40% by weight.
Atomic weight 26.98, atomic Annealing applied in the past to the Early brasses were binary alloys
number 1 3, mp 660.37 C, A process of heat-treatment decomposition of martensite in containing 90-70% copper
specific graviry 2.69. It is the carried out on a metal or alloy, steels by tempering at about and 1 0-30% zinc. The color of
most abundant of the metallic usually to soften the material to 200-350 C. brass changes with increasing
elements but is very difficult to allow further deformation. zinc content from a rich cop
extract and was not properly Strictly speaking, if an alloy is per-red through pale yellow to
known until 1 827. involved, annealing should be white as the zinc increases.
Glossary
138
Gilding metal containing 1 0- method is becoming less com- object that has been made by and as pearlite. These irons are
1 5% zinc is suitable for cold mon, but does allow some casting the metal into a shape. usually hard and brittle. (3)
working. It is used for orna- comparison with results from The simplest forms are open Malleable cast irons are usually
mental work and jewelry. Red the Vickers Scale, or other molds that are uncovered at the obtained by heat-treatment of
brass contains 30% zinc and scales used more for industrial time of casting. This form was white cast irons by converting
70% copper and has good purposes, such as the Rockwell often used for simple early the combined carbon into free
working properties. The com- Scale. Bronze Age axes. Piece molds carbon or temper carbon. In
mon form of brass is 60% cop- are made of two or more fitting the whiteheart process, for
per, 40% zinc and is known as Carat pieces in stone, bronze, or example, a certain amount of
yellow brass or Muntz metal A term used to express the refractory clay. Hollow-cast carbon is removed from the
(see also alpha brass) . degree of purity or fineness of objects are usually piece molds surface by oxidation.
gold. Pure gold is 24 carat or with false cores. A figure was
Brazing 1 000 fine. The fineness of modeled in clay and a piece Cathode
Joining of metals together with alloyed gold can be expressed in mold was built up around the In an electrochemical cell, the
an alloy of copper and zinc. the number of partS of gold model. The model was component on which reduc-
Modern brazing alloys may that are contained in 24 parts removed and could be shaved tion takes place. In many corro-
contain copper, zinc, and silver of the alloy. For example, 1 8 down i n size to provide the core sion processes, the cathodic
and are often called silver sol- carat gold contains 1 8/24 partS around which the mold pieces regions are protected during
ders. In ancient times, silver- of gold and is 75% gold or 750 and mother molds would be corrosion, while attack takes
gold, copper-silver, and silver- fine. assembled. Many variations are place at anodic regions.
gold-copper alloys were used possible (see also lost-wax cast-
for brazing (or soldering) oper- Carburization ing) . Cementation
ations on precious metals in The process of increasing the The term has several meanings.
particular. carbon content of the surface Casting-on Cementation of gold alloys
layers of a metal (often wrought The process of making a cast with salt in a cupel may remove
Bronze iron) by heating the metal part attached to an already silver leaving pure gold behind.
In antiquity and historical below its melting point with existing object or component. Carbonaceous material may be
usage, an alloy of copper and carbonaceous matter such as In antiquity, a lost-wax addi- used to cover the wrought iron,
tin. Usually with up to 1 4% wood charcoal. tion, made by creating a small which is then heated. Carbon
tin, but many examples of mold around part of an object can diffuse into the structure
ancient alloys are known with Case-hardening and casting on metal directly to creating a low-carbon steel sur-
higher tin contents. 1 4% tin is A process consisting of one or it. Often used for dagger han- face by cementation.
the limit of solid solution of tin more heat-treatments for pro- dies or repair or construction of
in well annealed fJ. bronzes. In
modern usage, the term bronze
is associated with a number of
ducing a hard surface layer on
metals as in carburization. In
the case ofsteel the carbon con-
large bronze figures.
Cast iron
Cementite
The hard, bri ttle component of
iron-carbon alloys, containing
copper alloys that may contain tent of the surface can be An iron-carbon alloy that usu- about 6.6% carbon, corre-
no tin at all and the composi- increased by heating in a ally contains 2-4% carbon. sponding to the phase Fe3C
tion of the alloy must be speci- medium containing carbon fol- Generally divided into three and crystallizing in the ortho-
fied. lowed by heat treatment. groups: ( 1 ) Grey cast iron in rhombic system. It is soluble in
which free carbon occurs as molten iron, but the solubility
Brinell Casting flakes of graphite. It has excel- decreases in austenite to about
The Brinell Hardness Scale in The operation of pouring metal lent casting properties and can 0.9% at the eutectoid tempera-
which the hardness is measured into sand, plaster, or other be machined. (2) White cast ture. Pearlite, the eutectoid of
by the resistance to indentation molds and allowing it to solid- iron in which all of the carbon ferrite and cementite, is the
of a small steel ball. This ifY. More generally, a metallic is taken up as cementite, Fe3C most common component
139
containing cementite in ment usually consists of rolling, changes in composition occurs Cupellation
ancient and historic steels. hammering, or drawing at as the dendrite arm is formed. Often applied to the removal of
room temperatures when the Especially common in ancient basic metals from silver or gold
Centrifugal casting hardness and tensile strength cast bronzes and cast silver by use of a cupel and either oxi
Casting by the lost-wax process are increased with the amount copper alloys. Coring is accen dation of base metallic constit
(usually) followed by rapid of cold-work, but the ductility tuated in alloys with a wide sep uents or chemical combination
rotation of the casting mold to and impact strength are aration between liquidus and with salt.
force the molten metal into the reduced. solidus curves.
casting spaces. Often used in Cupro-nickel
modern dental casting tech Columnar CPH Alloys containing copper and
niques and more associated Long columnlike grains that Close-packed hexagonal. A nickel, usually from 1 5% to
with modern castings than with can form when a pure metal is hexagonal net in which the 70% nickel, but in ancient
ancient practice. cast into a mold. atoms are arranged in a repeat alloys often with less nickel
ing sequence ABABABA. . . . . . than this. Alloys with about
Chaplets Continuous precipitation One unit lattice has a hexago 25% nickel are now used for
Small pegs, wires, or other The formation of a precipitate nal prism with one atom at coinage metals. Early examples
materials used to hold a hollow or inclusion distribution uni each corner, one in the center of copper-nickel alloys are also
lost-wax casting in position in formly through the grains of the bottom and top faces, known, the most famous being
the mold by securing the themselves. and three in the center of the the Bactrian coinage.
investment or casting core to prism. CPH metals tend to be
the mold so that it will not Copper brittle, e.g., cadmium, cobalt, Damascening
move when the wax is molten An element with atomic num titanium, and zinc. An ancient process of orna
out. ber 29, atomic weight 63.54, menting a metal surface with a
mp 1 083 0c, specific gravity Crimping pattern. In the early Middle
Chasing 8.96. Pure copper is reddish in Mechanical join between two Ages swords with this pattern
Displacement of metal by use color and malleable and duc pieces of metal in which they were said to be from Damascus,
of a chasing tool, often of brass tile. It occurs in native copper are deformed to shape an over made by repeatedly welding,
or bronze or wrought iton. in dendritic masses and has lap or attachment. drawing out, and doubling up a
Unlike engraving, metal is dis been known for thousands of bar composed of a mixture of
torted around the chased years. Many copper minerals Cupel iron and steel. The surface was
design and is not removed. were used to extract copper A porous ceramic, often made later treated with acid to
metal in primitive furnaces, in from bone-ash or other refrac darken the steel areas. Ferrite
Cire perdue the form of copper prills and tory components. The cupel is remains bright. In the East the
Term meaning lost-wax later as cakes and ingots of cop used to melt small amounts of process of inlaying metal on
casting. per. There are about 240 metal, usually silver for the metal is common, particularly
copper-bearing minerals and extraction of lead, or the assay in parts of Iraq and India,
Coherent precipitation both copper oxides and sulfides of gold. In the extraction of where it is known as Kuft work.
An atomic rearrangement of were smelted to obtain the lead from silver, the oxidized
structure that is imperceptible metal. lead is absorbed into the cupel Dendritic
by optical microscopy. leaving a button of silver. The Shaped like the branches of a
Coring cupel can then be broken and tree. Dendri tes are common in
Cold-working The segregation of an alloy on smelted to recover the lead. cast alloys and may look like an
The plastic deformation of a successive freezing to the solid. intersecting snowflake pattern.
metal at a temperature low Zones are formed, especially in
enough to cause permanent dendritic castings, in which a
strain hardening. The treat- continuous series of small
Glossary
140
Depletion gilding Dislocation thin gold surface. Used in Eutectoid

Gilding by removal of one or Defects in the crystal structure ancient Peru as a gilding tech Decomposition from a solid
more baser components. Com of a metal that allow movement nIque. phase into two finely dispersed
monly used in ancient South of planes or atoms within the solid phases creates a structure
America for the gilding of tum lattice. Edge and screw disloca Electrum called a eutectoid. The eutec
baga or gold-silver-copper tions are two common types. Naturally occurring alloys of toid point is fixed in binary
alloys by removing copper gold and silver, usually white or alloys and in morphology may
from the outer surfaces by pick Dislocation silvery in color and containing resemble the eutectic.
ling. entanglement up to about 40% silver.
The density of dislocations Fayalite

Depletion silvering Engraving The most common component
increases on working the metal
Silver-copper alloys usually until dislocation entanglement Use of an engraver, usually of of ancient slags, often occur
develop a scale when worked is reached. At this point the hardened steel to remove metal ring as slag stringers in wrough t
and annealed. Removing oxide metal is brittle since no further from a surface. iron. Fayalite is an iron silicate,
scale enriches the surface in sil movement can occur. Anneal 2FeO. Si02 which melts at
ver, creating a depleted copper ing will restore working prop EPNS about 989 C, crystallizes in the
zone and making the alloy sil erties. Electroplated nickel silver. An orthorhombic system, and usu
ver in color. alloy of copper, nickel, and zinc ally takes the form of broken,
Drawing typically with 60% copper, elongated grey laths in silicate
Diffusion The act of pulling a wire, usu 22% nickel, 1 8% zinc, electro based slags.
The migration of one alloy or ally of silver or gold through a plated with silver.
metal into another. Interdiffu drawplate of hard material. Filing
sion also occurs with the sec Drawing is not thought to have Equilibrium diagram Removal of metal with a file.
ondary metal migrating into occurred before the 6th century A synonym for a phase dia Filing is uncommon in ancient
the first. Usually heat is
required for this process to
A.D. gram. metalwork since hard steel files
were not available.
occur. Ductility Equilibrium structures
The ability of a metal to be Microstructures that represent FCC
Diffusion bonding drawn or deformed. D uctile full equilibrium phases pre Face-centered cubic. In this lat
Bonding or joining of two met metals are usually FCC types dicted from phase diagrams. In tice system there is an atom at
als by heating them together. such as silver or gold. ancient metals the structure each corner of a cube and an
Each will diffuse into the other, may be far from equilibrium. atom at each center of the cube
at different rates, creating a Electrochemical faces. Face-centered cubic met
strong and permanent metal Equi-axed als tend to be soft and easily
corrOSIOn
lurgical bond. Of equal dimensions or proper worked, such as silver, alumin
Corrosion of a metal in which
ties in all directions. Equi-axed ium, gold, copper, lead, and
anodic and cathodic reactions
Discontinuous grains are hexagonal in form. platinum.
result in metallic dissolution.
precipitation The most common form of
Precipitates laid down at grain Eutectic Fusion gilding
corrosion of buried or marine
boundaries, often by a process In binary alloys the composi A process used in ancient South
metals.
of aging or of exsolution of tion with the lowest melting America, especially Ecuador,
metastable phases. An example point. The eutectic is a fixed for the gilding of copper alloys
Electrochemical
is the precipitation of copper composition in binary alloys by dipping or fusion of molten
replacement plating
from silver-copper alloys. and is often a fine intermixture gold alloys to the surface,
Cleaned copper will exchange
with gold solutions to form a
of two phases, typically
and .
(J. resulting in thick gold alloy
coatings. May also be used to
Glossary
141
create silver alloy coatings over Gold foil Gunmetal Intaglio

copper. Any gold sheet greater than 1 May have different composi The process of engraving or
micron thick. tions, but usually an alloy of removing metal to create a
Gama-hada copper, tin and zinc. design. The depression so
Japanese decorative technique Grain formed may be filled with
making use of immiscible met In crystalline metals, the grain Hard soldering niello or enamel.
als, such as silver or silver is an area or zone of crystal An alternative term for the use
copper alloy droplets on iron. growth in a uniform and of a brazing alloy or a copper Interstitial
homogeneous form. Most met silver alloy for joining, as A small element that may
German silver als consist of grains and the opposed to the use of lead-tin occupy lattice spaces without
Alloys of copper, nickel, and grain boundaries are the inter alloys. causing too great a distortion of
zinc usually comprising about face between a succession of the original lattice structure.
52-80% copper, 5-3 5% grains in the solid mass of Hot-working An example is carbon in iron.
nickel, and 1 0-35% zinc. This crystals. Deformation of the metal or Carbon is a small element and
alloy was formerly used for alloy above the temperature can insert into the cubic iron
many decorative purposes as a Grain boundary necessary for plastic deforma lattice.
cheap substitute for silver, since segregation tion of the metal.
it does not readily tarnish and is The precipitation of a phase or Iron
of silvery hue. inclusion at the grain bound Hy An element with atomic num
aries of a polycrystalline solid. Hardness on the Vickers or ber 26, atomic weight 5 5 .85,
Gilded Diamond Pyramid Number mp 1 5 28 0c, specific gravity
Covered with gold. Granulation (DPN) scale. 7.87. A heavy whitish metal
Usually refers to small gold and one of the most abundant
Gold grains attached to an object Hypereutectoid and widely distributed. Iron
Element with atomic number with solder, either made in situ Containing a greater amount was known early as meteoric
79, atomic weight 1 96.96, mp by reduction of a copper salt (often of carbon steels) than iron, which usually contains
1 063 dc, specific gravity 1 8 .88.
Native gold usually contains
some copper and silver. Typical
with glue or by use of diffusion
bonding of the gold grains.
Common in Etruscan gold
that required to form a com
pletely eutectoid structure. In
steels this would require more
some nickel. Extraction by the
bloomery process was common
by the early centuries B.C., and
gold concentrations are 85- work. than 0.8% carbon, the amount this continued until the inven
95% with the remainder being needed to create a completely tion of the blast furnace. Later
mostly silver. Gold is bright Graphite pearli tic structure. methods of extraction in the
yellow, but with increasing sil An allotropic form of carbon, Western world were able to
ver content the color is white, occurring in the trigonal sys Hypoeutectoid melt iron and, by the 1 3th cen
while copper provides red tints
to the color. Platinum from 20
tem as grey, soft, lustrous
plates. It is the form of carbon
Containing a lesser amount
(often of carbon steels) than
tury A.D., make cast iron. In
China, iron (with carbon)
to 25% and nickel make the found in steels and cast irons that required to form the eutec could already be molten during
alloy with gold white. and usually occurs in grey cast toid sttucture of 0.8% carbon. the time of Christ and cast iron
irons as thin flakes or nodules. Most ancient steels are hypoeu was produced much earlier
Gold leaf tectoid, except for Wootz steels than in the West.
Leaf in ancient technology is Grey cast iron made in a crucible, or later his
rare. The term is reserved for Cast iron with a grey fracture. torical products, such as cut Latten
gold less than 1 micron thick. The fracture color is indicative steel beads from France. Copper-zinc-tin alloy (some
that the cast iron contains free times with lead as well) used in
carbon as graphite. the medieval period for cheap
Glossary
142
decorative and functional met- liquidus is a surface, not a line. uid at room temperature. The Peritectoid
alwork. earliest extractions were carried An isothermal reaction in
Lost-wax casting out by roasting cinnabar, mer- which two solid phases in a
Lead Casting from a wax model. The cury (II) sulfide, in an oxidizing binary system react to form a
Atomic number 82, atomic object to be made is shaped in atmosphere and collecting the new solid phase. A peritectoid
weight 207. 1 9 , mp 327.4 oc,
specific graviry 1 1 .3 5 . Pure
lead recrystallizes at room tem-
wax (either solid or hollow) and
is covered in a clay mold.
When the wax is molten out,
mercury by distillation.
M eteoric iron
reaction occurs in the bronze
system, for example, in which
at 65% copper a reaction
perature when deformed. The the space can be filled with Iron from outer space. Usually occurs between CU3Sn, and the
metal can readily be extruded molten metal, usually bronze an alloy of iron and nickel. solid solution gamma, produc-
into pipes or rod but lacks the or brass. Small amounts of cobalt and ing a new phase, CU4Sn at
tenaciry to be drawn into wire. manganese are rypical. Some about 580 0c.
Lead was commonly extracted M artensite early iron exploitation made
from galena, lead sulfide, and Often used only for the hard, use of meteoric iron . Pewter
was often a by-product of the needlelike component of Ancient pewter is an alloy of
extraction of silver from galena, quenched steels, but more gen- Nitriding lead and tin, much used in
since many of these lead ores erally, any needlelike, hard In steels, the hardening due to Roman times. The poisonous
are argentiferous. Lead is a use- transformation product of a nitrogen content that may nature of lead has resulted in
ful addition to bronzes and quenched alloy. The most result in nitrides being formed the replacement of lead with
brasses, especially for making common in ancient materials is in the alloy. antimony, although antimony
castings and is used as an alloy martensite in low-carbon steels, is also inadvisable in high
with tin as a soft solder. or martensite in beta-quenched Open mold amounts for utensils. Common
bronzes. A primitive form of casting into pewter in antiquity may consist
Leaf gilding an open-shaped depression in of 60-80% tin, 40-20% lead,
Covering with gold by the M artensitic stone, sometimes covered par- while modern pewter may be
application of gold leaf (or transformation tially to prevent excessive oxi- 1 5-30% copper, 5-1 0% anti-
foil). Sometimes held mechani- A product formed by rapid dation. mony, and 87-94% tin.
cally by roughening the surface cooling of an alloy. Some alloys
or by a diffusion bond to the may be specially formulated to Pearlite Phase
substrate metal. allow martensitic events to The fine mixture of ferrite and A homogeneous chemical com-
occur on cooling. cementite found in steels. The position and uniform material,
Ledeburite eutectoid, pearlite, will be com- describing one component in a
Name applied to the M echanical twinning plete when the carbon content metallic system.
cementite-austentite eutectic at Twinned crystals produced by reaches 0.8%. In most ancient
4.3% carbon which freezes at mechanical strain alone, as in steels, a mixture of ferrite and Phase diagram

1 1 30 C. During cooling the zinc. pearlite is common. A diagram with axes of temper-
austenite in the eutectic may ature and composition describ-
transform into a mixture of M ercury Peritectic ing the different phases that
cementite and austenite. Atomic number 80, atomic Reaction of a phase that has may occur in an alloy with
weight 200.59, mp -38.84 0c, formed with a liquid of a differ- change in either composition
Liquidus specific graviry 1 3 . 5 5 . Mercury ent composition to form a new or temperature. A binary phase
The line on a binary phase dia- has been found in Egyptian solid phase. The new phase diagram consists of two metal-
gram that shows the tempera-
ture at which solidification
tombs of 1 500 B.C. and was
widely known in the centuties
may consume all of the liquid
to form a totally new solid, ryp-
lic components. A ternary sys-
tern, which is usually more
begins upon cooling from the
melt. In a ternary diagram the
B.C. in China and India. A sil-
very white metal which is liq-
ically beta phase in the bronze
system.
complex, consists of three
metals.
143
Glossary
Piece-mold particles are called prills and create raised designs on the One of the noble metals that is
A mold taken from a model were often extracted by break- front. not oxidized by heating in air.
that may be assembled in a ing up the smelted product and It is white in color and very
number of pieces before being sorting the metal. In crucible Riveting ductile and malleable. Silver
used for slushing wax over the processes, prills are small drop- Joining of metal sheet by small was usually obtained by cupel-
mold interior for lost-wax cop- lets of metal adhering to the metal pegs passing through and lation of lead ores, although it
ies of a master model. S uch crucible lining. hammered down. may also be extracted directly
techniques were common in from silver sulfide deposits.
the Renaissance. Pseudomorphic SaHdruy Pure silver is often stated to be
The replacement in the corro- Islamic term for high tin 1 000 fine and alloys are based
Platinum sion process of a material with bronzes, often white in color. on this nomenclature. For
Metallic element atomic num- another that mimics the form example, sterling silver (qv) is
ber 78, atomic weight 1 95.08, of the replaced product. Segregation 925 fine.
mp 1 772 0c, specific gravity Pseudomorphic replacemen t of In alloys usually of three forms:
2 1 .45. First discovered in
South America by Ulloa in
1 735, but used by the Indians
organic materials is common
on iron artifacts and can occur
on copper alloys and silver-
(l) normal segregation, (2)
dendritic segregation, and (3)
inverse segregation. In normal
Sinking
A technique with which a vessel
can be produced by hammer-
of Ecuador and Colombia who copper alloys as well. segregation, the lower melting ing from the inside. The sheet
sintered the metal with gold. point metal is concentrated metal is hammered either on
Finds are known particularly Quenching towards the inner region of the the flat surface of an anvil or
from La Tolita dating to the The act of quickly cooling a cast. In dendritic segregation, more commonly hammered
early centuries B.C. It can be
present in the native state, usu-
metal or alloy by plunging into
cold water or oil.
fernlike growth occurs from
local compositional gradients.
into a shallow concave depres-
sion in the anvil. Also called
ally alloyed with some iron. In inverse segregation, the blocking or hollowing.
The metal is malleable and Quenched structures lower melting point constitu-
ductile. It is used in early scien- Usually nonequilibrium struc- ents, such as tin or arsenic in Slag
tiflc instruments since its coef- cures or phases that have been bronzes is concentrated toward A glassy phase or mixture of
flcient of expansion is very made metastable in an alloy by the outer cast surfaces. phases usually to be found in
similar to soda-lime glass. quenching in water or oil. The ancient or historic wrought
most common quenched prod- Shakudo iron or steel. The slag is an
Polycrystalline ucts are martensite in steels and Japanese term for the deliberate important by-product of the
Consisting of many individual martensite in high-tin bronzes. use and manufacture of gold- smelting of metals. It may be
crystalline grains. Most metals Quenching may also be used to copper alloys. incorporated in copper or iron
are polycrystalline solids. suppress ordering reactions, alloys as a result of incomplete
especially in gold alloys and Shibuichi separation or incomplete melt-
Polygonal some ancient texts refer to this Japanese term for decorative ing during extraction, as in the
Many-sided. Some grain shapes practice to avoid embrittle- silver-copper alloys often bloomery process.
may be polygonal. ment. worked and annealed to create
decorative surfaces when col- Slag stringers
Prill Repousse ored by chemical etching or Small pieces of slag that have
In the extraction of copper Working from the back of a staining. become incorporated into the
from primitive smelts, the metal, often on the slight relief metal and are then strung out
metal is produced as small of a chased design on the front. Silver as small elongated ribbons as a
droplets or particles in a slaggy
matrix. These small metallic
The metal is then displaced by
hammering, often on a soft
An element of atomic number
47, atomic weight 1 07.87, mp
result of working the metal
shape it.
to
support such as pitch, so as to 960 C, specific gravity 1 0.50.
Glossary
144
Slip planes Speculum working due to slip of planes of form is stable and below this
FCC metals may show slip A name sometimes applied to atoms past each other. the grey cubic form may exist.
planes, a fine series of lines in Roman or bronze mirrors, con- Above 1 70 C, tin is rhombic
rwo intersecting directions taining a high percentage of Striking in crystal structure. The metal
upon heavy deformation of the tin. Historic speculum may A method of making coins and has low tensile strength and
metal. contain about 67% copper, medals. The impression is cut hardness but good ductility.
33% tin. Ancient mirrors made in negative in a very hard mate-
Slush casting use of similar alloys, usually of rial and this die is then placed Tinning
A method of casting in which beta bronze composition and over the coin blank and given a The operation of coating a base
metal is often spun or agitated up to about 24% tin. single heavy blow thus com- metal (usually) with tin. The
in the mold so that a thin shell pressing the metal of the blank coating may be obtained by hot
is formed. More common in Spinning into the recesses of the die. dipping into molten tin or by
ancient and historic metalwork Turning on a lathe followed by Before the introduction of flowing the molten tin over the
is slush wax work in which wax depression of metal while in steel, bronze coins could only surface of the object.
is slush cast over a piece mold motion. have been struck using stone or
interior before investment. bronze dies. Striking may cause Troosite
Stamping stress-related features in the A very fine mixture of pearlite,
Soft solders Displacement of metal by a struck metal such as surface not resolvable by optical
A term applied to lead-tin hard die often for assay pur- cracking or internal defects. microscopy. Nodular troosite is
alloys used in soldering, usually poses. found in steels not cooled
not of precious metals. The Tempering quickly enough to form mar-
upper limit of the melting Steel Usually applied to steels in tensite. On etching in low-
range is about 300 C, and A malleable alloy of iron and which some of the hardness is carbon steels, troosite appears
many alloys melt at about 1 30- carbon that contains about removed by heating at moder- as a blue etching component in
1 80 C. 0. 1 - 1 .9% carbon. The carbon ate temperatures, from 450 to nital.
is present as cementite, usually 650 C, depending on the type
Solidus as a component of pearlite. of tempering required. In Tumbaga
The line in the phase diagram Low-carbon steels contain ancient metals, tempering, or The name given in ancient
that separates the pasty stage of from 0.09% carbon to 0.2% self-tempering of martensite South America to the alloys of
the alloy, usually a mixture of and are soft. Medium carbon would have been carried out to copper and gold, of wide range
solid and liquid, from the com- steels contain 0.2-0.4% carbon reduce the brittleness of the of composition and color.
pletely solid alloy below the and high carbon steels more fully quenched steel cutting
temperature of the solidus line. than 0.4%. edges of swords. Tutenag
The solidus temperature may Copper-zinc-nickel alloy of
be different at different alloy Sterling silver Tin silvery color imported from
compositions, depending on A common coinage binary An element of atomic number China to Europe in 1 8- 1 9th
the type of phase diagram. alloy of 92.5% silver, 7.5%
copper.
50, atomic weight 1 1 8.69, mp
23 1 .8 dc, specific gravity (grey)
century A.D.
Sorbite 5 . 7 5 , (white) 7.3 1 . A soft white TTT diagrams
A decomposition product of Strain hardening lustrous metal obtained almost Time-temperature-transforma-
martensite found in steels. I t A synonym for work entirely from the mineral cas- tion diagrams. Most useful in
consists of fine particles of hardening. siterite, Sn02' Tin is not considering the nature of the
cementite in a matrix of ferrite. affected on exposure to air at quenched microstructure to be
Sorbitic structures may be Strain lines ordinary temperatures. At tem- found in steels and high tin
rounded cementite not neces- Same as slip planes. Often seen peratures above 1 3 .2 C the bronzes. The quenching rate
sarily derived from martensite. in FCC metals after heavy white tetragonal allotropic and composition results in a
Glossary
145
differing series of TTT dia feature of wrought low-carbon was not known in Europe until
grams that are commonly used steels. rediscovered in 1 746. Zinc is a
to investigate transformation bluish-white, lustrous metal,
effects on components found Wootz brittle at ordinary temperatures
during quenching of alloys.
Vickers
Wootz is a kind of steel, made
in small crucibles in ancient
India and often of hypereutec
but malleable at 1 00- 1 50 0c.
A hardness scale that uses a dia toid steel with a very low slag
mond having an angle of 1 36 content. This cast steel was
degrees between the faces. The widely used for the manufac
loading can be used easily for ture of sword blades and other
microhardness measurements. quality products.
It is one of the most useful
hardness testing scales. Wrought
The process of hammering or
Weld deforming a metal or alloy, as
A term used to describe a joint opposed to casting.
made between two metals
made by the heating and join Wrought iron
ing the separate parts with no Iron that has been produced
solder applied. Ancient welds from the bloomery process and
were often made in precious has been consolidated by ham
metals, such as gold and silver mering and annealing into a
and in the joining of iron com wrought product. Wrought
ponents, especially in the fabri iron usually contains slag
cation of wrought iron. stringers that have been elon
gated and flattened in the pro
Wh ite cast iron
Cast iron with a white fracture
due to the presence of the car
cess of working from the
bloom.
bon in the cast iron as cement Zinc

ite rather than free graphite. Element of atomic number 30,
atomic weight 65.38, mp
Widmanstatten 4 1 9.58 C, specific gravity
A type of structure that forms 7. 1 33. Zinc ores were used for
when a new solid phase is pro making brass by cementation
duced from a parent solid phase long before the metal was used
as plates or laths along certain in its pure form. The limit of
crystallographic planes of the zinc that can enter into solid
original crystals. The structure solution in copper by this pro
is associated with many mete cess is 28%. The Romans made
oric irons, and with changes extensive use of brass and, in
upon cooling in worked iron India, zinc was being made by
and copper alloys. Most com distillation in retorts during the
monly found as an incidental 1 3th century A.D. The metal
BIBLIOGRAPHY
American Society for Metals Annotated Metallographic Charles, ]. A . and ] . A . Leake B. Floyd Brown, Harry C Bur
1 972- 1 973 Specimens. 1 972 nett, W. Thomas Chase, Mar
Atlas of Microstructures of Problems in the Fluorescence tha Goodway, Jerome Kruger,
Industrial Alloys. In Metals 1 972 Analysis of CuiAg Byzantine and Marcel Pourbaix (eds.).
Handbook. Vol. 7, 8th ed. The role ofmicrostructure in Trachea and Metallurgical NBS Special Publication 479.
Metals Park, Ohio: American metals. Betchworth, Surrey: Information from Sections. In Washington, D . C : U.S.
Society for Metals. Annotated Metallographic Methods ofChemical and Metal Department of Commerce.
Specimens. lurgical Investigation ofAncient
Allen, I. M., D. Britton, and Coinage. E. T. Hall and D. M. Cottrell, A.
H. H. Coghlan Beraha, E. Metcalf (eds.). Royal Numis 1 975

1 970 1 977 matic Society Special Publica An Introduction to Metallurgy.
Metallurgical Reports on British Color Metallography. Metals tion No. 8. London: Royal London: Edward Arnold.
and Irish BronzeAge Implements Park, Ohio: American Society Numismatic Society.
and Weapons in the Pitt Rivers
Museum. Pitt Rivers Museum
Occasional Papers on Technol
for Metals.
Brandon, D. G.
Coghlan, H. H .
1 975
Fink,
1 933
C G. and A. H. Kopp
Ancient Egyptian Antimony
ogy No. 1 0 . Oxford: Oxford 1 966 Notes on the Prehistoric Metal Plating on Copper Objects.
Universiry Press. Modern Techniques in Metallog lurgy of Copper and Bronze in Metropolitan Museums Studies
raphy. London: Butterworths. the Old World. 2nd ed. Pitt 4: 1 63- 1 67.
Anderson, E. A. Rivers Museum Occasional
1 9 59
Zinc: the science and technol
ogy of rhe metal, its alloys and
Brown, B. F., H. C. Burnett,
W. T. Chase, M. Goodway, ] .
Kruger, and M . Pourbaix
Papers on Technology No. 4.
Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Fink,
Polushkin
1 936
C G. an d E. P .
compounds. In The Physical (eds.) Microscopic Study of Ancient
Metallurgy ofZinc. C H. 1 977 Coghlan, H. H. and R. F. Bronze and Copper. Transac

Mathewson (ed.). New York: Corrosion and metal artifocts: a Tylecote tions ofthe American Institute of
Reinhold Publishing; London: dialogue between conservators 1 978 Mining and Metallurgical Engi
Chapman and Hall. and archaeologists and corrosion Mediaeval Iron Artefacts from neers. Metals Division.
scientists. NBS Special Publica the Newbury Area of Berk 1 22:90- 1 17.
Bachmann, Hans-Gert tion 479. Washington, D.C: shire: Metallurgical Examina
1 982 U.S. Department of Com- tion. Journal ofthe Historical Ghandour, N.
The Identification ofSlags from merce. Metallurgy Society 1 2:23-29. 1 98 1
Archaeological Sites. Institute of Elemental and Metallographic
Archaeology: Occasional Pub Bushnell, G. H. S. Cooke, R. B. S . and S. Aschen Analysis of Objectsfrom Tell
lication No. 6. London: Insti 1951 brenner Ajjul, Palestine. M.A. D isserta
tute of Archaeology. The A rchaeology ofthe Santa 1 975 tion (unpublished). University
Elena Peninsula in South- West The occurrence of metallic iron of London, Institute of Archae
Bailey, A. R. Ecuador. Cambridge: Cam in ancient copper. Journal of ology.
1 960 bridge University Press. Field Archaeology 2:2 5 1 -266.
A Textbook ofMetallurgy. Lon
don: Macmillan. Charles, ]. A.
1 968 dsaCiniaoodnrloasogcrsuicieeohnnabtieaesottnwlodegmeinsttcaoalnnasderrtcvifooartcootrs:sa Goodway, M. and H .
Conklin
1 987
C
1 967 The First Sheffield Plate. Quenched high-tin bronzes
The structure and strength of Antiquity 42:278-285. from the Philippines. Archaeo
metals. Betchworth, Surrey: 1 979 materials 2: 1 -27.

Bibliography
1 48
Hall, E. T. and D. M. Metcalf

(eds.)
1 972
Lechtman, H . N . , A. Erlij , and
E. J. Barry
1 982
some experimental and archae
ological considerations. Archae
ometry 28: 1 33- 1 62.
Petzow, G. and
1 975
H.
Recent Developments in Met
E. Exner
Methods ofChemical and Metal New perspectives on Moche allographic Preparation Tech
lurgical Investigation ofAncient metallurgy: techniques of gild Needham, Sir J . niques. Microstructural Science.
Coinage. Royal Numismatic ing copper at Lorna Negra 1 9 54 3:296-306.
Society Special Publication No. Northern Peru. American Science and Civilisation in
8. London: Royal Numismatic Antiquity 47:3-30. China. Vol. 5, Part II. Cam Phillips, V. A.
Society. bridge: Cambridge University 1 97 1
Lord, J . O. Press. Modern Metallographic Tech
Hendrickson, R. C. 1 949 niques and their Applications.
1 967 Alloy Systems. New York: Pit- Nelson, J. A. New York: ]. Wiley & Sons.
Applications ofMetallurgical man. 1 985
Microscopy. New York: Bausch Metallography and Micro Poluschkin, E. P.
& H.
Lomb. Maryon, H. structures. "Cast irons." In 1 964
1 97 1 Metals Handbook. Vol. 9, 9th Structural Characteristics of
Hongye, G. and Jueming Metalwork and Enamelling. ed. Metals Park, Ohio: Ameri Metals. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
1 983 New York: Dover Publications. can Sociery for Metals.
Research on Han Wei spheroi Republished from 1 959, 4th Rajpitak, W. and N. J. Seeley
dal-graphite cast iron. Sundry edition. London: Chapman Oddy, Andrew W. 1 979
Trade Journal International and Hall. 1 977 The Bronze Bowls from Ban
5: 89-94. The production of gold wire in Don T a Phet, Thailand: an
Mathewson, C. H . antiquiry: hand making meth enigma of prehistoric metal
Kiessling, R. and N. Lange 1915 ods before the introduction of lurgy. World Archaeology
1 963- 1 964 A Metallographic Description the draw plate. Gold Bulletin 1 1 :26-3 1 .
Non-metallic inclusions in of Some Ancient Peruvian 1 0:79-87.
steel. Iron and Steel Institute: Bronzes from Machu Picchu. Rajpitak, W.
Special Report No. 90. American Journal ofScience 1 984 1 983
( 1 90)240 : 5 2 5-6 1 6 . Ancient j ewellery as a source of The development ofcopper alloy
Lechtman, H. N. technological information: a metallurgy in Thailand in the
1 97 1 M ayes, P. and L . Butler study of techniques for making pre-Buddhistperiod, with special
Ancient Methods o f Gilding 1 977 wire. In Fourth International reference to high-tin bronzes.
Silver: Examples from the Old Excavations at Sandal Castle Restorer Seminar: Veszprem PhD thesis (unpublished). 4
and New Worlds. In Science 1964-1973. Wakefield Histor 24 1-252. Budapest: National vols. University of London,
and Archaeology. R. H . Brill ical Society. Centre of Museums. Institute of Archaeology.
(ed.). Cambridge, Mass: MIT
Press. 2-30.
1 973
McCrone,
J. G. Deily
1 974
W. C. and O'Neill,
1 934
H.
The Hardness ofMetals and its
Rhines, F.
and R. A. Rummel
1 95 5
N., W. E. Bond ,
The Gilding of Metals in Pre The Particle Atlas. 2nd ed. Vol Measurement. London: Chap Constitution of ordering alloys
Colombian Peru. In Applica umes I-IV. Michigan: Ann man and Hall. of the system gold-copper.
tion ofScience in the Examina Arbor Science Publication. Transactions ofthe American
tion of Works ofArt. W. ]. Petzow, G. Society ofMetals 47: 578-597.
Young (ed.). Boston: Museum Meeks, N. D. 1 976
of Fine ArtS. 38-5 2. 1 986 Metallographic Etching. Metals
Tin-rich surfaces on bronze- Park, Ohio: American Sociery
for Metals.
Bibliography
149
Rollason, E. C. 1 99 1 1 986
1 973 Technological, analytical and The Prehistory ofMetallurgy in
Metallurgy for Engineers. Lon microstructural studies of a the British Isles. London: The
don: Edward Arnold. Renaissance silver basin. Institute of Metals.
Archeomaterials 5:2 1 -45.
Samans, Carl
1 963
H.
Metallic Materials in Engineer
Slunder, C . J . and W . K. Boyd
1 97 1
1 987
The Early History ofMetallurgy
in Europe. London: Longman.
ing. New York: Macmillan. Zinc: its corrosion resistance.
London: Zinc Development Tylecote, R. E. and B. J. J.
Samuels, L. E. Association. Gilmour
1 980 1 986
Optical Microscopy of Carbon Smith, C. S. The Metallography ofEarly Fer
Steels. Metals Park, Ohio: 1 960 rous Edge Tools and Edged
American Society for Metals. A History ofMetallography. Weapons. BAR British Series
Chicago: University of Chi number 1 55 . Oxford: British
Schweizer,
1 978
F. and P. Meyers
Authenticity of ancient silver

cago Press.
1 97 1
Archaeological Report.
Untracht, Oppi
objects: a new approach. Masca The Technique of the Luristan 1 975
Journal :9-10. Smi tho In Science and Archaeol Metal Techniques for Crafts
ogy. R. H . Brill (ed.). Cam men. N ew York: Doubleday.
Scott, D . A. bridge, Mass: MIT Press.
1 980
The conservation and analysis
of some ancient copper alloy
32-54.
1 98 1
West,
1 982
D. R. E.
Temary Equilibrium Diagrams.

beads from Colombia. Studies A Search for Structure: Selected 2nd ed. London: Chapman
in Conservation 2 5 : 1 57-1 64. Essays on Science, Art and His and Hall.
tory. Cambridge, Mass: MIT
1 983
Depletion gilding and surface
treatment of gold alloys from
Press.
Thompson, S. C. and A. K.
H. N.
Winchell, A.
Winchell
1 964
and
the Narifio area of ancient Chatterjee The Microscopical Characters of

Colombia. Journal ofthe His 1 954 Artificial Inorganic Solid Sub
torical Metallurgy Society The age-embrittlement of sil stances: Optical Properties of
1 7:99- 1 1 5. ver coins. Studies in Conserva Artificial Minerals. 3rd ed.
tion 1 : 1 1 5- 1 26. New York: Academic Press.
1 986
Gold and silver alloy coatings
over copper: an examination of
some artefacts from Colombia
Tylecote, R.
1 968
F.
The Solid Phase Welding ofMet
H.
Yakowitz,
1 970
Some uses of color in metallog
and Ecuador. Archaeometry als. London: Edward Arnold. raphy. Applications ofModern
28:33-5 5. Metallographic Techniques.
1 976 ASTM STP 480:50-65. Met
A History ofMetallurgy. Lon als Park, Ohio: American Soci
don: The Metals Society. ety for Testing and Materials.
INDEX
A solid solution 1 6 Brinell hardness testing 2 , 77 microstructure 40

acidified potassium dichromate austeni tic grain boundaries 3 1 , bronze 5 , 2 5 scales xvii, 42
72 35 alloy 23 spheroidal graphite 37
acidified selenic acid 73 austenitic grains 2 1 , 1 1 5 annealed 26 whiteheart 37, 42
acidified sulfate/chromic oxide austenitic region 1 7 bell 93 cast metals 6
73 Australia 1 06 beta-quenched 28 cast, quenched, worked 94, 98
acidified thiosulfate/acetate 73 axe 92 cold-worked 26 casting 5
acidified thiourea 73 fragment 1 05 dagger hilt xvi defects in 24
aggregate carbon 4 1 azurite crystals 1 1 7 examination of 2 5 cathodic graphite flakes xviii
alcoholic ferric chloride xvi, 72 grain size 53 cementation 1 9
alkaline sodium picrate 70 B high-tin 2 5 cementite xvi, xix, 23, 32, 3 7
alloys Bachmann 50 ingots 28 free 38
annealing 7 banded structure 32 low-tin 25 grain boundary 3 1
two-phase 1 4 Baumann's print solution 7 0 mirror 28 laths xviii, 42
alpha 1 4 , 1 5 bead sculpture xvi needles xix, 1 3, 35, 36
alpha ++ beta brass 1 9 French cut-steel 36 system 26 networks 70
alpha beta eutectic 1 2, 1 4 gold necklace 99 Bronze Age 88, 97 cements 50
alpha delta eutectoid 2 5 Beaujard's reagent 70 sword xx ceremonial axe
alpha epsilon phase region 2 5 bell 2 6 , 93 Buehler copper 47
alpha brass 1 9, 20 bending 1 0 epoxide resin 54 Charles and Leake 7
alpha dendri tes 1 3 Beraha's reagent 70 Mastertex cloth 5 5 chasing 1 09
alpha solid solution 1 2 beta 1 4, 1 8 wafering machine 63 chemoepitaxy 43
alumina 64 brass 1 9 Bushnell 92 chill castings 6
in polishing 66 btonze 26, 28 Byzantine 1 14, 1 1 6 China 1 9, 27, 37, 38, 42, 93
ammonia/hydrogen peroxide needles 28 cast iron 39
72, 73 beta-phase brass 20 C Chinese cast iron lion xvi
ammonium persulfate/ beta-phase martensite 95 cannonball 42, 96 chromic acid/sulfate etchant 74
potassium cyanide 72 beta-quenched bronze 28 carbide 37 chromium (VI) oxide 72
ancient steel 1 6
anisotropic 39, 49
annealed casting 93
billet 89
binary tin bronzes 26
blackheart 39
carbon 23
alloy 23
equivalent value 38
close-packed hexagonal
coin 86, 97, 1 01, 1 1 7
zmc xx
1
annealing 3, 6, 1 4 blade fragment 1 1 4 steel 1 5 cold-work
temperatures 7 blast furnace 37 carbon content 32 degree of 9
twins 25 bloom 89 of ancient objects 1 6 Colombia 23, 46, 90, 95, 99,
aqua dag 63 bloomery iron 1 02, 1 1 4 of cast iron 37 107, 1 15
aqua regia 7 1 , 99, 1 00 body-centered cubic 1 , 49 cast 87, 88, 92, 93, 95, 96, 97, color etching
aqueous ammonium persulfate bowl 94, 98, 1 12 99, 103, 1 05, 1 07, 108, 1 17, copper alloys 74
72 Roman 1 12 1 18, 1 19 color metallography 73
aqueous ferric chloride 72 bracelet 1 1 1 cast and worked 1 1 1, 1 12 columnar growth 6
Araldite XD725 59 brass 1 9, 26 cast bronze xx compounds 22
archaeological materials 1 1 , 1 4, alloy 23 cast bronze incense burner 27 intermetallic 2 2
15 grain size 53 cast iron 1 6 concentrated HCI 7 1
arrowhead 88, 1 14 jig 63 cannonball xviii, xix, 42, Cooke and Aschenbrenner 24
ASTM number 5 1 medallion xvi 96 cooling 1 1 5
atomic packing factor 1 bright-field unpolarized etchants 69 cooling rate 1 4, 1 7, 23, 24, 25,
austenite 38, 39, 4 1 illumination 49 interference etchant 73 3 1 , 32, 39, 5 1
Index
152
copper 9, 1 2, 22, 47, 1 02

copper alloy 23, 90, 97, 101
etchants 7 2
D
daggers 24
blade 1 1 6
E
ear ornament 46, 95, 107
ear spool 99
eutectoid
interdendritic 2 5
pearlite 1 3
interference etchants 73 handle 94 early 20th century 1 1 8, 1 19 phase 1 5
copper and tin alloys 2 5 damage Early Medieval 1 13 point 1 7
copper corrosion products xvi due to sampling 58 earring 1 06 structures 1 5
copper globules 47 damping capacity 37 Eastern Han dynasty 38 transformation 1 6
copper oxide 2 8 debased silver 2 1 Ecuador 47, 90, 92 -type transformations 1 5
copper sulfide inclusions xvi alloys 7 edge dislocation 2, 3
copper sulfides 50 coin 1 1 7 edge retention 64, 75 F
copper-arsenic alloy 92 deformation edged tools 1 6 face-centered cubic 1 , 7, 49
copper-gold alloy 95, 1 15 percentage of 9 electrochemical replacement false-filigree 1 07
copper-lead alloy 23 deformed grains 8 plating technique 47 fayalite 50
copper-silver alloy 2 1 , 1 1 7 degree o f cold-work 9 electrolytic polishing 66 ferric chloride xvi, 2 5
etchants 72 delta 1 5 electromechanical polishing 66 ferrite xvii, xix, 2 1 , 24, 3 1 , 32,
copper-tin alloy 2 5 , 88, 93, 94, dendrite arms 1 3, 2 5 elongation 4 1 4 1 , 42
98, 1 03, 1 05, 1 1 1, 1 12 native copper 1 03 embedding grain-boundary 2 1
copper-tin phase diagram 1 8 dendrites 5 , 40 small samples 65 grain structure 29
copper-tin system 1 6, 26 alpha 1 3 emulsion 23 grains 35, 1 04
copper-tin-arsenic alloy 88 ghost 2 5 England 35, 4 2 massed 2 1
copper-tin-lead alloy 93, 1 08 growth 5, 2 5 medieval 1 00-1 02, figurine 1 08
copper-tin-zinc-lead alloy 87 noncontinuous 86 1 13, 1 15 filligree 95
copper-tin-zinc system xviii segregation 5 engraving 1 09 Fink and Kopp 6
copper-zinc alloy 97, 1 05, 1 07, silver-rich 86 epitaxial growth 43 flake graphite 38, 4 1
1 13 structure 6, 23, 49 Epoxide 75 France 36
copper-zinc system 1 9 dendritic arm spacing 5 epoxy 63 free cementite 38
cored bronzes 2 5 measurment 5 1 epoxy resin 7 5 free ferrite 38
coring xvi,
Cornwall 120
xx, 5 , 1 2, 2 5 , 27, 87 depletion
of eutectic phase 1 4
epsilon phase 1 9, 25, 26
epsilon-carbide 3 5
free graphite 37, 40
French cut-steel bead 3 6
corrosion 1 07, 1 1 3 of the eutectic phase 1 4 equi-axed grains xvi
colors 49 depletion-gilding 46 equilibrium 5, 3 1 G
of gold-copper alloys 46 diamond polishing 44 defined 5 gamma iron 24
corrosion crusts 57 Diamond Pyramid Number diagram 1 1 , 2 5 gamma phase 1 6
corrosion processes 43 2, 77 structure 6 gamma solid solution 1 6
metallic fragments 43 dimethylglyoxime nickel test eta and tin 1 9 Ghandour 88
corrosion products 43, 44, 57 71 eta phase 1 9 , 24, 26 gilded silver 1 06
distribution 49 disc etch pitting 1 04 gilding 1 1 6
examination 56 decorative 90 etching 67 glycerol etchant 7 1
morphology of 49 discontinuous precipitation 2 1 polished metal 69 gold 22, 1 07
crab-type graphite 4 1 dislocation entanglement 3 etching solutions alloys 1 1
crystal fault 2 dislocations 2 for archaeological gold alloy
cuprite 43, 44, 46, 1 07 dispersion materials 69 etchants 7 1
cuprite lamellae 90 of lead 27 eutectic 1 4 gold foil 5 7
curing 63 drawing 6 eutectic phase diagram 1 2 gold-copper alloy 22, 23, 46,
Dube 2 1 eutectic point 1 2, 1 4 90, 95, 1 07
ductility 3 eutectic structures 1 2 gold-copper system 23
Index
153
gold-silver alloy 99 hot-working 7 iron oxide 38 leaf gilding 1 06

gold-silver system 1 1
grain boundaries 20, 2 1 , 26,
H 2 v
Hydrogen peroxide/iron (III)
crust
iron phosphide 37
XVI Lechtman 22, 47
ledeburite 40, 4 1
28, 32, 46, 49 chloride 7 1 iron-carbon alloy 96, 104, 1 1 6, eutectic 38
austentitic 3 1 hypereutectic 38 118 of cast iron 3 8
grain boundary cementit e 3 1 hypereutectoid steel 2 1 iron-carbon phase diagram 1 6, transformed 38
gram size hypoeutectic 38 17 liquidus 24
measurement 5 1 hypoeu tectoid steel 2 1 iron-carbon-phosphorus alloy liquidus line 1 1
grain structure 1 19 lost wax 93, 95, 1 07
equi-axial 6
hexagonal 6
grain boundary ferrite 2 1
I
immiscible structures 23
incense burner xvii, 93
iron-iron carbide diagram 40
Islamic 26, 81
Islamic inkwell xviii, 81
low-carbon steel 3 1
low-tin bronzes 2 5 , 27
Luristan 94
grams
austenitic 2 1
cast bronze 27
inclusions 1 0 1
isotropic 42, 49 Luristan ceremonial axe
Luristan dagger handle xvi
xx, 47
graphite xvii, 37, 40

flakes 38, 42
free 40
cuprite 90
cuprous oxide 90
in ancient metals 7
J
Japanese sword 29
Japanese swordblade xix
M
magnesium oxide
matrix 38 nonmetallic 49 Java xix, 26, 28, 1 04 in polishg 66
nucleation 39 sulfide 7 1 jeweller's saw 6 1 magnetite 5 0
polygonal 39 India xix, 1 9 , 26, 35, 36 Jordan 1 06 manganese 37
spheroidal 39 Indian Wootz ingot xix manufacturing processes 57
graviry segregation 27
Greek Herm xviii, xx
grey cast iron xviii, 37, 38, 96,
Indian zinc coin 9
Indo-Greek 86
ingot 97, 1 05, 1 19
K
kish graphite 38, 42
Klemm ' s reagent 70
martensite 20, 23, 32, 35, 98,
101
martensite needles 35
1 18 inkwell 81 knife 1 01, 1 15 martensitic 26
grinding 24, 26, 54, 65 intercept method 5 1 grain size 3 1 transformation 20, 1 06
growth spirals 1 0 2 interdendritic channels 5 Knoop 77 Maryon 6
interdendritic porosiry 47 Korea 26 massed ferri te 2 1
H
hacksaw 6 1
hammering 6
interdiffusion 26
interference film
metallography 73
kris 36
L matte 50
McCrone et al. 50
McCrone low-level
Han Wei period 37 intermetallic compounds 2 2 Late Bronze Age 88, 103 micro hardness tester 77
hardness 2 internal oxidation 7 lath martensite 29, 3 5 medallion 101
heat treatment 39 interstitial materials 2 lattice structure 1 medieval 1 15
Hengistbury Head 4 1
Heyn's reagent 70
inverse segregation 5
inverted stage metallurgical
lead 9, 24
lead alloy
Indian zinc coin
knife blade 3 5
xx
high-tin alloy 2 6 microscope 56 etchants 7 1 Meeks 27
high-tin bronze 25, 26
mirror xix, 28
Iran xviii, xx, 27, 87, 94, 1 05
Iranian Iron Age dagger hilt
lead globules 23, 24, 87, 1 1 2
lead inclusions 24
melts 1 1
metallic bonds 1
high-tin leaded bronze xvii, 1 9 ,
28
XVll
iron 9, 23, 89, 1 15
lead-copper eutectic 23
leaded copper 23
metallic zinc 1 9
metallographic examination 6 1
Hilliard's circular intercept etchants 69 leaded high-tin bronze 1 08 metallography 57
method 5 2 interference etchant 7 3 leaded zinc brass xvi metals
homogeneous bronzes 2 5 iron alloy 23, 1 00, 1 01, 102, leaded tin bronze 27 deformation 1
homogeneous solid solution 1 5 1 14 lead-iron alloy 23 metastable phase 28
Hongye and J ueming 37, 38, iron carbide 38, 39 lead-tin alloys 1 5 metastable state 2 1
42
Index
154
mirror xvii, 1 8 , 1 9 , 26, 1 08

high-tin bronze 28
Javanese 28
peritectic
reaction 1 8 , 22, 24
structures 1 7
Q
quasi-flake graphite 4 1
quench ageing 1 04
Scott 22, 50, 90
screw dislocations 2
segregation 9, 1 2
Roman 1 9, 26, 27 transformation 1 9, 26 quenching 20, 26, 3 1 inverse 5
modern 1 05 peritectoid 22 with water 23 normal 5
molybdate/bifluoride 74 Petzow and Exner 73 selenic acid solution 74
monotectic 23
mottled cast iron 37, 42
mottled iron 38
phase 5
defined 5
diagram 1 1
R
raising 6
rapid cooling 1 , 37
sheet fragment 1 13
silicon 37, 38, 40
silicon carbide 65
mounting resins 75 Phillips 73 recrystallization silver 1 2, 2 1 , 86, 1 09
phosphorus 37 temperatures 9 alloys 1 1
N
nail 1 02
native copper 1 02
pickling 86
picral 39, 69, 7 1
pig iron 37
recrystallized grains 8
redeposited copper 47
reflected light microscopy 57
impure 2 1
silver alloy
etchants 72
Near East 26 pigments reflected polarized light 39 silver and gold alloy 1 06
necklace bead 99 examination 5 6 reflection pleochroism 39, 42 silver objects 57
Nelson 39 plasters 5 0 Renaissance 1 09, 1 1 0 silver-copper alloy 1 2, 1 3 , 1 5 ,
nickel silver plastic deformation 1 Rhines, Bond, and Rummel 2 2 57, 86, 1 09
grain size 53 Plasticine 58 Rockwell 77 eutectic phase diagram 1 2
nital 39, 69, 7 1 plate 1 1 0 Rollason 96 silver-copper phase diagram 2 1
nodular graphite 4 1 plate martensite 36, 7 1 Roman xvii, 26, 89, 97, 1 01, Sinu 107
nomograph 5 1 pleochroism 1 02, 1 08, 1 12, 1 1 7 Skandagupta 86
normal segregation 5 color change 49 period 1 9 slag 7, 36
North America polarized illumination 49 coin 97, 1 1 7 globules 7
Great Lakes 1 02 polarized light 43 figurine 1 08 inclusions 1 1 6
nose ornament 90 polishing 24, 38, 44, 66 mirror xvii, 27, 28, 108 stringers 7, 1 4 , 29, 1 02,
nose-ring 91 electrochemical 63 wrought iron 89 1 15
electrolytic 63 Romano-Greek 1 14 slip 3
o
Oberhoffer ' s reagent 70
optical microscopy 3 5
mounted sample 55
polycrystalline 1
polyester 63, 75
S
saffdruy 26
bands 9
planes 3
slow cooling 37
ordered regions 2 2 polygonal grains 27 sample of cast iron 4 1
oxide layers on iron porosity 6, 24, 46, 47, 87, 1 1 2 criteria to be met 6 1 Smith 7
etchants 72 of cast metals 6 embedding 63 soft solders 1 5
oxide scale 26 potassium ferricyanide 72 mounting 63 solid solubility 1 1
Pratt Hamilton xvi preparation 58, 63 solid solution anneal 7
p
Palestine xx, 88
Palmerton's reagent 7 1
pre-etching 74
process anneal 7
proeutectoid cementite 2 1
removal 6 1
small 64
storage 5 5
solidus 1 1
sorbite 3 1
speculum 1 8, 26
panpipes 1 15 proeutectoid ferrite 2 1 Sandal Castle xix, 96 speiss 50
Paraloid Bn 59 pseudomorphic 43 saturated thiosulfate solution spheroidal graphite 39, 4 1 , 42
pearlite xvii, xix, 1 7 , 2 1 , 29, 3 1 , pseudomorphic replacement 73 cast iron 37
32, 35, 36, 38, 96 by corrosion products 57 scalpel 62 splat cooling 1
lamellae 70 pseudomorphic retention 46 Scandiplast 63, 75 stannic oxide 50
percentage of deformation 9 Schweizer and Meyers 7, 2 1 steadite xvi, 37, 38, 42, 96
scleroscope 77 eutectic 42
Index
155
steel 1 6 , 20 tinting Winchell 50

ancient 1 6 copper alloys 74 wire
blade 1 00 toggle pin 1 03 longitudinal sample 58
etchants 69 cast 27 sampling 58
interference etchant 73 Tower of London 42 transverse sample 58
prill 35 troosite 29, 3 1 , 32, 1 0 1 Wootz crucible 35
strain lines 9, 2 5 tumbaga 22, 90 Wootz steel 1 3
stress factor 2 turning 6 worked 86, 88, 89, 90, 91, 97,
stress-relief anneal 7 twin lines 8, 1 02 99, 1 00, 1 01, 102, 1 04, 105,
stress-strain diagram 1 twin planes 1 0 1 06, 109, 1 13, 1 1 4, 1 15
structure i n zinc 1 0 worked and cast 94
banded 32 twinned work-hardening 3, 6
Struers "Autopol" machine 66 crystals xvi working 5 , 6, 1 4
subgrain structure 3 1 grains 8, 27, 90 wrought iron 7 , 1 4 , 1 1 4
sulfide inclusions xvii,
sulfur 37
xx, 71 nonferrous alloys 5 1
twinning
wlistite 89, 1 02, 1 1 4
Sumatra 28
superlattice 22
surface detail
in CPH metals 9
two-phase alloys 1 4
two-phased solid 1 2
X
X-ray fluorescence analyzer 57
of ancient metallic
artifacts 44
sword 88
U
ultrasonic cleaning 44
y
Yakowitz 73
Young's Modulus 1
sword blade 1 3, 24, 1 04 untempered martensite 3 5
T
taper section 65
Untracht 6
V Z
zinc 9, 1 9
alloys
temper carbon 41 Vickers 77 ancient 1 9
nodules 39 Vickers test 2 corrosion products xvi
tempered martensite 3 1 Villela's reagent 6, 7 1 , 1 1 6 crystals 9
tempering 29, 3 5 , 1 0 1 etchants 7 1
ternary eutectic 42
steadite xviii
ternary tin bronzes 26
W
wafering blade 6 1
Warring States period 37
zinc-lead alloy 23
textured effect 9 water quenching 23

Thai high-tin bronze vessel xvii Western Han 37
Thailand 26, 93, 94, 98, 1 1 1 white bronze 26
thermal history 57 white cast iron 37, 38, 39, 40,
thiosulfate/acetate etchant 74 42, 1 1 9
thiosulfate-acetate xvi, xvii whiteheart 39
Thompson and Chatterjee 2 1 cast iron 37, 42
tin xx, 9 , 26
alloy 1 19
Whiteley's method 7 1
Widmanstatten 20, 1 06
bronze 1 5, 2 5 pearlite 2 9
etchants 7 1 side plates 1 1 6
tinned surfaces 2 6 structure xvii, 27, 3 1 , 1 1 5
transformation 20
"
ISBN 0-89236-195-6
Printed in Singapore

Metallography PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Metallography PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Metallography PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

METALLOGRAPHY

Publications Coordinator: Irina Averkieff, GCI

Editor: Irina Averkieff

Technical Drawing: Janet Spehar Enriquez

Design: Marquita Stanfield Design, Los Angeles, California

Typography: FrameMaker / Adobe Garamond and Gill Sans

Printing: Tien Wah Press, Ltd.

1991 The J. Paul Getty Trust

All rights reserved

Published in association with Archetype Books which acknowledge a grant

from the Commission of European Communities

Libraty of Congress Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

Metallography and microstructure of ancient and historic metals/

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 0-89236-195-6 (pbk.)

1. Metallography. 2. Alloys--Metallography. 3. Metallographic

specimens. 4. Art objects--Conservation and restoration.

2 The Microstructure of Ancient Metals 5

4 The Microstructure of Tin Bronzes 25

5 Notes on the Structure of Carbon Steels 31

6 Martensite in Low-carbon Steels 33

7 The Tempering of Martensite 35

8 Structure and Properties of Cast I ron 37

10 Reflected Polarized Light M icroscopy 49

11 Grain Sizes of Ancient Metals 51

12 Metallography and Ancient Metals 57

13 Metallographic Sampling of Metals 61

14 Mounting and Preparing Specimens 63

16 Etching and Etching Solutions 69

A Appendix: Common Microstructural Shapes 79

B Appendix: Microstructure of Corroded Metals 81

C Appendix: Microhardness Values for Different Alloys and Metals 82

D Appendix: Alloys Used in Antiquity 84

E Appendix: Terms and Techniques in Ancient Metalworking 85

F Appendix: Metallographic Studies 86

G Appendix: Phase Diagrams 121

Information about the structure of materials and

Miguel Angel Corzo

Dr. David A. Scott

Plate I. Section from a Lurisran Fig. 7 . Progressive movement o f an in Ag-Cu. axe.

of 0.74.1 close-packed hexagonal, face-centered cubic, and

FigauretionshiSa, ripgforht. FCC,

a metal is deformed then slip takes place until a Notes

crystal lattice after slip

tertiary sible to measure the spacing between dendrite

Figure Dendrite arms.

shaped by cycles of working and annealing in Schweizer and Meyers 1 978).

Figure I Iia-f.n solSome

etched sections as a series of fine lines in some of of cold-working.

IFingdiurean zincricoight.n. Twin planes in

2413... Eutectic structures

Figured-silv18.er Phase diaNote

950 solid solution fJ.

Figure 25a.bA. atypiandcaleutecti

Figure tes inrigaht.typiEutecti

_1------ pearlite cementite ------i.._

Figurens i31n thea-d.irBreakdown

final structure: grains

One of the difficulties of the peritectic reac