INTRODUCTION FABREGAR,N.C.M.

I. PROCESS DESIGN CONCEPT

Design is a creative activity, and as such can be one of the most example, a particular product specification may be considered
rewarding and satisfying activities undertaken by an engineer. It is desirable by the sales department, but may be difficult and costly to
the synthesis, the putting together, of ideas to achieve a desired obtain, and some relaxation of the specification may be possible,
purpose. The designer starts with a specific objective in mind, a producing a saleable but cheaper product. Whenever he is in a
need, and by developing and evaluating possible designs, arrives at position to do so, the designer should always question the design
what he considers the best way of achieving that objective; be it a requirements (the project and equipment specifications) and keep
better chair, a new bridge, or for the chemical engineer, a new them under review as the design progresses. Where he writes
chemical product or a stage in the design of a production process. specifications for others, such as for the mechanical design or
When considering possible ways of achieving the objective the purchase of a piece of equipment, he should be aware of the
designer will be constrained by many factors, which will narrow down restrictions (constraints) he is placing on other designers. A tight,
the number of possible designs; but, there will rarely be just one well-thought-out, comprehensive, specification of the requirements
possible solution to the problem, just one design. Several alternative defines the external constraints within which the other designers
ways of meeting the objective will normally be possible, even several must work.
best designs, depending on the nature of the constraints. This can be
clearly illustrated in Figure 1. (DESIGN CONSTRAINTS) Design Collection. To proceed with a design, the designer must first
assemble all the relevant facts and data required. For process design
this will include information on possible processes, equipment
performance, and physical property data. This stage can be one of
the most time consuming, and frustrating, aspects of design. Many
design organizations will prepare a basic data manual, containing all
the process know-how on which the design is to be based. Most
organizations will have design manuals covering preferred methods
and data for the more frequently used, routine, design procedures.
The national standards are also sources of design methods and data;
they are also design constraints.

Generation of Possible Design Solutions. The creative part of the

design process is the generation of possible solutions to the problem
(ways of meeting the objective) for analysis, evaluation and selection.
In this activity the designer will largely rely on previous experience,
his own and that of others. The experienced engineer will wisely
prefer the tried and tested methods, rather than possibly more
exciting but untried novel designs. The work required to develop new
processes, and the cost, is usually underestimated. Progress is
made more surely in small steps. However, whenever innovation is
wanted, previous experience, through prejudice, can inhibit the
generation and acceptance of new ideas; the not invented here
syndrome.
The stages in the development of a design, from the initial
identification of the objective to the final design, are shown Selection. The designer starts with the set of all possible solutions
diagrammatically in Figure 2. (DESIGN PROCESS) bounded by the external constraints, and by a process of progressive
evaluation and selection, narrows down the range of candidates to
find the best design for the purpose (Sinnott, Coulson and
Richardson, Vol 6., 2005).

Process design establishes the sequence of chemical and

physical operations: operating conditions; the duties, major
specifications, and materials of construction (where critical) of all
process equipment (as distinguished from utilities and building
auxiliaries); the general arrangement of equipment needed to ensure
proper functioning of the plant; line sizes; and principal
instrumentation. The process design is summarized by a flowsheet, a
material and energy balance, and a set of individual equipment
specifications. Sometimes only a preliminary design and cost
estimate are needed to evaluate the advisability further research on a
new process or a proposed plant expansion or detailed design work;
or a preliminary design may be needed to establish the approximate
funding for a complete design and construction.

EQUIPMENT DESIGN

Two main categories of process equipment are proprietary

and custom-designed. Proprietary equipment is designed by the
Design Objective. Before starting work the designer should obtain manufacturer to meet performance specifications made by the user;
as complete, and as unambiguous, a statement of the requirements these specifications may be regarded as the process design of the
as possible. If the requirement (need) arises from outside the design equipment. This category includes equipment with moving parts such
group, from a client or from another department, then he will have to as pumps, compressors, and drivers as well as cooling towers,
elucidate the real requirements through discussion. It is important to dryers, filters, mixers, agitators, piping equipment, and valves, and
distinguish between the real needs and the wants. The wants are even the structural aspects of heat exchangers, furnaces and other
those parts of the initial specification that may be thought desirable, equipment. Custom design is needed for many aspects of chemical
but which can be relaxed if required as the design develops. For reactors, most vessels, multistage separators such as fractionators,
and other special equipment not amenable to complete any changes in Steps 1 and 2 that are required to accomplish a safe
standardization. engineered process design.

Only those characteristics of equipment are specified by Ulrich and Vasudevan (2006) pointed out that it may be too
process design that is significant from the process point of view. On a late to consider safety once a project has reached the equipment
pump, for instance, process design will specify the operating specification and PID stage. Examples of common safe practices are
conditions, capacity and pressure differential, NPSH, materials of pressure relief valves, vent systems, flare stacks, snuffing steam and
construction in contact with process liquid, and a few other items, but fire water, escape hatches in explosive areas, dikes around tanks
not such details as the wall thickness of the casing or the type of storing hazardous materials, turbine drives as spares for electrical
stuffing box or the nozzle sizes and the foundation dimensions motors in case of power failure, and others. Safety considerations
although most of these omitted items eventually must be known are paramount in the layout of the plant, particularly isolation of
before a plant is ready for construction. Standard specification forms especially hazardous operations and accessibility for corrective
are available for most proprietary kinds of equipment. action when necessary.

Proprietary equipment is provided off the shelf in limited Continual monitoring of equipment and plant is standard
sizes and capacities. Special sizes that would fit particular practice in chemical process plants. Equipment deteriorates and
applications more closely often are more expensive than a larger operating conditions may change. Repairs are sometimes made with
standard size that incindentally may provide a worthwhile safety materials or equipment whose ultimate effects on operations may not
factor. Even largely custom-designed equipment, such as vessels, is have been taken into account. During start-up and shutdown, stream
subject to standardization such as discrete ranges of head compositions and operating conditions are much different from those
diameters, pressure ratings of nozzles, sizes of manways, and kinds under normal operation, and their possible effect on safety must be
of trays and packings. Many codes and standards are established by considered.
government agencies, insurance companies, and organizations
sponsored by engineering societies. This can be seen in the following Because of the importance of safety and its complexity,
tables. Some standardization within individual plant are arbitrary safety engineering is a speciality in itself. In chemical processing
choices from comparable methods, made to simplify construction, plants of any significant size, loss prevention reviews are held
maintenance, and repair: for example, restriction to instrumentation periodically by groups that always include a representative of the
of a particular manufacturer or to a limited number of sizes of heat safety department. Other personnel, as needed by the particular
exchanger tubing or a particular method of installing liquid level gage situation, are from manufacturing, maintenance, technical service,
glasses. All such restrictions must be borne in mind by the process and possibly research, engineering, and medical groups. The review
designer. considers any changes made since the last review in equipment,
repairs, feedstocks and products, and operating conditions (Walas,
SPECIFICATIONS 2010).

Before a manufacturer is contacted, the engineer should DESIGN BASIS

evaluate the design needs and prepare a preliminary specification
sheet for the equipment. This preliminary specification sheet can be The design basis states what is to be made, how much is
used by the engineer as a basis for the preparation of the final to be made, where it is to be made, and what are the raw materials.
specifications, or it can be sent to a manufacturer with a request for Distinctions must also be clear between grass-roots facilities, battery-
suggestions and fabrication information. Preliminary specifications for limits facilities, plant expansions, and plant retrofits. The required
equipment should show the following: (1) Identification, (2) Function, data may be classified into basic design and specific design data.
(3) Operation, (4) Materials handled, (5) Basic design data, (6) The list of design basis can be seen in Table 1.7, pp.13-14 of
Essential controls, (7) Insulation requirements, (8) Allowable Chemical Process Equipment by Stanley M. Walas, 2010. These
tolerances, (9) Special information and details pertinent to the data form the basis for the project scope that is essential for any
particular equipment, such as materials of construction including design and the scope includes the following:
gaskets, installation, necessary delivery date, supports and special 1. Required products: their compositions, amounts, purities,
design details or comments (Timmerhaus,1991). (See Appendix B: toxicities, temperatures, pressures, and monetary values.
Equipment Specification Forms of Chemical Process Equipment by
Stanley M. Walas) 2. Available raw materials: their compositions, amounts, toxicities,
temperatures, pressures, monetary values, and all pertinent physical
SAFETY OF PLANT AND ENVIRONMENT properties unless they are standard and can be established from
The design of equipment and plant must minimize potential correlations. This information about properties applies also to
harm to personnel and the public in case of accidents, of which the products of item 1.
main causes are: (1) human failure, (2) failure of equipment or 3. Daily and seasonal variations of any data of items 1 and 2 and
control instruments, (3) failure of supply of utilities or key process subsequent items of these lists.
streams, and (4) environmental events (wind, water and so on). The
complete list of potential hazard and checklist can be seen in Table 4. All available laboratory and pilot plant data on reaction and phase
1.4, 1.5 and 1.6 pp.7-8 in Chemical Process Equipment by Stanley equilibria, catalyst degradation, and life and corrosion of equipment.
M. Walas, 2010.
5. Any available existing plant data of similar processes.
The most important part of the design process is safety,
since it is the requirement for a chemical manufacturers license to 6. Local restrictions on means of disposal of wastes.
operate. Safety must be considered at the early stages of design. Basic engineering data include:
Lechner (2006) suggested a general guideline for designing a safe
process beginning with Basic Process Engineering (STEP 1). In this 7. Characteristics and values of gaseous and liquid fuels that are to
step a preliminary process engineering flowsheet is created followed be used and their unit costs.
by a preliminary safety review by the project team. Next Detailed
Process Engineering (STEP 2) involves the preparation of P&IDs 8. Characteristics of raw makeup and cooling tower waters,
(Process and Instrumentation Diagrams). A detailed hazard analysis temperatures, maximum allowable temperature, flow rates available,
is also developed and the P&IDs and the detailed hazard analysis and unit costs.
are subjected to a review by the project team. The next step (STEP3)
is the Management of Change. It is inevitable that there will be
changes that are documented and all personnel are informed about
9. Steam and condensate: mean pressures and temperatures and Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) (pressure vessels). Burklin
their fluctuations at each level, amount available, extent of recovery (1979) gives a comprehensive list of the American codes and
of condensate, and unit costs. standards.

10. Electrical power: Voltages allowed for instruments, lighting and The International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
various driver sizes, transformer capacities, need for emergency coordinates the publication of international standards.
generator, unit costs.
All the published British standards are listed, and their
11. Compressed air: capacities and pressures of plant and instrument scope and application described, in the British Standards Institute
air, instrument air dryer. Catalogue; which the designer should consult. The catalogue is
available online, go to the BSI group home page, www.bsi-
12. Plant site elevation. global.com.
13. Soil bearing value, frost depth, ground water depth, piling As well as the various national standards and codes, the
requirements, available soil test data. larger design organisations will have their own (in-house) standards.
14. Climatic data. Winter and summer temperature extremes, cooling Much of the detail in engineering design work is routine and
tower dry-bulb temperature, air cooler design temperature, strength repetitious, and it saves time and money, and ensures conformity
and direction of prevailing winds, rain and snowfall maxima in 1 hr between projects, if standard designs are used whenever practicable.
and in 12 hr, earthquake and hurricane provision. Equipment manufacturers also work to standards to
15. Blowdown and flare: What may or may not be vented to the produce standardised designs and size ranges for commonly used
atmosphere or to ponds or to natural waters, nature of required items; such as electric motors, pumps, pipes and pipe fittings. They
liquid, and vapor relief systems. will conform to national standards, where they exist, or to those
issued by trade associations. It is clearly more economic to produce
16. Drainage and sewers: rainwater, oil, sanitary. a limited range of standard sizes than to have to treat each order as
a special job.
17. Buildings: process, pump, control instruments, special
equipment. For the designer, the use of a standardised component size
allows for the easy integration of a piece of equipment into the rest of
18. Paving types required in different areas. the plant. For example, if a standard range of centrifugal pumps is
19. Pipe racks: elevations, grouping, coding. specified the pump dimensions will be known, and this facilitates the
design of the foundations plates, pipe connections and the selection
20. Battery limit pressures and temperatures of individual feed stocks of the drive motors: standard electric motors would be used.
and products.
For an operating company, the standardisation of
21. Codes: those governing pressure vessels, other equipment, equipment designs and sizes increases interchange-ability and
buildings, electrical, safety, sanitation, and others. reduces the stock of spares that have to be held in maintenance
stores.
22. Miscellaneous: includes heater stacks, winterizing, insulation,
steam or electrical tracing of lines, heat exchanger tubing size Though there are clearly considerable advantages to be
standardization, instrument locations. gained from the use of standards in design, there are also some
disadvantages. Standards impose constraints on the designer. The
23. Environmental regulations. nearest standard size will normally be selected on completing a
24. Safety and health requirements (Walas, 2010). design calculation (rounding-up) but this will not necessarily be the
optimum size; though as the standard size will be cheaper than a
CODES AND STANDARDS special size, it will usually be the best choice from the point of view of
initial capital cost. Standard design methods must, of their nature, be
The need for standardisation arose early in the evolution of historical, and do not necessarily incorporate the latest techniques
the modern engineering industry; Whitworth introduced the first (Sinnot, Coulson and Richardson, Vol.6, 2005)
standard screw thread to give a measure of interchange-ability
between different manufacturers in 1841. Modern engineering LABORATORY AND PILOT PLANT WORK
standards cover a much wider function than the interchange of parts.
In engineering practice they cover: Vendors Questionnaire

1. Materials, properties and compositions. A manufacturers or vendors inquiry form is a

questionnaire whose completion will give him the information on
2. Testing procedures for performance, compositions, quality. which to base a specific recommendation of equipment and a price.
General information about the process in which the proposed
3. Preferred sizes; for example, tubes, plates, sections. equipment is expected to function, amounts and appropriate
4. Design methods, inspection, fabrication. properties of the streams involved, and the required performance are
basic. The nature of additional information varies from case to case;
5. Codes of practice, for plant operation and safety. for instance, being different for filters than for pneumatic conveyors.
Individual suppliers have specific inquiry forms.
The terms STANDARD and CODE are used
interchangeably, though CODE should really be reserved for a code Specification Forms
of practice covering say, a recommended design or operating
procedure; and STANDARD for preferred sizes, compositions, etc. When completed, a specification form is a record of the
salient features of the equipment, the condition under which it is to
In the United States the government organisation operate, and its guaranteed performance. Usually it is the basis for a
responsible for coordinating information on standards is the National firm price quotation. Some of these forms are made up by
Bureau of Standards; standards are issued by Federal, State and organizations such as TEMA or API, but all large engineering
various commercial organisations. The principal ones of interest to contractors and many large operating companies have other forms
chemical engineers are those issued by the American National for their own needs.
Standards Institute (ANSI), the American Petroleum Institute (API),
the American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM), and the American Although the design of a chemical process plant is initiated
by chemical engineers, its complete design and construction requires
the inputs of other specialists: mechanical, structural, electrical, and a particular piece of equipment may be compensated for by the
information engineers; vessel and piping designers; and purchasing superior performance of associated equipment, as insufficient trays in
agents who know what may be available at attractive prices. On large a fractionator may be compensated for by increases in reflux and
projects all these activities are correlated by a job engineer or project reboiling, if that equipment can take the extra load. Safety factors
manager; on individual items of equipment or small projects, the must be judiciously applied and should not be able to mask
process engineer naturally assumes this function. A key activity is the inadequate or careless design work. The design should be the best
writing of specifications for soliciting bids and ultimately purchasing that can be made in the time economically justifiable, and the safety
equipments. Specifications must be written so explicitly that the factors should be estimated from a careful consideration of all factors
bidders are held to a uniform standard and a clear-cut choice can be entering into the design and the possible future deviations from the
made on the basis of their offerings alone (Walas, 2010). design conditions (Walas, 1990).

SCALE-UP IN DESIGN Table 1. Safety Factors

When accurate data are not available in the literature or

when past experience does not give an adequate design basis, pilot-
plant tests may be necessary in order to design effective plant
equipment. The results of these tests must be scaled up to the plant
capacity. A chemical engineer, therefore, should be acquainted with
the limitations of scale-up methods and should know how to select
the essential design variables.

Pilot-plant data are almost always required for the design

of filters unless specific information is already available for the type
of materials and conditions involved. Heat exchangers, distillation
columns, pumps, and many other types of conventional equipment
can usually be designed adequately without using pilot-plant data.
Refer to Table 6 pp.37-39 of Plant Design and Economic for
Chemical Engineers by Peters and Timmerhaus for the Factors in The safety factors are also summarized in Plant Design and
Equipment Scale-up and Design. Economics for Chemical Engineers by Peters and Timmerhaus.

MATERIAL AND ENERGY BALANCE

Material and energy balances are based on a conservation MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION

law which is stated generally in the form
The effects of corrosion and erosion must be considered in
Input + source = output + sink + accumulation the design of chemical plants and equipment. Chemical resistance
and physical properties of constructional materials, therefore, are
A source is an increase in the amount of the entity that important factors in the choice and design of equipment. The
occurs without a crossing of boundary; for example, an increase in materials of construction may be resistant to the corrosive action of
the sensible enthalpy or in the amount of a substance as a any chemicals that may contact the exposed surfaces. Possible
consequence of chemical reaction. Sinks are decreases without erosion caused by flowing fluids or other types of moving substances
boundary crossing, as the disappearance of water from a fluid stream must be considered, even though the materials of construction may
by adsorption onto a solid phase within the boundary. have adequate chemical resistance. Structural strength, resistance to
physical or thermal shock, cost, ease of fabrication, necessary
maintenance, and general type of service required, including
ECONOMIC BALANCE operating temperatures and pressures, are additional factors that
influence the final choice of constructional materials.
Usually as the capital cost of a process unit goes up, the
operating cost goes down. For example, an increase in control If there is any doubt concerning suitable materials for
instrumentation and automation at a higher cost is accompanied by a construction of equipment, reference should be made to the
reduction in operating labor cost. Because of rapid escalation of literature, or laboratory tests should be carried out under conditions
energy costs in recent years, closer appraisals of energy utilizations similar to the final operating conditions. The results from the
by complete processes are being made, from the standpoints of both laboratory tests indicate the corrosion resistance of the material and
the conservation laws and for second laws of thermodynamics. also the effects on the product caused by contact with the particular
material. Further tests on a pilot-plant scale may be desirable in
order to determine the amount of erosion resistance or the effects of
SAFETY FACTORS other operational factors.

A number of factors influence the performance of

equipment and plant there are elements of uncertainty and the
possibility of error, including inadequacy of physical data, basic
correlations of behaviour such as pipe friction or column tray
efficiency or gas-liquid distribution. Further, it is often necessary to
use approximations of design methods and calculations, unknown
behaviour of materials of construction, uncertainty of future market
demands, and changes in operating performance with time. The
solvency of the project, the safety of the operators and the public,
and the reputation and career of the design engineer are at stake.
Accordingly, the experienced engineer will apply safety factors
throughout the design of a plant. Just how much of a factor should be
SAFETY1
applied in a particular case cannot be stated in general terms
because circumstances vary widely. The inadequate performance of
Occupational Safety and Health (OSH)
 - is the promotion and maintenance of the highest degree of physical, mental and social well-being of workers in all
occupations;
- it calls for the prevention of any impairment in the health and well-being of workers caused by their working conditions or
work environment;
- It stands for the protection of workers from risks and hazards that could adversely affect their health and well-being and
for their placement in an occupational environment adapted to his/her physiological ability
- Under the Philippine Constitution of 1987, it is a constitutional objective described as just and humane terms and
conditions of work.

Legal Framework on Occupational Safety and Health

Workplace safety and health in the Philippine is regulated by a wide range of laws, policies and programs, in particular:
1. The Philippine Constitution of 1987 stipulates that labour shall be entitled to .... humane conditions of work .... which in turns
translates to social and economic benefits.
2. The Philippine Labor Code devotes Book IV on prevention and compensation of work-related injuries and illnesses.
3. The Occupational Safety and Health Standards (OSHS) was developed in 1978 as a set of specific rules on OSH.

DOLE and other government agencies have issued hazard-specific guidelines, departmental orders and implementing rules.
Employers and workers organizations have developed OSH guidelines for their respective membership. Individual firms have made
their specific OSH programs an integral part of their respective health programs. ILO Conventions provide general guidelines on OSH
policy

The Philippine Constitution of 1987

Under the Philippine Constitution of 1987, OSH is a constitutional objective described as just and humane terms and
conditions of work. The State affirms labor as a primary social economic force. It shall protect the rights of workers and promote their
welfare.
Laws and Regulations under DOLE Jurisdiction
The DOLE is the lead agency in implementing and enforcing OSH policies and practices and it possesses enforcement and rule-
making powers in particular with regard to the following laws and standard:
- Philippine Labor Code on prevention, compensation
- The Administrative Code on Enforcement of Safety and Health standards
- The Occupational Safety and Health Standards (OSHS)
- Executive Order 307 creating the Occupational Safety and Health Center under the Employees Compensation
Commission
- Presidential Decree 626 Employees Compensation and State Insurance Fund`
- Hazard-specific laws regarding
- anti-sexual harassment
- RA 9165 Comprehensive Drugs Act of 2002
- RA 8504 National HIV/AIDS Law of 1998

Laws and Regulations Under Jurisdiction of GOs other than DOLE:

- DOH: Sanitation Code
- DA: Fertilizer and Pesticides Act
- DENR: RA 6969, Ratification of Stockholm Convention, Chemical Control Order, Mining Law (small scale and large) etc.
- RA 9185 Comprehensive Dangerous Drugs Act of 2002
- RA 6541 National Building Code of the Philippines
- RA 6969 Toxic Substances Act
- RA 9231 Special protection of Children against Child Abuse, Exploitation and Discrimination Act.

International OSH Conventions

Since the Philippines became a member of the International Labor Organization (ILO) in 1948, it has ratified 31 ILO
Conventions including some related to safety and health. (Annex 1). Initiatives are on the way to consider for ratification ILO
Convention 155 on Occupational Health Services as well as the new ILO Convention on Agriculture. Adopted at the 95th ILO
Conference, a Promotional Framework Convention on Occupational Safety and Health and its accompanying Recommendation
promote the development of a preventative safety and health culture.

Osh on the Philippine Labor Code

Book IV on Health, Safety and Social Welfare Benefits

Title 1 of Book IV Medical, Dental and Occupational Safety

Medical, Dental Services
Title 1 broadly defines what medical and dental services should an employer provide to employees,
Occupational Health and Safety
This Chapter describes the health and safety standards, and who should be responsible for defining and enforcing the standards. All
employers are covered whether operating for profit or not, including the Government and any of its political subdivisions and
government-owned or controlled corporations, which employ in any workplace one or more workers.
 Title II of Book IV Employees Compensation and State Insurance Fund

Chapter I Policy
The State shall promote and develop a tax-exempt employees compensation program whereby employees and their dependents, in
the event of work-connected disability or death, may promptly secure adequate income benefits, and medical or related benefits.
Contributions
Employers from both private and public sector contribute to the State Insurance Fund, which in turn pays the benefits to
covered employees.

Administration of Benefits
The Employees Compensation Commission (ECC) initiates, rationalizes and coordinates the policies of the EC program,
chaired by the Secretary of Labor and Employment. The Commission has a status of a government corporation.

Medical Benefits
Employees who contract sickness or sustain injuries shall be provided by the System during the period of disability with, as
well as cash income benefit or pension.

The Occupational Safety and Health Standards (OSHS) of 1978

Under Article 162 of the Philippine Labor Code, the OSHS was promulgated for the guidance and compliance of those
covered. The DOLE administers and enforces the provisions of the Standards. Safety and Health rules may be promulgated, modified
or revoked covering 26 rules and 144 subrules, among which are on:

- training of personnel in OSH

- setting up of safety and health committee
- notification and keeping of records of accidents and/or occupational illnesses
- occupational health and environmental control
- personal protective equipment and devices
- hazardous materials
- materials handling and storage
- underfired pressure vessels
- machine guarding
- fire protection and control
- pesticides and fertilizers
- occupational health services

Reference: http://oshc.dole.gov.ph/UserFiles/oshc2010/file/National-OSH-Profile.pdf

ETHICS1

FUNDAMENTALS OF ETHICS
 I. ORIGIN AND NATURE OF ETHICS
It is derived from the Greek word ethos meaning character.
(The greeks believed that developing character would lead one not only to knowing the right thing to do, but to
actually doing the right thing or living the right way of life.)
Or Moral Philosophy It is when man begin to wonder about things to do or how he should live his existence
A personal and life-long commitment

II. WHAT IS ETHICS?

a. As field of study:
i. Metaethics it focuses on issues of universal truths, the existence of a supreme being, the role of reason in the
behavioral choices that we make, and the meaning of ethical terms themselves.
ii. Applied Ethics it attempts to take the issues identified in metaethics and establish normative standards that
regulate right and wrong conduct.
iii. Normative Ethics - This discipline involves the application of ethical principles to real-world situations, often with a
specific emphasis on controversial issues.
b. As a set of rules and guidelines:
i. Beyond it being a field of study, many people define ethics as a set of rules and guidelines by which individuals
should live their lives.
ii. As a set of personal beliefs and associated behavioral principles:
iii. Ethics is beliefs used to analyze and interpret situations to make decisions regarding behavior.
iv. Ethics is predetermined planning regarding potential actions in foreseeable situations.
v. Ethics is about how we meet the challenge of doing the right thing when that will cost more than we want to pay
(Maxwell, 2003).

III. METHODS OF DETERMINING ETHICAL NORMS

a. Virtue Ethics it is based on the idea that a persons life should be committed to the achievement of an ideal or ideals
virtues.
b. Deontological Ethics it focuses on the action itself, regardless of the result that it produces.
i. Justice Theory although there are several forms of rights theory, they each share the belief that certain
human rights are fundamental and should be respected by all other humans.
ii. Right Theory you have included in your summary all of the authors major ideas, assertions and findings.
Modern Rights Theory justice theory is very similar to rights theory in its first and most important
principle - the Greatest Equal Liberty Principle. This principle states that each person has an equal right
to basic rights and liberties.
Strengths and Weakness of Rights Theory the theory facilitates democratic societies because the
definition of the rights can be integrated into the laws of the society and, thereby, become universally
understood.
c. Ethical Relativism is completely incompatible with rights theory because there is no fixed standard of right and wrong.
d. Teleological Ethics it focuses almost exclusively on the results or the outcome of a decision or action.
i. Profit Maximization the goal must be obtained within the constraints of the law and the only concern is the
individual company - not the entirety of society.
ii. Utilitarianism the most well-known and accepted teleological theory. There are three subdivisions of
utilitarianism each of which answers the identity of the recipient of the beneficial outcome.
Ethical Egoism are the ultimate in selfishness. They have no concern but achieving outcomes that
benefit them. That which benefits them is what is moral, although most observers would consider
their behavior immoral.
Ethical Altruism the difference between ethical egoism and ethical altruism is the recipient of the
benefit. Altruism is the concern about the welfare of others.
Traditional Utilitarianism persons who subscribe to traditional utilitarianism focus on the benefit to
society, as a whole. This may cause them, on occasion, to take action that is not in their personal self-
interest.

IV. Forms Of Ethics

Practical- Aims to develop a workable system of behavior that can be used in the daily conduct of human existence
Theoretical- Aims to study the meaning of ethical concepts such as good, right, fairness, etc.
Moral Skepticism- skepticism comes from the greek word skeptesthai--to examine or to consider

V. IMPORTANCE OF ETHICS FOR INDIVIDUALS AND SOCIETY

Why do we need to study ethics in the first place?
1.We live in a world where we must not only make decisions, but where there are right ways and wrong means ways of
doing things, and ethics should make it clear should make it clear to us why one act is better than another
2. In order to have an orderly social life, we must have agreements, understandings, principles and rules of procedure
3. Moral conduct and ethical systems must be intelligently appraised and criticized.

VI. PHILOSOPHICAL VIEWS ON ETHICS

a. Theory of right conduct or the Philosophy of Morals
 b. The Standard of Character set by a particular society of men
c. A science of moral duty, of ideal human character and of standards of human conduct
Ethics is thus concerned with questions such as:
a. How can we achieve the good life?
b. What is the good life?
c. How can we know if our actions are ethical?
d. How can we resolve morally difficult cases where clear answers are hard to find?
e. What makes an act ethical?
f. How can we assess our moral beliefs if they are true?
g.
VII. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LAW AND ETHICS
In general, the ethics is:
a. These are social guidelines based on moral principles and values
b. Do not have punishments, fines, or associated penalties
c. Set forth social guidelines
d. Moral codes which every person must conform to
On the other hand, the law is
a. Rules and regulations that have specific penalties and consequences when violated.
b. Has punishments, fines, and penalties
c. Set standards of expected societal actions
d. Codifications of ethics meant to regulate society
VIII. Assumptions of Ethics
Assumptions are fundamental beliefs or statements that are accepted to be true without the burden of proving or of proof
The man is a rational being That man is free

IX. The Objects of Ethics

Physical -doer of an act
-people, business firm, government, etc
Non Physical -act done by the doer
-telling the truth, fulfilling a promise, helping others

X. How Ethics Fits into Engineering

We have been studying engineering, such as design, analysis, and performance measurement. Where does ethics fit in?
Engineers . . .
Build products such as cell phones, home appliances, heart valves, bridges, & cars. In general they advance
society by building new technology.
Develop processes, such as the process to convert salt water into fresh water or the process to recycle bottles.
These processes change how we live and what we can accomplish.

Products and processes have consequences for society:

If the bridge has an inadequate support, it will fail.
If the gas tank is positioned too close to the bumper, it might explode from a small accident.
If a medical instrument isnt accurate, improper doses of medication can be given.
If the process for refining gas produces too much toxins, it harms the local community.
*Decisions made by engineers usually have serious consequences to people -- often to multitudes of people.
*Ethics and ethical reasoning guide decision-making.

XI. The Engineering Code of Ethics

The Engineering Code of Ethics has three components:
1. The Fundamental Canons: which articulate the basic components of ethical engineering.
2. The Rules of Practice: which clarify and specify in detail the fundamental canons of ethics in engineering.
3. Professional Obligations: which elaborate the obligations that engineers have.

XII. NSPE Fundamental Canons of Ethics

Engineers in the fulfillment of their professional duties shall:
Hold paramount the safety, health, and welfare of the public.
Perform services only in areas of their competence.
Issue public statements only in an objective and truthful manner.
Act for each employer or client as faithful agents or trustees.
Avoid deceptive acts.
Conduct themselves honorably, responsibly, ethically, and lawfully, so as to enhance the honor, reputation, and usefulness of
the profession.