Aci 207.3R-94

ACI 207.
3R-94
Practices for Evaluation of Concrete

in Existing Massive Structures
for Service Conditions
Reported by ACI Committee 207
John M. Scanlon
Chairman
Fred A. Anderson James R. Graham

Howard L. Boggs Michael I. Hammons
Dan A. Bonikowsky Kenneth D. Hansen
Richard A.J. Bradshaw Allen J. Hulshizer
Edward G.W. Bush Meng K. Lee
Robert W. Cannon Gary R. Mass
James L. Cope Robert F. Oury
Luis H. Diaz Ernest K. Schrader
Timothy P. Dolen Stephen B. Tatro
Terry W. West
Current methods available for evaluating physical properties of concrete in Chapter 2- Preinspection and In-Service Inspection, p.
existing structures to determine its capability of performing satisfactorily 207.3R-2
under service conditions identified and discussed. Although general
knowledge of the structural design used for the principal structures 2.1-Preconstruction evaluation
of a project is essential to determine procedures and locations 2.2-Design criteria
for evaluation of the concrete physical properties, analysis for the 2.3-Concrete laboratory records
of determining structural capability is not within the scope of this report. 2.4-Batch plant and field inspection records
The report recommends project design , operation and maintenance records 2.5-Operation and maintenance records
and in-service inspection data to be reviewed. Existing methods of making
condition surveys and nondestructive tests are reviewed; destructive phe- 2.6-In-service inspections
nomena are identified methods for evaluation of tests and survey data are
presented and finally, preparation of the final report is discussed Chapter 3-In-situ Condition Surveys and Testing, p.
207.3R-4
Keywords: Alkali-aggregate reaction; alkali-carbonate reaction; cavitation;
cements; chemical analysis; concrete cores; concrete dams; concrete durability;
3.1-Surface damage surveys
cracking (fracturing); elastic properties; erosion; evaluation; extensometers; impact 3.2-Joint surveys
tests inspection; laboratories maintenance; mass concrete; non-destructive tests; 3.3-Vibration load testing
nuclear power plants; post-tensioning; pozzolans; resurfacing sampling; seepage:
serviceability; spalling. static tests stresses; surveys; x-ray diffraction.
3.4-In-situ stress determinations
3.5-Supplemental instrumentation
CONTENTS 3.6-Geophysical logging
3.7-Down hole video camera
Chapter l-Introduction, p. 207.3R-2 3.8-Seepage monitoring
l.l-Scope 3.9-Nondestructive testing
1.2-Objective
1.3-Report Chapter 4-Sampling and Laboratory Testing, p. 207.3R-
10
4.1-Core drilling and testing
ACI Committee Reports, Guides, Standard Practices, and
Commentaries are intended for guidance in designing, plan- ACI 207.3R-94 supersedes ACI 207.3R-79 (Revised 1985) and became effective
ning, executing, or inspecting construction and in preparing July 1. 1994.
specifications. References to these documents shall not be Copyright 0 1994, American Concrete Institute.
AU rights reserved. including rights of reproduction and use in any form or by
made in the Project Documents. If items found in these
any means, including themaking of copies by any pboto process, or by any elec-
documents are desired to be part of the Project Docu- tronic or mechanical device, printed. written, or oral, or recording for sound or
ments, they should be phrased in mandatory language and visual reproduction for use in any knowledge or retrieval system or device, unless
incorporated into the Project Documents. permission in writing is obtained from the copyright proprietors.
207.3R-1
207.3R-2 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
4.2-Petrographic analysis change in physical properties of concrete which could

4.3-Chemical analysis affect the capability of the concrete to meet performance
4.4-Physical tests requirements in the future.
4.5-Report
1.3-Report
Chapter 5-Damage, p. 207.3R-13 The prepared report should identify and evaluate pro-
5.1-Origin of distress perties of the concrete as they relate to the design cri-
5.2-Considerations for repair and rehabilitation teria of the project structures, but should not preempt
the structural engineers responsibility for determining if
Chapter 6-Report, p. 207.3R-14 the structures of the project are meeting design require-
6.1-General ments. Photographic and graphic presentation of investi-
6.2-Contents of report gation data should be utilized to a maximum practical ex-
tent. The report is an essential tool for those charged
Chapter 7-References, p. 207.3R-15 with the final responsibility of determining the structural
7.1-Recommended references adequacy and safety of the project.
7.2-Cited references
CHAPTER l-INTRODUCTION CHAPTER 2-PREINSPECTION AND

IN-SERVICE INSPECTION
Deteriorating infrastructure continues to be a growing
concern. Accurate information on the condition of con- Arrangements prior to an inspection should be made
crete in a massive structure is critical to evaluating its to obtain or have access to all available records and data
safety and serviceability. This information is required by pertaining to the structure. Pertinent engineering data to
decision makers to determine if repair or replacement is be reviewed include design criteria and memoranda, con-
necessary and to select optimum repair techniques where struction progress reports, instrumentation records, oper-
conditions require. ation and maintenance records, and to the extent avail-
The guidelines for evaluating the serviceability of able, preconstruction data. Information on adjacent
concrete described herein apply to massive concrete projects, additions, or modifications which may affect a
structures such as dams or other hydraulic structures, change in the original design conditions should also be
bridge foundations and piers, building and reactor foun- reviewed.
dations, and other applications which qualify to be con-
sidered mass concrete. Mass concrete is defined in ACI 2.1-Preconstruction evaluation
116R as any volume of concrete with dimensions large Engineering data relating to design criteria, design site
enough to require that measures be taken to cope with conditions, purpose of project, and construction planning
the generation of heat and attendant volume change to and procedure should be collected and arranged for ease
minimize cracking. The practices described pertain to of information retrieval. Documents which are readily
concrete placed either by conventional means or by roller available can be assembled first. Data which are missing
compaction. but deemed necessary for evaluation should be identified.
In addition to this report, other documents such as A suggested list of data to be reviewed is as follows:
ACI 201.1R, ACI 201.2R, ACI 224.1R, ACI 228.1R, ACI 2.1.1 Project description documents
437R, and ASTM C 823 provide good tools for those 2.1.1.1 For a hydroelectric plant, the Federal
evaluating concrete in existing massive structures. Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) licensed applica-
tion
1.1-Scope 2.1.1.2 For a nuclear plant: the Preliminary Safety
This report focuses on practices used to evaluate Analysis Report (PSAR)
concrete in existing massive structures. Design consid- 2.1.1.3 All formal and final completion reports
erations, evaluation of existing operating records and past 2.12 Contract documents
inspection reports, condition surveys, maintenance 2.1.3.1 Contract documents: technical specifications
reports, determination of in-situ conditions, instrumen- and drawings including modifications or addendums
tation, identification of damage, and final evaluation of 2.1.2.2 As-built drawings
concrete are principal subjects which are covered. 2.1.2.3 Original issue drawings
2.1.3 Regional data
1.2-Objective 2.1.3.1 Land use map showing location of structure
The objective of this report is twofold: (a) to present and its relationship to surrounding localities
current methods available for evaluating the capability of 2.1.3.2 Topographic map of site and drainage area
mass concrete to meet design criteria under service con- 2.1.3.3 Geologic plans and sections
ditions, and (b) to present procedures to detect the 2.1.3.4 Seismic data
CONCRETE IN MASSIVE STRUCTURES 207.3R-3
2.1.3.5 Reservoir volume versus elevation curve 2.3.2.4 Unit weight or, for roller compacted con-
2.1.4 Site subsurface data crete, compacted density measurements
2.1.4.1 Logs of borings 2.3.2.5 Temperature records including complete
2.1.4.2 Geological maps, profiles, and cross sections thermal history, if available
2.1.4.3 Soils investigation, availability of test results 2.3.2.6 Records of strength tests
2.1.4.4 Foundation treatment reports 2.3.2.7 Admixtures including air-entraining agents
2.1.4.5 Water table elevation used, percent air entrained.
2.1.4.6 Geohydrologic data
2.1.5 Site surface data 2.4-Batch plant and field inspection records
2.1.5.1 Control elevations 2.4.1 Storage and processing of aggregates
2.1.5.1.a For buildings: finished grade, basement, 2.4.1.1 Stockpiles
floors, roof, etc. 2.4.1.2 Rinsing and finish screens for coarse aggre-
2.1.5.1.b For dams and spillways: Crest, maxi- gate
mum and minimum reservoir surface, outlet works, maxi- 2.4.1.3 Bins or silos
mum and minimum tailwater, etc. 2.4.2 Cement, pozzolan and admixture storage and
2.1.6 Drainage handling
2.1.6.1 Detail of drains in structure and foundation 2.4.3 Forms
2.1.7 Environmental 2.4.3.1 Type and bracing, tightness of joints
2.1.7.1 Temperatures: Maximum, minimum, and 2.4.3.2 Tie interval for stripping
mean daily 2.4.3.3 Method of finish or cleanup of unformed
2.1.7.2 Precipitation, maximum, and mean annual surfaces
2.1.7.3 Average humidity and range 2.4.4 Preparation and condition of construction joints
2.1.7.4 Number of sunny days 2.4.5 Mixing operation
2.1.7.5 Exposure: To sulfates; to organic acids; to 2.4.5.1 Type of batch plant
deleterious atmospheric gases 2.4.5.2 Type of mixing equipment and mixing time
2.4.5.3 Condition of equipment
2.2-Design criteria 2.4.5.4 Monitoring and control practices
2.2.1 Design memorandum or report 2.4.5.5 Any unscheduled interruptions due to plant
2.2.2 Values of static and intermittent loadings, wind, breakdown or weather
temperature, impact, loads 2.4.5.6 Any scheduled seasonal interruption
2.2.3 For hydraulic structures: hydrostatic and hydrody- 2.4.6 Method of transporting concrete: Pumps, chutes,
namic loads conveyor belts, trucks, buckets, etc.
2.2.4 Type of analysis: static, dynamic 2.4.7 Method of placing concrete
2.4.7.1 Where vibrated: lift heights, vibrator types
2.3-Concrete laboratory records and number
2.3.1 Materials used 2.4.7.2 Where roller compacted: layer thickness,
2.3.1.1 Cement roller type
2.3.1.1.a Certified mill test records including 2.4.8 Concrete protection
fineness moduli 2.4.8.1 Curing methods: Water ponding or spray;
2.3.1.1.b Additional physical and chemical pro- curing compounds; shading; starting time and duration
perties tests 2.4.8.2 Hot weather protection
2.3.1.2 Pozzolan 2.4.8.3 Cold weather protection
2.3.1.2.a Certified test records
2.3.1.2.b Physical and chemical properties 2.5-Operation and maintenance records
2.3.1.3 Aggregates 2.5.1 Operation records
2.3.1.3.a Type and source(s) 2.5.1.1 Instrumentation data
2.3.1.3.b Gradation 2.5.1.3 Seepage: amount with time, type and loca-
* 2.3.1.3.c Summary of physical and chemical pro- tion of measuring device
perties as specified in ASTM C 33 2.5.1.3 Unusual loading conditions
2.3.1.3-d Results of tests for potential reactivity 2.5.1.3.a Earthquake
2.3.1.3-e Report of petrographic examination 2.5.1.3.b Floods
2.3.1.4 Mixing water quality tests 2.5.1.3.c Extreme temperatures (temporary and
2.3.2 Concrete records prolonged)
2.3.2.1 Mix proportions 2.5.1.3.d Operational failure
2.3.2.2 Water-cement ratio 2.5.1.4 Change in operating procedures
2.3.2.3 Slump or, for roller compacted concrete, 2.5.1.5 Shutdown of all or parts of the system
Vebe time 2.5.1.6 Increased loads or loadings
2.5.2 Maintenance records 2.6.3 Periodic inspections-Periodic inspections are

2.5.2.1 Location and extent generally conducted at a frequency of 2 to 10 years and
2.5.2.2 Type of maintenance are the same in nature or objective as routine inspec-
2.5.2.3 Dates of repair tions. However, periodic inspections entail a more
2.5.2.4 Repair materials detailed study. Periodic inspections are generally asso-
2.5.2.5 Performance of repaired work ciated with higher risk structures or projects and sup-
plement the routine inspections. However, it should be
2.6-In-service Inspections emphasized that, unless changes in the appearance or
2.6.1 General-Most organizations monitor the perfor- performance of the concrete or concrete structures are
mance of completed structures to assure that they noted, extensive periodic inspections may not be neces-
function safely and in accordance with the design. The sary.
monitoring may be part of the owners operation and Periodic inspections may include considerable prepara-
maintenance program or may be required by law.1,2 Ser- tion such as dewatering or arranging means for inspecting
vice records are generally more complete for recently submerged portions of a structure, excavating inspection
constructed structures than for older structures as the trenches. Also a comprehensive review of instrumenta-
concern for public safety has increased in recent years. tion data, design and operating criteria, etc. may be re-
The scope of surveillance can vary widely between organ- quired for a complete evaluation. In addition the periodic
izations and may depend to an even greater extent on the inspection may include sampling of seepage and reservoir
size and nature of the project or structure and potential waters, nondestructive testing, and determination of
hazards it may present. stress conditions. The amount of investigative work
In order to properly compare and evaluate the existing necessary usually depends on the condition of the con-
condition of concrete in massive structures, it is essential crete. It should yield sufficient detailed information to
to review these in-service records which may also include provide practical guidance for the selection of the best
routine and periodic inspections. method of repair or maintenance work. In some cases,
2.6.2 Routine inspections-Routine inspection by var- the actual maintenance work may be accomplished at the
ious organizations are generally made at a frequency of same time as the periodic inspection. The scope of the
6 months to 2 years. They commonly consist of a visual inspection should also include identification of causes of
examination of the condition of the exposed and acces- deterioration. Methods and techniques for performing
sible concrete in various components of a structure or investigative work in connection with periodic inspections
project. Submerged structures or portions thereof may be are discussed in detail in Chapters 2 and 3.
visually examined by a diver or by a remotely-operated 2.6.4 Inspection reports and records-The in-service in-
vehicle (ROV) with an on-board video camera. In some spection reports and records previously described are in
cases, visual examination may be supplemented by non- essence a history of the project or structure from which
destructive tests as described in Chapter 3 to indicate future performance can be predicted. In addition to a
certain properties and conditions of the in-situ concrete qualitative description, the information presented may
at that particular time, such as compressive strength, supply actual values which can be utilized in structural
modulus of elasticity, and presence of voids and cracking. analysis and comparison with the original design.
Data from instrumentation embedded in the concrete Documentation of the inspections should be on file
may also be available. A comparison of the concrete pro- with the owner or responsible authority.
perties, conditions and instrumentation at each inspection
interval are useful analysis tools and may reveal abnor-
mal changes. CHAPTER 3-IN-SITU CONDITION
Immediately after placing the structure in service SURVEYS AND TESTING
frequent inspections are made so that performance can
be assessed and, if necessary, modifications made to the A condition survey includes a visual examination of
design and operating practices. Inspections made there- exposed concrete to identify and define areas of distress
after are directed at identifying any changes in condition and examination of interior concrete. Conditions are
of the concrete or concrete properties which may affect described in common terminology for further investiga-
the integrity of the structure and its future serviceability. tion. The appendix to ACI 201.1R presents terms associ-
Inspections may be performed by trained technicians or ated with the durability of concrete and a series of
qualified engineers depending on the program estab- photographs typical of these conditions. ACI 201.1R
lished. A report describing the findings of each routine should be reviewed prior to making a condition survey.
inspection generally notes any changed conditions, con- ASTM C 823 contains additional information useful in
tains photographs of the conditions and recommends cor- conducting a condition survey. The inspection should in-
rective action. Further in-depth investigations may be clude a check list of items of concern identified in pre-
initiated if for any reason problems are suspected. vious inspections and additional items based upon the
Documentation of the inspection and any action taken inspector(s) experience andstate-of-the-art advancements
are generally filed with the owner. on evaluation techniques.
Testing is conducted to determine conditions of stress clude excavation, dewatering the structure, observation by
and strain; concrete properties, homogeneity, and inte- submerged video camera mounted on a remotely-oper-
grity; loads on the structure; and structural movement. ated vehicle (ROV), diver inspection, and sounding.
The investigator should also consider a review of Dewatering or excavation are usually the most expensive
design computations to identify areas which may be more and, therefore, are generally done only when there is
highly stressed and susceptible to cracking. It is con- concern about safety of the structure.
sidered good practice to sample concrete in such areas. Failure to properly identify and correct surface
The adequacy of the foundation, capacity of hydraulic damage can result in excessive wear or cavitation. This
structures and such factors as uplift, horizontal and may cause loss of the design hydraulic characteristics,
vertical movement, seepage and erosion are considered mechanical equipment malfunction and, in extreme cases,
only as they affect the durability, cracking, and strength the loss of structural stability.
of concrete. 3.1.1 Surface mapping
Although the objective of this report is to evaluate the 3.1.1.1 Scope-Surface mapping may consist of
material properties, and not the structural adequacy of detailed drawings produced from hand mapping, still
the concrete, it is important to review design require- photographic or video mapping, or a combination of
ments and criteria used for the structures of the project these and similar techniques. Surface maps become a
prior to undertaking materials investigations. This review permanent record of the condition of the concrete at the
permits realistic planning of investigations. For example, time each survey is made and are an integral part of the
strength, elastic properties, and the condition of the report. Items most often identified and mapped include:
boundary concrete particularly at the abutments are im- cracking, spalling, scaling, popouts, honeycombing, exu-
portant in arch dams. However, in gravity dams strength dation, distortion, unusual discoloration, erosion, cavi-
may not be as important, but cracking, leakage, founda- tation, seepage, conditions of joints and joint materials,
tion uplift pressures, etc., will be of prime importance. corrosion of reinforcement (if exposed), and soundness
Durability of the concrete is important in both types of of surface concrete.
structures. 3.1.1.2 Procedure-A list of items recommended for
Careful review of any instrumentation data and a vis- surface mapping is as follows:
ual inspection of the concrete in all accessible parts of
the structures by experienced engineers are important a) Structure drawings, if available
parts of the evaluation of the concrete. Past photographs b) Clipboard and paper or field book
which could reveal changes in the condition of the con- c) Tape measure, 50 to 100 ft (15 to 30 m)
crete should be reviewed when available. As many opera- d) Ruler graduated in 1/16 in. or 1 mm
ting features should be used as feasible during the e) Feeler gage
inspection so that the concrete can be observed under a f) Pocket comparator or hand microscope
variety of loadings. g) Knife
h) Hammer - 2 lb (1 kg)
3.1-Surface damage surveys i) Fine wire (not too flexible)
Surface damage may be caused by cavitation, impact, j) String
abrasion, wet-dry cycles, freeze-thaw deterioration, chem- k) Flashlight or lantern
ical attack, etc. A survey of such damage should provide l) Camera with flash and assortment of lenses
information on the area affected, depth, and its nature. m) Assortment of film - color and high speed
Sections and profiles utilizing surveying techniques are n) Marking pens or paint
valuable in evaluating the extent and depth of erosion. o) Thermometer
Notation of evidence in the areas of damage commonly
provide keys to diagnosing the cause. Such evidence may Mapping should begin at one end of the structure and
be loose, semi-detached fragments, D-cracking, rock and proceed in a systematic manner until all surfaces are
debris piles, offsets or protrusions, coloration, and overall mapped. Both external and internal surfaces should be
condition of the damaged area and of the surrounding mapped if accessible. Use of 3-dimensional isometric
concrete. These observations should be recorded. drawings is occasionally desirable showing offsets or
Exposed surfaces are generally surveyed during rou- distortion of structural features.
tine inspections only. However, for periodic inspections It is important to describe each condition mapped in
or for special observations deemed necessary during clear, concise detail and avoid generalizations unless it is
routine inspections, surfaces flooded, under water, or common to other areas previously detailed. Profiles are
backfilled and underground should be checked for sur- advantageous for showing the depth of erosion. Areas of
face damage by various methods. The method selected significant distress should be photographed for later
may depend on the size and depth of concrete of the reference. A familiar object or scale should be placed in
area to be surveyed, conditions in the area, including the area to show the relative size of the area included.
water depth, and whether maintenance work will be done 3.1.2 Crack surveys
at the time of the inspection. Usual methods used in- 3.1.2.1 Scope-A crack survey is an examination of
207.3R-6 ACI COMMlTTEE REPORT
a concrete structure to locate, mark, and measure cracks, crack width is suspected. Furthermore, tapping of sur-
and to determine the relationship of cracks with destruc- faces with a hammer may detect shallow cracking
tive phenomena such as surface deterioration, alkali-ag- beneath and parallel to the surface. A hollow sound gen-
gregate reactions, impact loading, structural tensile erally indicates that such cracking is likely even though it
stresses, and volume changes due to shrinkage or temper- cannot be seen.
ature changes. In most cases, cracking is the first Photographs of typical cracks or patterns will visually
symptom of concrete distress. Hence, a crack survey is document conditions for comparison with future or past
significant in evaluating the future serviceability of the inspections. Vellum overlays on photographs of surfaces
structure. Some cracks may appear at an early age and with a few large cracks will assist in highlighting cracks
may not be progressive; others may appear at later ages for structural evaluation.
and increase in extent with time; and some may appear
following some unusual event. 3.2-Joint surveys
Judgment must be used in determining which cracks Joints in massive structures should be examined to
are to be mapped. It is easy to be overwhelmed by this assure they are in good condition and functioning as
task if non-critical cracking is not eliminated. A tech- designed. Information on joints and joint materials can
nician can accomplish this task with appropriate guidance be found in ACI 504R and ACI 224.1R. Location and
from a structural or materials engineer. type of each joint, whether expansion, contraction, or
3.1.2.2 Procedure- The initial step in making a construction, should be noted together with a description
crack survey is to locate and mark the cracking and of its existing condition. Joint openings should be
define it by type. According to ACI 201.1R cracks are measured under seasonal or other loading conditions if
classified by direction, width and depth using the appropriate. The joints should be carefully examined for
following adjectives: longitudinal, transverse, vertical, spalling or D-cracking, absence or presence and condi-
diagonal, and random. The three width ranges suggested tion of joint fillers, and evidence of seepage, emission of
are: fine-generally less than 0.04 in. (1 mm); medium - solids or chemical attack. Measurements should also be
between 0.04-0.08 in. (1 and 2 mm); and wide - over 0.08 taken of surface offsets on either side of the joints or
in. (2 mm). Width and depth can normally be determined other irregularities. Joint construction details should be
using an average of feeler gage readings or by readings recorded and mapped if drawings are not available.
from a suitable measure or pocket comparator. Highly
accurate crack width measurements can be made with a 3.3-Vibration load testing
commercially available hand-held illuminated microscope The integrity of a structure can be estimated by ex-
with internal scale divisions of 0.0008 in. (0.02 mm). citing the structure with forces and observing the resul-
When a series of measurements are to be made over a ting motion.3 The vibration characteristics of a sound
period of weeks or months, the measurement point loca- structure will differ from those of a distressed structure.
tion should be marked and the sharp edges of the crack The vibratory loading is accomplished in the field using
protected by a thin coat of clear epoxy to avoid breakage. either forced (artificial) or ambient vibration. In the
If possible, the depth should be determined by observing forced vibration technique the mass is vibrated at known
edges or inserting a fine wire or feeler gage; however, in frequencies and mode shapes. Response spectra (ampli-
most situations the actual depth may be indeterminable tudes, frequencies and damping effects) are measured at
without drilling or use of other detection techniques such various locations in a structure. Similar observations are
as the pulse velocity described in Section 3.9.2.3. also made using natural vibrations induced by wind, wave
The nature of the cracking should be defined in com- action, and micro seismic loading. One of the advantages
mon terminology which can be visualized by others less of this type of testing is that the global integrity of the
familiar with the structure. These terms include such vis- structure, including the foundation and supports, can be
ual cracking terminology as pattern cracking, surface assessed. Field observations can be compared with finite
checking, hairline cracking, and D-cracking, foundation- element calculations of expected vibratory motions to
related displacement cracking, and thermal cracking. An determine the degree of deterioration of complex struc-
offset of the concrete surface at either side of the crack tures.
should be noted.
Conditions which may be associated with the cracking 3.4-In-situ stress determinations
either over portions of the length or for the entire length In evaluating the effects of observed distress due to
should be noted. These conditions may include seepage materials deterioration, excessive dynamic or static
through the cracks, deposits from leaching or other loading, and other causes, determination of existing stress
sources, carbonation of surfaces adjacent to cracks, conditions may be necessary. In-situ stress determinations
spalling of edges, differential movement, etc. Chemical have been primarily limited to arch dams where stress
analyses of the seepage water and the deposits may be analysis may be complex. In some instances, structural
desirable. movements in service change the pattern and distribution
It may be worthwhile to repeat the survey under of stress assumed in the original design. Stress conditions
seasonal or other loading conditions when a change in determined can be compared with design parameters and
with existing strength levels. One method which has been 3.5-Supplemental instrumentation
successfully used to investigate in-situ stress conditions is Supplemental instrumentation may be required when
the Over Coring Stress Relief Method. unusual behavior or changing conditions are detected
3.4.1 Over coring-The over coring technique was ori- during inspection of the structure. Conditions may relate
ginally developed in the study of rock mechanics. How- to movement of the structure, movement within mono-
ever, in the last 20 years it has also been applied to liths of the structure along joints or movement within
investigate the in-situ stress in concrete structures. The monoliths at cracks. Other instrumentation may include
U.S. Bureau of Reclamation used the over coring stress equipment for measuring hydrostatic pressures in cracks
relief method to investigate three arch dams located near and joints and under the structure (uplift). Instrumenta-
Phoenix, Arizona.4,5 The procedure involved drilling an tion which has been found most valuable in evaluating
EX size hole (1-13/16 in. (45 mm) nominal diameter), existing structures is described in the subsequent
inserting the probe-type gage, over coring the EX hole subsections.
with a 6 in. (152 mm) core barrel and recording the 3.5.1 Extensometer points-An arrangement of three
strain at 60 degree intervals around the circumference of embedded plugs, two on one side of a crack or joint and
the gage. Drilling three horizontal holes, which inter- the third on the other, will provide a measurement of
sected near the center of the structure and at an angle of relative shear movement as well as crack width change.
22.5 degrees with each other, produced accurate deter- A mechanical strain gage or equivalent is used to
minations of in-situ maximum and minimum stress condi- measure the change in length between plugs.
tions. The results further showed that in arch dams, a 3.5.2 Borehole extensometers- Primarily intended for
single drill hole drilled approximately normal to the measuring consolidation of weaker layers within rock, but
principal stresses in the vertical-tangential plane was can be used to detect internal movement at structural
adequate for maximum/minimum stress determinations. cracks.
Accuracy of the results also depends, to a large extent, 3.5.3 Joint meter- The joint meters are attached across
on good drilling equipment and techniques and exper- joints or cracks to measure the opening and closing.
ienced crews. The borehole gage used was developed by Measurements can be taken at some remote location by
the U.S. Bureau of Mines and was later modified for connecting cable. Joint meters are commercially available
water-tightness and ease of maintenance. Modulus of from firms specializing in instruments for embedment in
elasticity at each measurement point was determined in soil and concrete.
the field using the 6 in. (152 mm) donut-shaped core 3.5.4 Electrolevel- This is a highly-refined bubble level,
taken from each location. A special apparatus was used with the position of the bubble determined by means of
to hydraulically load the core section in a chamber with electrodes. Changes in slope of 0.0005 in. per in. (500
a borehole gage inserted in the EX hole. The thick wall millionths) can be measured, remotely if desired. A por-
cylinder formula was used to compute the modulus of table level may be used where access allows it to be
elasticity. The 6 in. (152 mm) overcore recovered was placed on scribed lines of a permanently installed stain-
also tested for triaxial shear, compressive strength, tensile less steel plate. Unless encased in epoxy, some perma-
strength, modulus of elasticity, Poissons ratio, specific nently installed levels have been vulnerable to corrosion.
gravity, absorption, alkali-aggregate reaction, and used 3.5.5 Cased inclinometer- These are accelerometers
for petrographic examinations. housed in a wheeled probe which is passed through a
3.4.2 Other methods-Two other methods of determin- grooved casing. Inclination from vertical is determined at
ing the in-situ properties have been widely used in rock selected elevations, with a sensitivity of one part in
mechanics6 and have been applied to concrete. These in- 10,000. This is a more precise version of the slope indi-
clude the flatjack and the velocity propagation methods. cator equipment originally developed for monitoring sub-
The flatjack method involves cutting a slot in the con- surface movements in soils.
crete, inserting the flatjack, pressurizing the flatjack, and 3.5.6 Tilt-measuring instruments- A portable sensor
measuring the change in slot width. The width across the mounted on a metal plate, placed upon reference plugs
slot location must also be measured before and after or plate embedded in the structure senses changes in
cutting the slot. The method provides a measure of rotation of the order of 10 sec of arc. This is comparable
actual stress in the surface plane. However, this method to the electrolevel precision.
is restricted to near-surface measurements because of the 3.5.7 Observation wells- These are simply open holes
difficulty of cutting deep flatjack slots. into the structure or foundation in which water level
The velocity propagation method utilizes measurement measurements can be taken to determine uplift pressure
of stress waves passed between two points. Accordingly, at that location.
two or more bore holes enable crosshole wave measure- 3.5.8 Piezometer- An instrument for measuring pres-
ments, which provide, besides qualitative assessments sure head. Generally, the piezometer consists of a pres-
from crest to base, correlation with extracted core tests sure cell installed in a drill hole in the foundation.
to determine quantitative measurements used in struc- 3.5.9 Vertical and horizontal control- Survey points for
tural analyses. line and level measurements are established at various
207.3R-8 ACI COMMlTTEE REPORT
locations on the structure for the purpose of measuring rock can be examined directly, and video-taped if desired,
differential movements with time. History plots of data, by use of small video cameras. These instruments are
covering months or years, may be necessary to differen- successors to the Corps of Engineers borehole camera
tiate between normal and extreme or critical movements. which is no longer generally available. Video cameras
Data may reveal cycles associated with temperature or range in size down to 1-in. (25 mm)-diameter probes, with
applied loading. Whenever possible, estimated values of directional control of lenses and no lighting necessary.
deformation or displacement should be developed, based The transmitted picture is continuously displayed on a
on theoretical analyses using the best available data on scanner screen, and can be supplemented by video
materials, properties and parameters. Observed values recording for a permanent record. The camera assembly
may indicate distress when the expected or normal move- will resist hydrostatic heads up to 1300 ft (400 m) and
ments are exceeded. the focusing capability will permit estimating the size of
Electronic distance measuring instruments are capable caverns or cavities encountered. Turbidity of the water
of accuracies from 5 to 10 mm over distances up to 9 km, must be controlled for best results. Both the Bureau of
with adequate reflector targets, atmospheric corrections, Reclamation and Corps of Engineers have used this tech-
and proper techniques. They are most useful for monitor- nique with satisfactory results.
ing structure displacements.
3.5.10 Weir/flume- A device used to monitor seepage 3.8-Seepage monitoring
and water flow. Seepage is the movement of water or other fluids
3.5.11 Thermocouple/resistance thermometer- Attached through pores or interstices. Some structures may include
to a surface or placed within a drilled hole to monitor design features to control seepage such as waterstops,
temperatures and their effect on instrumentation read- sealed joints, drain holes, cut off walls, grout curtains,
ings or physical observations. granular drains and drainage galleries. These features
3.5.12 Plumb bob- Either a conventional plumb bob should be checked to assure they are functioning as
with a weighted pointer at the bottom of a freely sus- designed. Seepage can be important with respect to dura-
pended line indicating the relative movement at the top bility, can indicate failure of the structure to function
of the line compared to a scale at the bottom of the line, monolithically and may also indicate operating problems
or an inverted plumb bob with the pointer located on a in water retention structures. Seepage occasionally occurs
float in a fluid at the top of the line. through horizontal or vertical construction joints; around
waterstops or sealants in expansion, contraction or con-
3.6-Geophysical logging trol joints; along cracks, along the interface between
Several geophysical drill hole logging techniques often concrete and some other material such as foundation
used in the oil industry are available and may be utilized interfaces, form bolt or tie holes, or other embedded
to provide supplemental data on the physical properties items; or through areas of porous low quality concrete.
and condition of in-situ concrete. Geophysical logging Several types of equipment are available for measure-
consists of lowering various instruments into an open ment of seepage. Weirs and flumes are the most com-
drill hole; the type of instrument dependent on the type monly used equipment for open channel flow measure-
of measurement (log) to be developed. As the instrument ments. Weirs, generally of rectangular, v-notch, or
is lowered to or withdrawn from the bottom of the hole, Cipolletti configuration, require water to be ponded
an automatic recorder traces the log on graph paper. The forming a stable backwater condition. Plumes, available
recorder paper on which the log is traced moves on a in Parshall, Plamer Bowlus, or trapezoidal configurations,
vertical scale with the instrument and measurements re- provide less impedance to flow and are less susceptible
ceived from the instrument are plotted on the horizontal to blockage by debris. Sophisticated instrumentation is
scale. In general, porosity and density are the most available for use with these devices to monitor and
common parameters derived from geophysical logs. Poro- record water depths and other parameters.
sity may be determined from several logs including Sonic, Several types of equipment are available for measure-
Density, and Neutron Logs. Density can be directly ob- ment of seepage. Weirs and flumes are the most com-
tained from the Density Log. Also, the previously monly used equipment for open channel flow measure-
mentioned logs together with Resistivity and Caliper ments. Weirs, generally or rectangular, v-notched, or
Logs provide a graphic record of the uniformity of Cipolletti configuration, require water to be ponded
concrete throughout the depths examined. When drill forming a stable backwater condition. Flumes, available
hole core recovery is poor or is not practical, geophysical in Parshall, Plamer Bowlus, or trapezoidal configurations,
logging can provide a method of locating cracks, voids, provided less impedance to flow and are less susceptible
contacts and other discontinuities of significance. Logging to blockage by debris. Sophisticated instrumentation is
of drill holes and interpretation of logs should be done available for use with these devices to monitor and
by firms which specialize in this exploration technique. record water depths and other parameters.
Water from seepage may result in the development of
3.7-Down hole video camera excessive hydrostatic heads on portions of the structure,
The condition of interior concrete and foundation may attack the concrete chemically, provide excess mois-
ture to produce mechanical failure during freeze-thaw influence the various measurements. The accuracy of
cycles, or may transport undesirable particles from the strength estimations may be greatly improved if they are
concrete or foundations. Analysis of seepage water can correlated with test results on drilled core specimens
be used to evaluate chemical activity. Caution must be from the same structure. The techniques described are
used when evaluating seepage water. Inappropriate con- valuable survey tools in that results provide comparative
clusions can result if the evaluation does not consider values. When surveys are made at different times,
how the water may have been altered as it passed changed conditions can be detected and monitored.
through the structure or became exposed to air at the 3.9.2.1 Rebound hammer- The rebound hammer,
surface. Also, a very minor amount of local deposit that also referred to as a Swiss, rebound, or impact hammer,
drops into a small sample when it is obtained can dras- is a lightweight portable instrument used for qualitative
tically affect the chemical quantities and types reported measurement of in-place concrete strength. The greatest
by a laboratory that analyzes the sample. The appearance value of the hammer is for comparison of indicated
of seepage water, if cloudy, will indicate the presence of strength between different areas, thereby detecting areas
transported sediments. Determination should also be of potentially low strength. The indicated strength is
made of the extent and the quantity of seepage water if recorded on a built-in scale which measures the rebound
measurable. of a spring-driven plunger after it strikes the concrete
Frequently, it is important to know the source and surface. Rebound is a measure of surface compressive
velocity of seepage. The source can sometimes be ob- strength and is affected by many factors such as the mix
tained by simple measurements such as comparing the composition, aggregate properties, surface texture and
temperature of seepage with groundwater or reservoir curvature, moisture content, and mass of the concrete
temperatures. Dye tests can be made utilizing commercial tested. Calibration by statistical correlation with the
dyes such as Rhodamine B (red) or Fluorescein (green). strength of cores drilled from the structure will indicate
The dye is introduced into water at some location near the degree of reliance that can be placed on strength
the upstream face, in drill holes, or other appropriate estimated from rebound readings. Calibration on con-
accessible points. The location and time of reappearance crete test cylinders is helpful in estimating strength or
will indicate the source of various seeps and will provide relative differences in strength, but such estimates must
the velocity of dye movement. Federal, state, and local be used with care. Published calibration data should not
environmental agencies should be consulted to determine be used to estimate strength from rebound surveys. How-
if dye compounds are permissible under local regulations. ever, the rebound hammer is an excellent tool for quickly
determining the uniformity of in-place concrete. The
3.9-Nondestructive testing method of testing concrete by the rebound hammer is
3.9.1 General- The purpose of nondestructive testing described in ASTM C 805. No correlation has been
is to determine the various properties of the concrete found between rebound readings and modulus of elas-
such as strength, modulus of elasticity, homogeneity, ticity.
integrity, as well as conditions of strain and stress without 3.9.2.2 Probe penetration- The probe penetration
damaging the structure. Selection of the most applicable method of test consists of driving a precision probe into
method or methods of testing will require good judgment concrete utilizing a gun which produces a specific
based on the information needed, size and nature of the energy. Generally, three probes are driven into the con-
project, and the seriousness of observed conditions. crete at each location in a triangular pattern, controlled
In-situ testing, if required, normally should follow a by template. The protruding ends of the probes are mea-
condition survey. Generally, determination of the con- sured. The probe penetration system has been found
crete properties is only necessary to further evaluate the comparable with the rebound hammer. On concrete 40
effects of observed distress on the safety or serviceability to 50 years old, the probe system may yield higher
of the structure. In-situ testing will provide parameters strength than actually exists. Limited information suggests
for structural analysis by current analytical techniques for that the cause of higher indicated values may relate to
comparison with the present day design requirements. microcracking between the aggregate and paste which are
Care should be taken in interpreting results of instru- indicated by test cylinder results but not by the probe
ments such as the Schmidt Hammer and Windsor Probe readings. Interpretation of test results based on other
.
which only measure the quality of near surface concrete. known factors is necessary to effectively use this equip-
Because of surface weathering, leaching, carbonation or ment. The probe penetration test procedure is described
other conditions, surface tests may not reflect the in ASTM C 803.
properties of interior concrete. 3.9.2.3 Pulse velocity- Pulse velocity testing involves
3.9.2 Surveying techniques- Although compressive measurement of the velocity of compression waves
strength and modulus of elasticity, depending on the through concrete. The method provides an overall indica-
method used, can be estimated from the survey tech- tion of the uniformity of in-place concrete and can detect
niques described in the following subsections, the general areas of deterioration.12 The extent to which
accuracy of these estimations are usually considered to be cracks can be accurately located and described is in-
only relative based on the many factors which can fluenced by conditions such as whether the cracks are
open or closed and the degree to which they may be limited to 12 to 18 in. Current research is intended to
filled with sediments, chemical deposits, or water. The increase the depth of penetration to tens of feet.
test method is described in ASTM C 597, Pulse Velocity Tests have shown that the system is capable of identi-
Through Concrete. fying sound concrete, concrete of questionable quality,
The equipment used is very portable consisting only of and deteriorated concrete as well as delaminations, voids,
a lightweight instrument housing a pulse generator and reinforcing steel, and other inclusions within con-
receiver and high speed electronic clock, transmitting and crete.14,15 The system will work on both horizontal or
receiving transducers, and cable connectors. Velocity is vertical surfaces as well as above or below the water
determined by dividing the measured wave travel time by surface. The present system requires an experienced
the shortest direct distance or path length between trans- operator to use the system and interpret the reflected
ducers. When a signal cannot be received it usually indi- signals.
cates one of the following conditions: an open crack, in- Carino and Sansalone have developed the Impact
sufficient consolidation, or the energy was absorbed Echo System, which uses a hammer to induce a sonic
between the transducers. Accordingly, pulse velocity wave in the structure.16 A surface receiver measures the
equipment may be used in determining crack depth. displacements caused by the reflecting stress waves. In-
Available equipment is effective up to a path length of formation on the condition of the concrete is determined
approximately 50 ft. It is important that a high degree of by analyzing the reflections. Small diameter steel ball
accuracy is needed in determining both travel time and bearings and spring-loaded, spherically-tipped impactors
path length since small errors in either measurement may have been used successfully to induce the incident
produce significant changes in the indicated pulse energy. Impact-echo methods have been used to detect
velocity. a variety of defects including cracks and voids in
Velocity measurements are usually made between ex- concrete, freezing-and-thawing damage, depth of surface-
posed surfaces with one transducer stationary while the opening cracks, voids in prestressing ducts, honeycombed
other transducer is moved from point to point within an concrete, and delaminations. 16-18
effective area. Measurements can also be made from in- 3.9.3.5 Radar- Certain types of radar have been
spection or drainage galleries within the structure if used to evaluate the condition of concrete up to 30 in. in
available and accessible. Pulse velocity surveys have had depth. Radar can differentiate between sound con-
relatively wide usage as one of the techniques for inves- crete and deteriorated concrete. The deterioration can be
tigation of existing concrete dams and other concrete in the form of delaminations, microcracks, and structural
structures. cracks. Radar has also been shown to be capable of
3.9.2.4 Acoustic echo techniques- Two very useful detecting changes in materials and to locate where these
acoustic techniques have been applied to the nondes- changes occur.20 In addition, radar has been used to
tructive evaluation of concrete structures. Both tech- locate misaligned dowel bars and areas of high chloride
niques, referred to as echo methods, can detect concentration.21 Short-pulse radar has been used suc-
cracking, delaminations, voids, reinforcing bars, and other cessfully to survey the condition of concrete revetments
inclusions in concrete. As with pulse velocity, the extent along the banks of the Mississippi River.22 In limited
to which these conditions can be accurately described applications, radar has been used to detect voids under-
depends on their orientation and condition, i.e., open neath pavements.
versus closed cracks, accumulations of debris or chemical Underwater topography is commonly surveyed by
deposits, presence of water, etc. Acoustic energy origi- soundings using an acoustical transducer or an array of
nates from a piezoelectric crystal or hammer and propa- transducers mounted to the underside of a boat.22 Such
gates through the material, reflecting from any object or surveys are very effective in mapping contours in stilling
free surface which produces a change in acoustic impe- basins and river bottoms. Depending on the equipment,
dance. This reflection, or echo, then returns to the sur- the survey can be accurate to within 0.1 ft (0.03 m). Since
face where is recorded by a receiver. A distinct advantage data are collected in a Cartesian coordinate format (x, y,
of these systems over through-transmission pulse velocity z), excellent graphical presentations and detailed analyses
technique is that the only one accessible surface is are possible.
required.
Thornton and Alexander developed the Ultrasonic
Pulse-Echo Technique, which measures the time of arri- CHAPTER 4-SAMPLING AND
val of echoes from inclusions in concrete.13 The incident LABORATORY TESTING
acoustic wave is produced by a piezoelectric crystal. The
resulting echo is recorded by a second transducer, and 4.1-Core drilling and testing
the time of arrival is determined. Digital signal pro- Core drilling is presently the most accepted method of
cessing techniques can be used to extract from the echo obtaining information on concrete within the structure in
signal information that is otherwise hidden, such as the areas which otherwise can not be observed. However,
presence of microcracking, etc. A disadvantage of this core drilling to substantial depths is expensive and should
technique is that the depth of penetration is currently only be considered when sampling and testing of interior
concrete is necessary. for dynamic modulus of elasticity (Youngs Modulus)

The presence of abnormal conditions of the concrete C 469-Test Method for Static Modulus of Elasticity and
at exposed surfaces only suggests questionable quality or Poissons Ratio of Concrete in Compression for static mod-
a change in the physical or chemical properties of the ulus of elasticity and Poissons ratio
concrete. These conditions may include scaling, leaching, 4.1.1.2 Other tests
.
pattern cracking, and freeze-thaw weathering, to name 4.1.1..2.a Dynamic loading- This generally refers
the most common. When such observations are made, to a load application time, or a complete tension-com-
core drilling to examine and sample the hardened con- pression loading and unloading cycle, which is a fraction
crete may be necessary. The minimum depth of sampling of that normally used or experienced in conventional
concrete in massive structures should be 2 ft (0.6 m) in static beam or cylinder testing. Examples might be the
accordance with ASTM C 823. However, under some forces generated by blasts, explosions, or earthquakes.
conditions core drilling of the entire thickness may be Tests have indicated concrete shear strengths are 50 per-
required to obtain representative samples of a monolith. cent and 80 percent greater under single pulse dynamic
Occasionally, this drilling can be coordinated with loading rates equivalent to 7 Hz and 300 Hz, respectively,
foundation inspection. Core drill holes may also be used than under static load rates.23,24 Little data exists on the
for nondestructive testing of the mass structure as magnitude of possible tensile strength increases for com-
described in Section 3.9 and for installation of parable loading times.
inclinometers. 4.1.1.2.b Seismic loading- Earthquake or seismic
The diameter of core holes will depend on the testing loading is at the lower end of the dynamic range, or a
anticipated. For compressive strength, modulus of elasti- total tension-compression cycle period between 1 Hz and
city, or similar laboratory tests, the diameter of the core 10 Hz. This is equivalent to single-mode load application
should be between 2.5 to 3.0 times the maximum size of rates from 0.25 to 0.025 sec. Dynamic tensile and com-
aggregate. However 8- or 10-in. (200- or 250-mm) di- pressive tests often exhibit little difference in strength
ameter cores are generally extracted for concrete with 6- whether specimens are tested in a dry or wet state. How-
in. (150mm) nominal maximum size aggregate because ever, static tensile and compressive tests on specimens in
of the higher cost and handling problems of larger a wet state usually result in lower strengths than dry spe-
diameter cores. cimens. Hence, when comparing dynamic and static test
Cores obtained from drill holes should be logged by results, the moisture condition of the specimen will deter-
methods similar to those used for geological subsurface mine if dynamic tests will produce an increase in strength
exploration. Logs should show, in addition to general in- over static tests. Direct tensile tests at these rates have
formation on the hole, conditions at the surface, depth of indicated no increase in concrete strengths above static
obvious deterioration, fractures and conditions on frac- rate levels for dry concrete, but a 30 percent increase for
tured or unbonded surfaces, unusual deposits, coloring or moist concrete.25 Other tests show an increase in com-
staining, distribution and size of voids, locations of pressive strength of from 30 percent to 50 percent with
observed construction joints, and contact with the foun- an increasing loading rate within the seismic range.26 Still
dation or other surfaces. Lift joints that are known to others have shown up to an average increase of 66 per-
have been broken during drilling or core extraction cent in direct tension and 45 percent from splitting
should be noted. See Section 4.2 for additional instruc- tensile tests on mass concrete cores taken from existing
tions on the examination of cores. concrete dams.
Cores recovered from drilling operations should be
immediately marked for identification, including location, 4.2-Petrographic analysis
depth, and notation of the top and bottom, and should The petrographic analysis of concrete should be made
be placed in protective core boxes or preferably sealed to by a person qualified by education and experience to
prevent drying. They should then be stored in safe areas operate the equipment used in the analysis and to record
protected from the weather, especially freezing when the and interpret the results obtained. The petrographer
cores are still moist. Metal boxes should be used when should be consulted before samples are taken in the field
the cores will be stored in areas of termite infestation. and should be furnished with preconstruction, construc-
4.1.1 Strength and elastic property determination- The tion and condition reports described in Chapters 2 and 3.
.
following test procedures are appropriate for evaluation 4.2.1 Sampling- Taking of samples of concrete for
of drilled cores: laboratory testing and analysis presents great problems of
4.1.1.1 Standard tests- The following ASTM test judgment in order that the samples are truly represen-
procedures should be used for determining physical pro- tative of the conditions to be studied. The surveys made
perties of drilled concrete cores: under Chapters 2 and 3 should furnish information for
C 42-Test Method for Obtaining and Testing Drilled location and number of samples required. The most use-
Cores and Sawed Beams of Concrete for compressive ful samples for petrographic examination of concrete are
strength and tensile strength diamond-drilled cores with a diameter of at least twice,
C 215-Test Method for Fundamental Transverse, Lon- and preferably three times, the maximum size of the
gitudinal and Torsional Frequencies of Concrete Specimens coarse aggregate in the concrete. If 6-m (150-mm) aggre-
gate was used, a core 8 to 10 in. (200 to 250 mm) in ination of thin sections the following features can be
diameter has been found to be satisfactory and is com- studied and described:
monly taken in practice to avoid the high cost and
handling difficulty of 12- to 18-m (310- to 460-mm) l Composition of fine and coarse aggregates
cores. l Evidence of cement-aggregate reaction
Sampling should be done with complete objectivity, so l Proportion of unhydrated granules of cement
that the suite of samples is not weighted with either the 0 Presence of mineral admixtures
unusually poor or unsound materials. In securing sam-
ples, care should be taken to avoid disturbance or con- Sawed and finely ground surfaces of concrete are used
tamination of the materials to assure that laboratory tests in microscopical analysis of concrete to determine the air
and analyses are truly representative. Coring is preferable content and various parameters of the air void system in
to sampling by other means because the concrete is dis- accordance with ASTM C 457. This method can also be
turbed the least. Use of sledges or air hammers may used to analyze the concrete for the volumetric pro-
induce internal fracturing or may so disrupt the concrete portions of aggregate, cement paste, and air voids.
as to make it difficult or impossible to describe its 4.2.4 Other petrographic method- In some instances,
structure accurately and in detail. petrographic methods other than microscopy, such as
The sampling should include both near-surface con- x-ray diffraction and differential thermal analysis, may be
crete and concrete at depth, because they may differ sub- required or might serve to rapidly identify fine-grained
stantially in development of cracking, deterioration of the materials.
cement paste, progress of cement-aggregate reactions and
other features. The samples should be sufficient in size 4.3-Chemical analysis
and number to permit all necessary laboratory tests. The Although hardened concrete may be subjected to
petrographic examination should be performed on con- chemical analysis for any of many reasons, the most
crete that has not already been subjected to a compres- common is for determination of the proportion of
sion test or some other test. cement used in the mixture. ASTM Method C 1084 and
4.2.2 Vial examination- Visual inspection with the variants of this are usually employed for this purpose.
unaided eye, a hand lens and a stereoscopic microscope Dependable quantitative chemical methods for detec-
can provide valuable information when applied to origi- tion of organic admixtures in hardened concrete have not
nal exterior surfaces, surfaces of fractures and voids, been developed. Calcium chloride is the only commonly
surfaces of fresh fractures, and through the cement paste used admixture that can be quantitatively determined by
and aggregate. From this examination the following fea- chemical methods. Substances formed by degradation of
tures can be studied and described: lignosulfonate in portland cement mixtures can be
detected by characteristic fluorescence of water solutions
l Condition of the aggregate produced by acid extractions of hardened concrete at
l Pronounced cement-aggregate reactions ages up to 2 years. The method, although not quanti-
l Denseness of cement paste tative, is sufficiently sensitive to indicate the presence of
Homogeneity of the concrete lignosulfonate in amounts equivalent to less than 0.1
l Occurrence of settlement and bleeding of fresh con- percent by weight of the cement. No generally-applicable
crete methods are available for detection of the many other
l Depth and extent of carbonation organic admixtures used in concrete.
l Occurrence and distribution of fractures Concrete may contain any of a wide variety of organic
l Characteristics and distribution of voids or inorganic substances, either as contaminants in the
l Presence of contaminating substances concrete making materials or the fresh concrete, or
because they were absorbed into the hardened concrete.
As part of the visual examination, noteworthy portions Inorganic chemicals can be determined by classical
of the concrete, secondary deposits, or particles of aggre- analytical methods, but the results may be difficult to
gate are separated for more detailed microscopic study interpret when they are similar to chemicals that were
or for chemical, x-ray diffraction or other types of analy- deliberately included in the concrete. Organic substances
ses. are particularly difficult to identify. Evidence available at
4.23 Petrographic microscopy- Petrographic thin sec- the job site might suggest the solution to problems of
tions permit thorough examination of concrete because attack of aggressive chemicals upon the hardened con-
details of texture and structure are preserved. Such sec- crete.
tions are slices of concrete that are cemented to a small
glass plate and then are ground thin enough to readily 4.4-Physical tests
transmit light. When so prepared, the sections can be Frost and freeze-thaw resistance of concrete specimens
examined under the petrographic microscope at magnifi- can be determined by ASTM C 666, respectively. Fur-
cations up to about 1000 diameters, or with oil immer- thermore, results of the freeze-thaw tests may be useful
sion objectives to about 2000 diameters. From the exam- in predicting the relative rate at which deterioration of
concrete in the structure may occur and service life of loading and creep of the concrete. Laboratory testing of
the structure. cores or in-situ testing should reveal any deficiencies in
concrete strength or unusual elastic modulus. These re-
4.5-Report sults should be compared with reliable and adequate con-
Laboratory testing should be concluded by the pre- struction records, if available.
paration of a laboratory report which includes the items 5.13 Cavitation erosion and abrasion- Cavitation dis-
listed below. tress of concrete surfaces can be very severe at high
4.5.1 Location, elevation, and orientation of cores tested water velocities but can also occur at low water velocities.
4.5.2 List of physical and chemical tests and their results ACI 210R discusses erosion of concrete in hydraulic
4.5.3 Photographs of cores as received, photographs and structures. The process of cavitation is associated with
photomicrographs of features of interest, and photomicro- the creation and sudden collapse of negative pressure re-
graphs of thin sections sulting in the extraction of solid pieces of aggregate or
4.5.4 Conclusions based on test results of condition of mortar. Abrupt projections, uneven surfaces and changes
concrete in direction of flow can cause cavitation conditions to
develop.
Erosion is caused by suspended solids generally fine
CHAPTER 5 - DAMAGE and hard, which wear away the relatively soft cement
paste or mortar. Characteristics of erosion damage are
5.1-Origin of distress sharp ridges remaining on the harder portions of the
When evaluating the condition of mass concrete struc- exposed materials. Erosion of this type is less jagged and
tures, the distress or damage may have more than one more undulating than damage by cavitation.
origin. It is necessary to determine the cause or causes of Abrasion is the result of large and hard materials, such
such distress in order to evaluate the structural integrity as aggregate, debris, ice, cobbles, or reinforcing steel,
of the structure, estimate the length of service remaining, being entrapped and churned around on a relatively
and select the appropriate repair. The following sections small concrete surface area. With time, these materials
describe the origins of distress most commonly encoun- will wear away the concrete to form a hole, and the
tered. abrading action will continue until the cavity extends
5.1.1 Temperature and shrinkage surface crack- Cracks completely through the concrete mass. Impact of large
of this type are characterized by the fineness and absence debris at higher velocities can accelerate the rate of
of any indication of movement. They are usually shallow, abrasion.
a few in. in depth, and are not detected by sonic proce- 5.1.4 Cement-aggregate reaction- ACI 201.1R and ACI
dure. However, temperature cracks can extend full depth 221R contain in-depth discussions of alkali reactivity.
through unreinforced concrete. Where reinforcing steel Both the alkali-silica and alkali-carbonate reactions are
exists near the surface the cracks provide an access for characterized by reaction rims surrounding individual
water which may result in the formation of rust and sub- pieces of aggregate.28,29 The effect in either instance is
sequent discoloration or spalling, especially if carbonation an expansion of the concrete due to the increased vol-
of concrete occurs in the location of the steel. ACI 222R ume of the reaction products. The intensity and magni-
contains a thorough report on corrosion of metals in con- tude of such reactions will depend upon the mineralogi-
crete. Steep temperature gradients during construction cal composition of the aggregate, the alkali content of
are often responsible for excessive tensile strains at the the cementing material, availability of moisture, and the
surface. Drying during and subsequent to the curing per- age of the structure. Expansion and corresponding
iod can produce the same result. The surface shrinkage cracking is most pronounced on surfaces and in thin
crack pattern is typically orthogonal or blocky. This structures or those not rigidly confined in three direc-
surface cracking should not be confused with thermally tions. Only a very approximate estimate can be made of
induced deeper cracking occurring when dimensional the rate of future expansion and the length of satisfactory
change is restrained in newly placed concrete by rigid service life remaining. A method of determining future
foundations or hardened lifts of concrete. Because all of expansion used with some success is to compare the ex-
the cracking described in this section is likely the result pansion of identical specimens subjected to distilled
of construction conditions, this basic cause cannot be water and high alkali solution. Certain maintenance pro-
eliminated. cedures have been effective, to a limited extent, in
5.1.2 Structural cracking- Causes of this type of crack- slowing the expansion and regression of concrete strength
ing are either excessive stress (which may be due to load- and elastic properties. Filling of cracks with grout or
ing or stress pattern different from that expected by the other suitable sealants and waterproofing exposed sur-
designer) or inadequate concrete strength. The validity of faces generally inhibits the entrance of moisture required
the first possibility may be established by a review of the in the reaction process. In some instances it may be
original design computations or a reanalysis of the struc- necessary to provide additional structural support.
tural design. Crack openings originating from structural 5.1.5 Environmental distress- Aggressive chemicals in
action may tend to increase as a result of continuous soils or water, above various minimum concentrations,
may be evidenced by discoloration around pattern conditions are responsible, this should be so indicated.
cracking, disintegration of the mortar, or excessive 5.23 Surface protection- Thin surface coatings are
expansion. The most common cause is likely a sodium, effective only in mildly distressed circumstances. Overlays
calcium, or magnesium sulfate occurring in the soil, in of several in. thickness require removal of all concrete of
rivers, and in salt water. The effects of many acids, salts, doubtful quality and replacement by a superior material.
and other materials are described in ACI 201.1R. Surface protection of tunnels, concrete subjected to
Leaching of lime from an inundated concrete surface aggressive chemicals, and entire dam faces subjected to
such as the upstream face of a dam can result in up to 50 freeze-thaw and ice loads has been successfully accom-
percent loss in strength. Generally, only depths less than plished for over 10 years using unbonded polyvinyl chlor-
1/4 in. (6 mm) are affected. The leaching potential in- ide sheet protection. This is especially common in the
creases with increases in purity of the water and decrease European Alps. In-place polymerized concrete or mortar,
in temperature. Lime has the peculiar property of being epoxy mortar, or very low water-cement ratio concrete
more soluble in cold water than warm water. are alternative materials potentially capable of resisting
Virtually all mass concrete placed in recent years has mechanical abrasion or ingress of chemicals or water.30,32
included entrained air. While this has substantially 5.2.4 Restoring structural integrity- Obvious indications
reduced deterioration due to freeze-thaw actions, such of doubtful structural stability are cracks of substantial
distress still can occur under some circumstances. Inad- width, cracks which change in width with load changes or
equate air content, or an aggregate which is itself vul- temperature cycles, or significant leakage. If the crack
nerable to freeze-thaw deterioration, coupled with near- movement and the hydrostatic head is not high, leakage
complete saturation, are examples of such conditions. can be eliminated by routing out the crack and injecting
Closely spaced, fine, parallel cracks near edges or joints an elastomeric filler or a rigid epoxy mortar, depending
may indicate that freeze-thaw expansions are occurring. upon the probability of crack movement. In cases of high
Entrance of water into the cracks and subsequent hydrostatic pressure, leakage may have to be controlled
freezing further aggravates the condition. by drainage systems. When structural analyses indicate a
5.1.6 Physical and thermal properties- Structural analy- fundamental deficiency in stability, post-tensioning be-
ses of existing structures, either to determine stress mag- tween structural components or between components and
nitude and direction or to establish stability of the entire foundation rock should be considered. An adequate
structure, require definite values of tensile strength, cover of grout or mortar around the steel strands is a
compressive strength, and elastic modulus. These data necessity to avoid corrosion.
can be developed most reliably from drilled cores taken
from the structure. When the structural analysis will re-
quire a knowledge of creep, the related parameters can CHAPTER 6 - REPORT
likely be estimated from existing literature. Similarly, the
coefficient of thermal expansion (with consideration of 6.1-General
aggregate type and moisture conditions) and Poissons A formal report describing the condition of the con-
ratio may be estimated. If necessary, these properties can crete in the various structures of the project should be
also be determined by tests on cores. submitted to the owner or regulatory agency or engi-
neering organization requesting the evaluation. Hazar-
5.2 - Considerations for repair and rehabilitation dous conditions found during the evaluation should be
Following completion of damage surveys, recommen- reported to appropriate operating officials of the project
dations for repair should be made. The objective of the without delay prior to preparation of the formal report.
recommendations is to present optimum alternatives for The report should give an evaluation of the adequacy
arresting deterioration, restoring deficient concrete, of the concrete based on current design and service con-
preventing leakage, and reestablishing structural stability ditions. If appropriate, recommendations for repair and
where such is deemed necessary by the structural maintenance required to assure future longevity and ser-
engineer. viceability of the structures of the project should be
5.2.1 Estimated service Life- Based upon the rate at given.
which the surface concrete is deteriorating or disinte-
grating, an estimate of the useful life of the structure is 6.2-Contents of report
generally possible, assuming no repairs and continued 6.2.1 Description of the project- Regional vicinity maps
exposure to the cause of the distress. for the project, plans, elevations, sections of the struc-
5.2.2 Eliminating the cause- Where the cause of deter- tures, and geologic maps when applicable should be
ioration can realistically be controlled (for example, by shown. General purpose and operating requirements of
eliminating the use or presence of aggressive chemicals) the project and safety hazards and economic impacts
such practices should be identified and the potential involved in case of structural failure should be described.
benefits, in terms of extended service life and reduced 6.2.2 Pertinent design criteria for structures of pro-
maintenance, presented. Where natural causes, such as ject- Significant structural design criteria upon which
sulfate soils, river water contamination, or freeze-thaw evaluation of the concrete was made and analyses, test
methods, data, and investigations pertinent to the Rapid Freezing and Thawing
evaluation should be described. C 803 Test Method for Penetration Resistance of Har-
6.2.3 Summary of data collected dened Concrete
6.2.3.1 Existing records C 805 Test for Rebound Number of Hardened Con-
6.2.3.2 Vial inspection of concrete crete
6.2.3.3 Analysis of existing instrumentation, investi- C 823 Practice of Examination and Sampling of Har-
gations, inspections, and test records dened Concrete in Constructions
6.2.3.4 Results and analyses of new investigations and C 1084 Standard Test Method for Portland-Cement
test data Content of Hardened Hydraulic-Cement Con-
6.2.4 Summary evaluation of concrete crete
6.2.4.1 Evaluation of portions of structures not re-
quiring immediate repair
6.2.4.2 Evaluation of portions of structures requiring The above publications may be obtained from the fol-
immediate repair lowing organizations:
6.2.4.3 Alternative methods of repair
American Concrete Institute
38800 Country Club Drive
CHAPTER 7 - REFERENCES Farmington Hills, MI 48331, U.S.A.
7.1-Recommended references ASTM

The documents of the various standards-producing 1916 Race Street
organizations referred to in this document are listed Philadelphia, Pa. 19103
below.
7.2-Cited references
American Concrete Institute 1. Cortright, Clifford J., Reevaluation and Recon-
struction of California Dams, Proceedings, ASCE, V. 96,
116R Cement and Concrete Terminology P01, Jan. 1970, pp. 55-72.
201.1R Guide for Making a Condition Survey of Con- 2. Martin, Arthur, Jr., Safety Inspection of Hydro
crete in Service Projects-FPC Order 315, Proceedings, ASCE, V. 97, P02,
201.2R Guide to Durable Concrete Mar. 1971, pp. 449-453.
210R Erosion of Concrete in Hydraulic Structures 3. Chiarito, V. and Mlakar, P.F. Vibration Test of
221R Guide for Use of Normal Weight Aggregates in Richard B. Russell Concrete Dam before Reservoir Im-
Concrete poundment, Technical Report SL-83-2, US Army Engi-
222R Corrosion of Metals in Concrete neer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS, May
224.1R Causes, Evaluation, and Repair of Cracks in 1983.
Concrete Structures 4. Copen, Merlin D., and Wallace, George Brown,
228.1R In-Place Methods for Determination of Strength Determination of In-Situ Stresses in Concrete Dams,
of Concrete Proceedings, ASCE, V. 97, P02, Mar. 1971, pp. 455473.
437R Strength Evaluation of Existing Concrete Buil- 5. Wallace, George B.; Slebir, Edward L.; and
dings Anderson, Fred A., Foundation Testing for Auburn
504R Guide to Sealing Joints in Concrete Structures Dam, Proceedings, Eleventh Symposium on Rock Mech-
anics (June 1969), University of California, Berkeley,
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) 1969, 55 pp.
6. Obert, Leonard, and Duvall, Wilbur I., Rock
C 33 Specifications for Concrete Aggregates Mechanics and the Design of Structures in Rock, John
C 42 Test Method for Obtaining and Testing Drilled Wiley and Sons, New York, 1967, pp. 417421.
Cores and Sawed Beams of Concrete 7. Carlson, R.W., Manual for Use of Strain Meters
C 215 Test Method for Fundamental Transverse, Longi- and Other Instruments, 1190-C Dell Avenue, Campbell,
tudinal and Torsional Frequencies of Concrete Calif., 1975, pp. l-24.
Specimens 8. Dohr, Gerhard, Applied Geophysics, John Wiley and
C 457 Practice for Microscopical Determination of Sons, New York, 1974, pp. 249-260.
Air-Void Content and Parameters of the Air- 9. Logan, M.H., Drill Hole Television in U.S. Bureau
Void System in Hardened Concrete of Reclamation Engineering Geology, Proceedings, Third
C 469 Test Method for Static Modulus of Elasticity and Annual Engineering Geology and Soils Engineering Sym-
Poissons Ratio of Concrete in Compression posium (Apr. 1965), State of Idaho, Boise, 1965, pp.
C 597 Test Method for Pulse Velocity Through Con- 133-145.
crete 10. Malhotra, V.M. and Carino, NJ., CRC Handbook
C 666 Test Method for Resistance of Concrete to on Nondestructive Testing of Concrete, CRC Press, Boca
Raton, Florida, 1991,333 pp. 21. Lim, Malcolm K. and Olson, Carlton A, use of
11. Silk, M.B.; Williams, N.R.; and Bainten, F.F., Nondestructive Impulse Radar in Evaluating Civil
Potential Role of NDT (Nondestructive Testing) Tech- Engineering Structures, Proceedings, Nondestructive
niques in the Monitoring of Fixed Offshore Structures, Evaluation of Civil Structures and Materials, University of
British Journal of Non-Destructive Testing (Essex), May Colorado, Boulder, Colorado, 1990.
1975, pp. 83-87. 22. Stowe, Richard L.; Thornton, Henry T., Jr.;
12. Muenow, R.A. Non-destructive Testing of Struc- Engineering Condition Survey of Concrete in Service,
tural Members, Public Works, Nov. 1966. Technical Report REMR-CS-1, Dept. of Army, U.S. Army
13. Thornton, Henry T., Jr. and Alexander, A. Michel, Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg,
Development of Nondestructive Testing Systems for In Miss., Sept. 1984, p. 49.
Situ Evaluation of Concrete Structures, Technical Report 23. Hansen, Robert J.; Nawy, Edward G.; and Shah,
REMR-CS-10, USAE Waterways Experiment Station, Jayant M., Response of Concrete Shear Keys to Dyna-
Vicksburg, MS 391806199, Dec., 1987. mic Loading, ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 57, No. 11,
14. Alexander, A.M., and Thornton, H.T., Jr., 1988, May 1961, pp. 1475-1490.
Developments in Ultrasonic Pitch-Catch and Pulse-Echo 24. Chung, H.W., Shear Strength of Concrete Joints
for Measurements in Concrete, SP-112, American Con- Under Dynamic Loads, Concrete (London), V. 12, No.
crete Institute, Detroit, MI 48219-0150. 3, Mar. 1978, pp. 27-29.
15. Thornton, H.T., Jr. and Alexander, AM., 1988, 25. Saucier, K.L., Dynamic Properties of Mass
Ultrasonic Pulse-Echo Measurements of the Concrete Concrete, Miscellaneous Paper No. C-77-6, U.S. Army
Sea Wall at Marina Del Rey, Los Angeles County, Cali- Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg,
fornia, The REMR Bulletin, V. 5, No. 1, USAE Water- June, 1977.
ways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS 39180-6199. 26. Kirillov, A.P., Strength of Concrete Under Seismic
16. Carino, N.J. and M. Sansalone, Impact-Echo: A Loads, Translated from the Russian, U.S. Bureau of
New Method for Inspecting Construction Materials, Reclamation, Denver, Sept. 1977.
Nondestructive Testing and Evaluation for Manufacturing 27. Raphael, J.M., Tensile Strength of Concrete,
and Construction, Henrique L.M. dos Reis, ed., Hemis- Journal of the American Concrete Institute, No. 2,
phere Publishing Corporation, New York, NY., 1990. Proceedings V. 1, March-April 1984, pp.158-165.
17. Limaye, Hemant S. and Klien, Gary J. Investi- 28. Hansen, W.C., Chemical Reactions, Significance
gation of Concrete Arch Bridges with the Impact-Echo of Tests and Properties of Concrete and Concrete-Making
Method, Proceedings, Nondestructive Evaluation of Civil Materials, STP-169A, American Society for Testing and
Structures and Materials, University of Colorado, Boulder, Materials, Philadelphia, 1966, pp. 487-497.
Colorado, 1990. 29. Symposium on Alkali-Carbonate Rock Reactions,
18. Olson, Larry B., NDE of Structural Concrete with Highway Research Record, Highway Research Board, No.
Stress Waves, Proceedings, Nondestructive Evaluation of 45, 1964,244 pp.
Civil Structures and Materials, University of Colorado, 30. Houghton, D.L.; Borge O.E.; and Paxton,
Boulder, Colorado, 1990. J.A., Cavitation Resistance of Some Special Concretes,
19. Cantor, T.R., Review of Penetrating Radar as ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 75, No. 12, Dec. 1978, pp.
Applied to Nondestructive Evaluation of Concrete, In- 664-667.
Situ/Nondestructive Testing of Concrete, V.M. Malhotra, 31. Liu, Tony C., Abrasion Resistance of Concrete,
Ed., ACI Publication SP-82, pp. 581602, American Con- ACI JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 78, No. 5, Sept.-Oct. 1981,
crete Institute, Detroit, MI, 1984. pp. 341-350.
20. Alongi, AV., Cantor, T.R., and Alongi, A. Jr., 32. Concrete Manual, 8th Edition, U.S. Bureau of
1982, Concrete Evaluation by Radar Theoretical Analy- Reclamation, Denver, 1975, pp. 12-13.
sis, Transportation Research Board 853, Concrete
Analysis and Deterioration, pp. 31-37, Transportation ACI 207.3R-94 was submitted to letter ballot of the committee and approved
Research Board, Washington, D.C. in accordance with ACI balloting procedures.

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ACI 207.

Practices for Evaluation of Concrete

Fred A. Anderson James R. Graham

4.2-Petrographic analysis change in physical properties of concrete which could

CHAPTER l-INTRODUCTION CHAPTER 2-PREINSPECTION AND

2.5.2 Maintenance records 2.6.3 Periodic inspections-Periodic inspections are

concrete is necessary. for dynamic modulus of elasticity (Youngs Modulus)

7.1-Recommended references ASTM

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