Foundation of the Earth Malfy Das

Basics
Physics and chemistry are experimental sciences
Earth science = primary observational (experiments are also used)
Observation +hypothesis + tests
What makes an idea scientific?
Can be tested against observation or experiment
Hypothesis testing + formation of a theory (discarding / accepting /
revamping / new observations)
Principles / law general rules you follow

Principles generalizations with exceptions

Ex. Principle of superposition (exception: overturned strata in mountains
belts)
Ex. Principle of uniformitarianism (James Hutton theory of the earth)
ancient features of the earth are best interpreted in terms of processes
that operate at the present day (the present is key to the past)
Huttons unconformity interpreted the contact between the lower rocks
and upper rocks as an ancient erosion surface, produced by the processes
similar to those operating at the present day sedimentary rocks and
unconformable appearances
Hutton very strict principle of erosion (but there have been big changes
in earth processes ex. long: evolution of the atmosphere and short term
changes)
Principle of actualism moderate version of buttons principles

Laws
Wide spread application and well established but no known exceptions
when developed (overtime you may find one)
Ex. law of conservation of energy (1st law of thermodynamics)

Relationship to other Sciences

Derived from biology, chemistry, physics, (paleontology, geophysics,
geochemistry, biogeography)
 Geophysicists magnetism, gravity, seismic waves
Geologists mapping, field observation, sampling and chemical analyses
Paleontologists fossils and history of life
Biogeographers distributions of living things at the present day
Hydrologists + oceanographers liquid water on the earths surfaces,
living things in water,
sediments deposited on the floor
glaciologists behavior + distributions of ice. materials deposited in the
landscape by ice
atmospheric scientists (meteorologists + climatologists) physics of the
atmosphere

Resources obtained from the earth

water (consumption + irrigation)
fuels (coal, oil, natural gas)
materials (metals + building materials)

Materials returned to the earth

solid wastes (garbage, construction, industrial products)
liquid wastes (sewage, waste water, industrial products)
gases into atmosphere

Direct impact on humans

landslides
earthquakes
volcanoes
violent weather
 climate change

Systems, Cycles and Budgets

system: a portion of the universe that can be separated from the rest
for the purpose of observing changes (isolated, closed, open) time is a
factor

isolated: theoretical ideal / imaginary concept

matter does not pass through boundaries
energy is neither lost nor gained

closed
no matter is lost of gained
energy may be exchanged with surroundings
earth approximated a closed system (almost, but not technically)

open
matter and energy is exchanged with surrounding
tricky to control
most systems on the planet (not completely balances)
o ex. oceans

the earth as a system

an almost closed system
 small amounts of gas are lost to space
small amounts of material are added by meteorites
o amounts are negligible (disregarded)
contains several major open systems (atmosphere, biosphere,
hydrosphere, geosphere.
** do not use lithosphere as a term in this diagram its a specific
layer of the geosphere **

cycles
trace the flow of material or energy through systems
energy cycle
hydrologic cycle
rock cycle
when a cycle is quantified budget

the energy cycle / budget

drives all the processes that we see operating on the earth
energy flow = measured in Watts (1 W = 1 J/s)
1st Law of Thermodynamics: conservation of energy (if assuming a
closed system)

energy pathways
energy inputs (solar radiation, geothermal energy, tidal energy)
energy loss (reflected into space, re-radiated)

solar radiation
energy comes from the sun as light, UV and other types of radiation
 incoming radiation = usually shortwave (order of terawatts, tW)
outgoing radiation (reflected) = longer wavelengths (easier to track,
hard to move through things, converted to heat evaporation /
melting)
about 30% is reflected back into space
about 50% is converted to heat and re-radiated
about 25% goes into melting ice and evaporating water; energy is
stored in the hydrosphere
negligible amounts into winds, oceans or captured by living things
(photosynthesis)

geothermal energy ~ 32tW

energy is released within the ear by the slow breakdown of
uranium, thorium and other radioactive elements
comprised of:
o volcanoes (on land and under the sea) much more under
the sea
hot springs
heat loss (conduction from the surface)
converted into movement (flowing lava, exploding geysers, shifting
land earthquakes, plate tectonics)

tidal energy ~ 27tW

gravity of the moon raises a bulge in the ocean surface
causes the movement of large quantities of water
ultimately converted to heat as water moves over the solid earth

summary of energy cycle

includes main source of energy
main pathways
reservoirs (where it is stored)
the hydrological cycle
processes go up and down and sideways
evapotranspiration (evaporation + transpiration)
evaporation from the surface water and land
transpiration (plants)
o how much a 40-50 ft. tree ~180 L/day
pathways = condensation (clouds) + precipitation (rain, snow) +
melting + surface flow glaciers, streams, rivers) + infiltrations +
groundwater movement
note: a river is a big stream
stream (constrained flow) denotes both air and water
reservoirs = oceans (98%) + ice sheets (1.5%) + groundwater
( 0.5%) + lakes, rivers, atmosphere (0.01%)

reservoir change
for most: rate of flow in = rate flow out.
volume of water in the reservoir is approximately constant
flow in > flow out, expands
flow out > flow in, contracts
ice sheet reservoir: contracting (shrinking) because melting >
snowfall

residence time
** size of reservoir / flow rate = residence time
a measure of how long the average water molecule spends in the
reservoir
typical residence time
o oceans and ice caps: 1000s of years
 o streams and rivers: a few weeks (depends on flow velocity)
o atmosphere: a few days (troposphere = lowest level with
clouds and most of cycle)
usually focused on something in the water (bioaccumulation /
contamination)
tracking how fast things move back and forth

rock cycle
cyclone of rock material at surface of the earth
rock types
processes ex. plate tectonics
magma / lava (underground magma and above-ground lava)
melting (800 1200 degrees depending on rock type)
molten rock is magma or lava
cooling and solidification igneous rock the bigger the crystal,
the bigger the magma changer it came from
weathering (different than erosion) in place, not transported
sediment
o reduced pieces
o may be deposited (deposition)
o glass / clear water transport
o frosted wind transport
erosion and transportation
o exposure allows: erosion = the wearing away of land or soil
by the action of wind, water, or ice transported after that.
sedimentary rock
o lithification
o can glue the rock together to make it harder
 o clastic sedimentary rock = sediment pieces (sandstone)
metamorphism
o heat and pressure without melting
o can come from geothermal gradient
o magma chambers
o can squish and bake it to various degrees
o change characteristics of original
o re-crystallization
metamorphic rock
o presence of new minerals
o index minerals (ex. garnet in rocks)
o change in texture (patter that the pieces inside of it make)
o fabric
o **deferential pressure being forced to grow in a specific
direction**
** dont use texture to describe minerals**
rock cycle summary:
o magma cooling igneous rock weathering erosion
sediment transportation deposition lithification
sedimentary rock metamorphism metamorphic rock
melting magma.

Time

solar system
earth orbits the sun at approximately 150 million km.
other planets extend to ~40 AU (astronomical units)
the Sun
the sun as a star
o a typical star
o ~700 000 km radius
o ~10^30 kg
o poetically known as Sol or Helios
the suns energy output
o total energy output 3.8 e26 W
o 1.8 e17 W reaches the earth
variation in suns behavior
o varies over time
o sunspots dark patches formed by turbulence within the sun
(associated with magnetic stroms on Earth)
o sunspot cycle: 11 year
source of solar energy
o nuclear fusion of hydrogen to make helium
o SOHO date, NASA determines internal layers of the sun
solar spectrum
o most output is EMR
o includes: radio waves, infrared, visible lights, UV
o X-rats, gamma rays

planet and other bodies

most stars in the sky appear in fixed configurations
planet means wandering star
visible planets
Mercury, Venus, Jupiter, Saturn, Mars

additional planets discovered with telescopes

Uranus, Neptune
Pluto

terrestrial planets
inner 4 = similar in size and probable structure
Mercury, Venus, Mars, Earth - asteroid belt next planets
rocky crust + denser rocky mantle
metallic core
**Jovian planets**

next 4 = similar in size and probable structure

Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune
Thick hydrogen rich atmosphere
liquid hydrogen interior
denser rock core
difference liquid molecular hydrogen
o liquid metallic hydrogen
o hydrogen actually forms a defined crystal lattice behaves like
a metal under extreme pressure
o dubbed super hot liquid metal
dwarf planets (5 official)
pluto (3 moon, Kuiper belt)
ceres (only one found in asteroid belt)
eres (1 moon, past and bigger than pluto, biggest in Kuiper belt)
makemake (in Kuiper belt)
haumea (2 moons, Kuiper belt)

physical laws:
gravity
o planes = maintained in orbit by gravitational forces
o varies with distance
o force is proportional to 1/d^2
shape of orbits
o elliptical shape: sun is not the center of the ellipse (confirm)
o Keplers first law: law of the ellipses
speed of travel
o speed varies (faster when closer)
o Keplers second law: equal areas
orbit periods
o period is related to distance
o p^2 ~ d^3
o Keplers third law: orbital harmony

other mobile objects in the sky

 moons, satellites orbiting the planets, asteroids, comets, meteors
(shooting stars), UFOs

comets
small bodies in highly elliptical orbits
may represent samples of early solar systems
composition = similar to Jovian planets
may contain samples of early solar system
Kuiper belt or Oort cloud
asteroids and meteors (called that if they enter earth system) (small
bodies of variable composition)
rock, metallic iron
sometimes strike called meteorites if they land.
primordial planet remnants

Origin and early history of the sun and planets

the big bang

13.7 billion years ago
age back calculation of the rate of expansion of the universe
based on Hubbles Law
spinning cloud of dust and gas formed the sun and planets
**nebula hypothesis**
Nebula hypothesis = there is a mass and as it starts to collapse in the
center of the material will start to spin and the center will continue to
contract
equatorial bulge
collision of matter
as objects get bigger creates own gravitational forces
 the plane van be tilted
**Hubbles Law = recessional velocity is proportional to distance
new study site for hint to our past
rings and moons of Saturn
Cassini-Huygens mission
Saturn has 61 satellites

Geological Time
isotopic (radiometric) ages
o absolute ages
o atoms = built from subatomic particles (protons, electrons,
neutrons)
o protons determine what atom it is
o neturons affect mass and determine what isotope it is
o electron affect bonding patterns
subatomic particles
o nucleus (P and N surrounded by electron cloud)
o cloud determines some chemical properties
neutrons and isotopes
o neutrons help bind the nucleus together
o number of neutrons can bary
o carbon 12, 13, 14 (# = weight)
o radioactive decay
unstable isotopes break down (decay)
np+e
 lose 2(n+p)
emit particles and/or energy: radioactivity
rate is predictable (enable measurement of geological
time)
o half life (t_1/2)
**time for half of the parent atoms of an isotope to
decay into its daughter
measures decay rates
decay equation
o rate of decay can also be measured by decay constant
lamda = ln(2/t_0.5) = 0.69/t_0.5
o number of atoms at time, t = related to staring # of atoms
N_0 by
o N = N_0*e^(-lamda*time)
requirements for age determination
o Must know:
half-life or decay constant of the isotope
original amount of:
parent isotope in the sample
daughter isotope in the sample
final amount of parent or daughter isotope in the
sample
**dating = what it came from**
limitations
o mineral grains must have formed at the same time as the
rock
o dating sedimentary rocks? (use other methods)
stratigraphy
o few rock contain materials that can be dated isotopically
 o for sedimentary strata
relative ages
order of strata
correlation
order of strata
o principle of original horizontality (sedimentary strata =
initially horizontal)
o principle of superposition (in an undisturbed succession,
higher rocks = younger)
correlation by lithology
o compare successions of layers
o pick the most unique / unusual section
correlation by fossils
o compare similar fossils or fossil assemblages (grouping of
species)
o can use time does not correlate with lithology
o not always specific to a specific time and/or material
o use assemblages for correlation and specific characters of
groups rather than a sing
time scale
correlation give relative timing of strata
correlation was used to develop a geological time scale
eras subdivided into periods
subsequently numberical ages were added using isotopic methods
** Know the eras and eons **

Calibrating and extending the timescale

calibration and extension = based on:
 o isotopic (absolute) ages
o fossil (relative) ages
o cross-cutting relationships
o correlations techniques
shorthand
o ka = kiloannum (thousand years before present)
o Ma = mega-annum (million years before present)
o Ga = giga-annum (billion years before present)

Cross Cutting Relationships

also shows the relative age of:

igneous intrusive relationships
o intrusion must be younger than host rock
o **intrusives = names based on size, based on orientations of
rocks around them
failts
o may be younger than surrounding rocks
unconformities
o ancient erosional surface (time gas or hiatus)
o 3 types angular conformity, disconformity, nonconformity
angular conformity
different orientations above and below
disconformity
strata have same orientation above and below
 look comfortable
looking for an actual time break
harder to identify
nonconformity
unit below is not sedimentary
unit below contact is either igneous or metamorphic
gradational or sharp boundary

Highlights of Earth History

birth of our solar system
Hadean (priscoan) 4+ Ga
Archean 2.5 to 4 Ga
Proterozoic 543 Ma 2.5 Ga
Phanerozoic 0 543 Ma
o Paleozoic 248 Ma 543 Ma
o Mesozoic
o Cenozoic

Hadeon Eon
Priscoan
Period before ealiest rocks
heating from radioactive decay melted most of early earth
intense meteorite bombardment (4-4.2 Ga)
suspect there was liquid water present
Archean Eon
starts with earliest known rocks
interior of earth was hotter than now (more radioactive isotopes)
atmosphere = mainly CO2 + nitrogen
O2 was stored in other mineral deposits and not necessarily in the
atmosphere
firs evidence of life around 3.5 Ga

Proterozoic Eon
start defined at at 2.5 Ga
tectonic system probably similar to present-day
single celled organisms became abundant
increasing O2 in atmosphere
cyanobacteria and algae
break up of Rhodinia
the snowball earth
rapid climate change
massive evolutionary changes

Phanerozoic Eon
Paleozoic Era
o Stars with first animal shell fossils (545 Ma)
o only habitable place was water
o rapid increase in animal diversity
 o land coloized by plants around 400 Ma
o followed by first land animals (insects and amphibians)
Mesozoic Era
o Triassic Period
time of transition
Pangaea altered climate and circulation patterns
diversification of the survivors of the Permian extinction
more group hunting techniques
o Jurassic Period
big herbivores and carnivores
contrary to movies T-rex = not alive at this time
Pangaea splits
o Cretaceous Period
1st fossils of:
many insect groups
modern mammals and birds
flowering plants
Pangaea continues to separate
few new dinosaurs appeared
Cenozoic Era
o stars at a major extinction event 65 Ma
o rise of land mammals not too many predators
o 1st humans (humanoid) 7 Ma
o major climate shifts: global warming vs. global cooling
 o currently earth is still undergoing changes plate tectonics
(partial melting and weathering), human alterations.

Minerals
naturally occurring
inorganic
fixed composition or range of composition
cannot be man made
solid
repeating atomic structure (crystalline)
atoms and elements
about 90 = naturally occurring elements commonly portrayed on
the periodic table
top 8 elements in the crust = Fe, O, Si, Mg, Ni, S, Ca, Al
atoms and bonding
remember: electrons = responsible for chemical properties
unfilled outer shells = unstable
want to promote stability
ions
atoms that have lost or gained electrons
(+) = cations
(-) = anions
higher charge difference = often strong bonds
Bonding
ionic bonding
o attraction between ions of opposite charge transfer of
electrons
o most minerals (90%)
covalent bonding
o very strong attraction between two or more atoms
o share electrons in a mutually beneficial relationship
o 3D covalent bonding of carbon = diamond
metallic bonding
o hybrid bonding
o covalent bond where electrons = free to move amongst ions
electrical glue
Van der Waals
o more like static cling
o attracted to the electrons
o positions in the molecules that are more positively and
negatively charged
o layers are attracted to each toher
o very weak + easy to break
crystals
o bonding is solids typically produces a crystal lattice
o regular arrangement
o controls many mineral properties
** when looking at minerals impurities are not included in the
chemical formulas
mineral properties
crystal habits
o crystal shape
o reflects internal crystal structure constant inter facial
angles
o very diagnostic of the mineral
o ex.
quartz hexagonal or euhedral
halite cubic
o given time and space
can grow very large
limited space minerals will interlock
hardness
o measure of the ease with which the surface can be scratched
o Mohs hardness scale
devised by Friedrich Mohs Austrian mineralogist
not a linear scale
o finger nail = 2.5
o knife blade = 5
cleavage vs. fracture
o Cleavage:
repeated geometrical break pattern
tendency of the mineral to break
cleavage face (plane)
planar surface that has broken through the weak
bond between atoms or molecules
 # of planes and geometric pattern of the cleavage
= diagnostic
# of planes (1-4)
describe the angle at which they meet
cleavage and bonding
ability to cleave varies inversely with bond
strength
polymorphs?
o Fracture
** tendency of the mineral to break along irregular
surfaces of weakness
irregular brekas
NOT cleavage planes
irregular paths of bond weakness irregular fracture
surfaces
ex. wavy, step-like what it resembles
color
o interaction of light (reflected and transmitted) within the
mineral
o controlled by composition
o color is NOT a diagnostic trait
o if you are describing a sample
streak
o colour of mineral when powdered
o more diagnostic than colour
lustre
o sheen or reflectivity
o metallic or not
o quality of reflected light from a mineral surface
 metals = good lustre
non-metals = earthy, glass, resinous, pearly, etc.
other properties
o magnetism
o effervescence (reactivity with HCl) indicates calcites or
carbonates
o iridescence play of colors due to internal reflections (ex.
Opal)
o striation distinct growth patterns
o fluorescence flow under UV (ex. scheelite)

elements in the crust

rock-forming minerals: most = combinations of Si + O with the 6
metals (silicate minerals)
silicates (SiO4)^4-
most abundant minerals in the earths crus
divided based on crystal structure (basice structure silica
tetrahedron)
most common citations = Na^+, K^+, Al^3+, etc.
tetrahedral linkages
several ways of linking tetrahedral together
results in distinct classes of silicates
in most cases tetrahedral link by sharing O molecules
cleavage is important ;)
silicate classifications
nesosilicates isolated / single tetrahedral
cyclosilicateds hexagonal rings
inosilicates single/double chain
 phyllosilicates sheet
tectosilicates framework or network
useful group for rocks:
Quartz
o SiO2
o most common single mineral at the surfaces
o several varieties = semi-precious
Feldspars:
o Most abundant mineral group in crus
o Contain Al, O, Si +/- Na, K, Ca
o 3D frameworks
o End members:
Orthoclase: KAlSi3O8
Alibte: NaAlSi3O8
Anorthite: CaAl2Si2O8
Ferro-magnesium silicates
o dark rocks
o main constituent of the mantle
o Fe + Mg
chain, ring, and sheet silicates
usually black, brown, or green
weather very easily and quickly
Micas and Clays
o micas:
 sheet silicates
split easily
vary from black to white
o clays:
form sheets that can absorb or lose water
byproduct of weathering of other minerals
non-silicates
no Si
may form compounds or single elements
numerous groupings
based on compositions
carbonates (CO3)^2-
most important and largest group of non-silicates
carbonate ion typically precipitated out of seawater by organisms
(ex. limestons)
most common forms calcite (CaCO3), dolomit CaMg(CO3)2
sulphates (SO4)^2-
sulphate anion forms from a tetrahedron
gypsum CaSO4*2H2O evaporate precipitate from water
anyhydrite CaSO4
sulphides (S^2-)
sulfide anions and metallic cations
no oxygen
important ore minerals: copper, zinc, lead, and nickel
o pyrite
 o sphalerite
o galena
Oxides vs. Hydroxides
oxygen = ionically bonded to metallic cations
oxides contain oxygen
hydroxides contain hydroxyl (OH-)
important for economic minerals: hematit, magnetite, brucite
Halides
salt deposits
contain halogens (Cl-, F-, Br-,I-)
chemically precipitated
evaporitesL halite, sylvite
native elements:
neutral atoms no ions
metallic elements held together by metallic bonding (precious,
base metals)
covalent bonding: semi-metallic elements, non-metallic elements

Rocks
record of geological processes and earth history
o look at texture, mineralolgy and chemical compositions
end products of processes involved in the generation of that rock
solid, cohesive aggregate of crystals or grains of one or more
minerals (exceptions = volcanic glasses non crystalline rocks)
all rocks = either igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic
the rock cycle
the transition (recycling of a rock type into another)

igneous rocks
born in fire (crystallization from molten rock)
extrusive and intrusive forms
various compositions and textures based on where they solidified,
temperature, pressure , whether water was present
texture
o intrusive (plutonic rocks)
magma cools below the earths surface
surrounding rock acts as an insulator
magma cools slowly crystals have time to grow
relatively large + coarse grained (phaneric)
o extrusive (volcanic rocks)
rapid cooling at the earths surface in air or water
microscopic crystals, fine grained (aphanitic)
2 major types: lava + pyroclastics (fire fragment_ -
molten rocks and minerals+ ash (<2mm) to Pelees hair
(very fine hair-like mass) to bobs (up to few m3)
volcanic ash
small minerals and volcanic debris (dust and particuates)
volcanic ash is very important in climate change studies
composition types
o varies from felsic to mafic
o compositions between the two ends are termed intermediate
o rock type depends mainly on wt. proportion of: free quartz,
feldspars, Fe-Mg minerals
igneous material is (generally)
 hard and isotropic due to their crystalline texture
formed under conditions very different than found at the Earths
surface
brought to the surface via plate tectonics or volcanism
turning rocks to regolith
all rocks can be weathered by: eater, wind, ice, humans
rates are variable
controlled by: properties of parent rock, climate (the amount of
water present etc.), soil, time
weathering
break down of rocks at the earths surface (chemical and physical)
erosion
they move
physical weathering
physical breakup of material
creating features
increasing surface area
no compositional changes
stress applied exceeds strength
biological weathering
ice (thermal changes)
exfoliations
mineral crystallization
human activities
chemical weathering
mineral are dissolved and/or chemically altered
 change particle size
weaken the integrity of the material
attacks the weakest materials in the rock first
chemical reactions
solution (dissolutions) dissolve carbonate minerals by adding
carbonic acid (rain water)
hydrolysis dissolve feldspars to form clays
hydration add water without releasing material
oxidation weathering of iron silicates to iron oxides
to weather or not to weather
o the more stable a mineral, the more slowly it reacts
o generally, minerals that formed at a high T and/or P at depth
= unstable at the Earths surface
o Bowens reaction series
Sediments
unconsolidated material can be loosened and transported
sediment characteristics and sedimentary structures can tell us how
and how long the material has moved
sorting distribution of grain size in a sample, increased when
carried by water or wind
conglomerate = packed into a rick
sedimentary structures
many types
often diagnostic of a particular environment or mode of transport
dunes, ripples
bioturbation good environmental indicator
mudcracks the deeper the crack the more extensive the
temperature and moisture changes will be, in desert and permafrost
environment, can be saved in samples
secondary representative of happening after deposition
 over time diagenesis
secondary procedures
sediment piles overlying wight increases extra space is
squeezed out (compaction) fluids may precipitate out and
cement the pieces together
o sedimentary rock
o chemical changes
sedimentary rocks: clastic/detrital
derived from pre-existing rocks (sediments)
carried in a fluid medium by suspension, solutions or traction
subsequently deposited, compressed, cemented, lithified
maned using clast or grain size
classes: conglomerate, breccia, sandstone, siltstone, mudstone /
claystone. shale
precipitated
common in watemer, drier environments
crystals from precipitations or growth from solution
chemical sedimentary
rock: limestone (calcite), chert (opal/chalcedony/quartz),
dolostone (dolomite), iron formation (hematite/limonite/siderite),
evaporate (gypsum/anhydrite/halite/other salts), phosphorite
(apatite)
** organics (not rocks) depending on the condition will give you coal,
oil, gas.

Soils:
continued weathering of sediments
definition (Canadian system of soil classification):
o naturally occurring
o unconsolidated must have undergone physical weathering
o mineral organic material
 o at least 10cm thick
o occurs at the surface of the Earth
o capable of supporting plant grown
soil development form better on flatter surfaces
climate
organisms biological component
relief determines erosion and if it is going to stay put
parent material what weathering processes are going to occur
time
soil structure
distinct layers (horizons) designated as O, A, B, or C with modifiers
(describes a process or content within the later) g, y, h, etc.
must have C dont need B
other countries may have other horizons
A horizon
zone of leaching or illuviation of mineral and organic matter (OM)
maximum OM accumulation
generally coarse texture than B
want a thick A for crop-growing
B horizon
zone of accumulate or illuviation
mineral (clay, oxides, slat) or OM transferred from the A horizon
brown
C horizon
parent material (pre-existing sediment)
 shows some weathering due to soil processes (primarily
mechanical)
laterites
wet warm climates
deep red, highly leached clayey
ultimate end product of chemicals weathering
a change in T and P
continued burial may change pressure conditions and/or
temperature
applies to sediments and sedimentary rocks
organic rich material also experience significant changes
raist the T and/or P a wee bit more
if T and/or P continues to increase, possibly due to:
o increasing sediment later thickness in basins
o converging plates
o proximity to hot magma bodies
enter the realm of metamorphisms
metamorphism
several types and scenarios
grade varies from low to high
name depends on the composition of the protolith, the grad and
whether pressure (stress) is directed or not
contact metamorphism
low to high grade
highest grade is immediately adjacent to heat source
need to memorize names
o unaltered limestone
 o marble (all calcite)
o calcite + chlorite + serpentine
o garnet + pyroxene
regional metamorphism
many different types of pressure changes
look for layers and index (weird) minerals
metamorphic facies
the types of metamorphic rock can tell us much about its
environment of formation
used to infer plate tectonic behavior
rock cycle pathways and climate
several pathways in the rock cycle have other climatic influences
composition and style
concerned more with the pyroclastic aspect of eruptions
SiO2 content is critical in eruption style
to run or not to run
mafic rich magma/lava vs. more felsic rich
composition affect viscosity
viscosity affects explosiveness
the most dangerous ones
pacific ring of fire historys famous volcanic eruptions + major
climate and weather changes
most significant of the volcanoes = stratovolcanoes (composites)
strato volcanoes
AKA composite volcanoes
commonly intermediate in composition
 variable viscosity
commonly include increased water content (phreatic)
source of many volcanic hazard
large scale eruptions
height and amount of material emitted into the atmosphere can
cause reduced solar radiation (temporary initially due to ash
content) + longer term temperature drops related to SO x aerosols
extinctions
extensive period of volcanism (climate deterioration + suspected
culprit Permian extinction)
or a few really bid extinctions toba ~74000 BP
volcanic activity has contribute to mass extinction not the main
cause
tectonic uplift
creates obstacles that control atmospheric flow patterns (rain
shadow effect, Chinooks, breezes)
differential heating
plate tectonics change relief
variable temperatures due to sun angles and heat capacity
differences
changes precipitation patterns (affect on weathering? affects geo,
hydro, biosphere)
mass wasting
increased mass wasting
increased slow failures may cause
o damming of rivers causing flooding
o removal of vegetation and soil disturbances
carbon cycle
strongly affect by rock cycle
common link between climate components
o weathering removes it from atmosphere
 o lithification confines it
o biological organisms need it
o metamorphism and volcanic eruptions release it

The Tectonic System

internal structure of the earth
by physical properties behavioral/rheological (refers to plate
tectonics not composition)
by chemical composition
division of earth by physical
atmosphere (gas) hydrosphere (liquid) lithosphere (solid rock
rigid and cold, likes to break not bend under stress)
asthenosphere (rock, partially molten more ductile)
mesosphere (solid rock, hot enough to be molten but is under more
pressure) outer core (liquid, metallic) inner core (solid with
metallic properties)
by chemical
o atmosphere (nitrogen + oxygen) hydrosphere (water)
crust (oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron, magnesium) mantle
(oxygen, silicon, magnesium, iron) core (iron + nickel)
division of crust by chemical composition
continental crust (less dense rock, more Si and Al)
ocean crust (more dense rock, more Fe, Mg) higher mafic
component
lithosphere plate and plate boundaries
lithosphere = divided into plates
plates move a few cm/year
3 types of boundaries
bigger the plate, the more variation
plate boundary types
spreading centers
subduction zones
transform faults
spreading centres (characteristics):
occurs mainly beneath oceans
marked by a ridge
rises 2-3 km above surrounding ocean floor
submarine volcanoes and earthquake activity
forms new lithosphere
Iceland rare example above sea level
subduction zones
AKA convergent boundary
deep trenches around pacific ocean
looks like rifts but dont pull apart
symmetrical in terms of orientation
parallel mountain range
ring of fire
most ring pacific boundary
Benioff zone (deep earthquakes)
melting in mantle produces magma
volcanic arc
orogens (mountain belts)
location of volcanism
deep earthquakes
Benioff zone
transform faults
AKA transcurrent plate boundary
 eventually turn into subduction zones
not perfectly horizontal
many smaller one along mid-ocean ridges
larger ones cut continental crust
frequent shallow earthquakes
ex. San Andreas fault
dextral (right-lateral) vs. sinistral (left-lateral)
not a plate boundary
some hot spots (stationary)
some mantle plumes
direct measurement of plate movement
GPS
network of satellites
provides very accurate locations
re-occupied sites
reoccupying sites over a period of years
measure plate movements directly
plate movement velocities
plate movement velocities are in good agreement with those
determined from magnetic anomalies
mechanism of plate movement
must be a type of convections
convection in the earth
several convection models
hot things rise
 materials move up
if it moves sideways pull things apart
lithospheric drag
gravity
paleomagentism
the earths magnetic field
remnant magnetizations and apparent polar wander paths
magnetic reversals and anomalies on the ocean floor
earths magnetic field
earth behaves like there is a bar magnet in the core
direction of the magnetic field
field at any place inclination (steepness) vs. declination
(direction)
inclination = distance from pole
declination = direction to pole
remanent magnetism
some ancient rocks were (weakly) magnetized when formed
remnant magnetism
fossil compass needles
if age of rocks are known rem magnetism = ancient location of
poles
polar wandering
pole appears to wave wandered through time
apparent polar wander path (APWP)
either the pole more or the continent moved
relative movement of the continents
different continents show different APWPs
 hence it must be the continents that moved
pole is not the one migrating
helped to figure out where each plate was piecing together
supercontinents
magnetic reversals
N+S magnetic poles appear to have flipped through time
simulated behavior of the core
reversal timescale
time scale of magnetic reversals
linear magnetic anomalies
magnetic anomaly = field slightly stronger / weaker than normal
surveys in the oceans show: central positive anomaly + symmetric
pattern
origin = anomaly patter resembles 2 tape-recording of the magnetic
reversal history
age of the ocean floor
match anomalies with reversal history
measure rates
map age of ocean floor
new ocean floor = found along mid-ocean ridges
Pangea + Rodinia
earthquakes and seismicity
intensity and magnitude are different things
seismic waves
origin of earthquakes
locating earthquakes
earthquakes at plate boundaries
 interior of the earth
measuring ground shaking
ancient seismic detector
tradition seismograph
seismometer
epicenter (directly above focus) vs. focus (point of rupture)
epicenter doesnt mean it gets the most damage
seismic waves
body and surface waves
body waves: P-waves
body wave = primary of P-waves
similar to sound waves
compression and expansion (dilation)
vibration direction parallel to propagation
pass through solid, liquid or gas
3-7 km/s in the crust
more compact + dense = faster moving
body waves: S-waves
body waves = secondary or S-waves
shear waves
vibration direction = perpendicular to propagation
solids only
1.5-5km/s in the crust
surface waves (on land)
 form when body waves reach the surface
slower but larger than body waves
cause most damage
Rayleigh vs. love waves
intensity
strength of ground shaking at a point
depends on many factors (ex. distance from focus)
roman numeral
magnitude
measure of total energy released
Richter
ground movement at standardized distance
log scale modern scale based on Richters + each step on scale
mulplies energy by square root of 1000
o ex. M8 released 1000 times more energy than M6
moment magnitude = amount of energy at rupture (focus)
m * and bigger occur in clusters
tsunami waves
surface waves on the ocean via water displacement
low on open ocean (~1m) = 600 km/hr +
in shallow water slow down get higher (>10m) devastate
coastal communities
origin of earthquakes
result from elastic strain followed by brittle fracture / failure
processes occur ni cold rocks (<70 km deep)
finding the distance from an earthquake
 distance of focus = from interval between P and S arrival
earthquakes and the interior of the earth
P waves from major earthquake
evidence from P waves
evidence for core
P-waves = refracted by core
acts as lens
interior: evidence from S-waves
s-waves for major earthquakes
S-waves and the core
S-waves = blocked by liquid core
evidence for core
distortion of plates
gravity measurement
vertical movements: isostasy buoyancy of upper layers ( think of
it as a mattress)
horizontal shortening: orogenesis
measuring gravity
measurements made with a gravimeter
can e influenced by thickness distance related difference
and by density at different depths
gravity variations
slightly stronger over dense rocks
weaker over less dense rocks
sea level = 0
gravity and crystal thickness
many negative gravity anomalies = due to thick, low density crust
isostasy
describes many things. Ex. sea level changes
rebounding
rifting and spreading
new ocean basin formed by rifting
rifting may eventually lead to opening a new ocean
ancient rift
rifting of an ancient continent let to opening of Atlantic ocean
mountain belts
plates = not perfectly rigid
later zones of distortion where continental crust is involved in
subduction
typically or high mountain ranges (orogens) crustal thickening
rocks within orogens are crumpled (deformed)
cordilleran orogens
continental an oceanic crust above a subduction zone
collision orogens
forms when 2 continents collide
crust = low density
isostasy prevent subduction