The aviation maintenance technician (AMT) spends a Occasionally it is necessary to use a soft-faced ham-

major portion of each day using a wide variety of hand mer, which has a striking surface made of wood, brass,
tools to accomplish maintenance tasks. This chapter lead, rawhide, hard rubber, or plastic. These hammers
contains an overview of some of the hand tools an are intended for use in forming soft metals and striking
AMT can expect to use. An AMT encounters many surfaces that are easily damaged. Soft-faced hammers
special tools as their experience widens; large transport should not be used for striking punch heads, bolts, or
category aircraft have different maintenance tasks from nails, as using one in this fashion will quickly ruin this
those of a light airplane, and special hand tools are type of hammer.
often required when working on complex aircraft.
A mallet is a hammer-like tool with a head made of
This chapter outlines the basic knowledge required hickory, rawhide, or rubber. It is handy for shaping
in using the most common hand tools and measuring thin metal parts without causing creases or dents with
instruments used in aircraft repair work. This informa- abrupt corners. Always use a wooden mallet when
tion, however, cannot replace sound judgment on the pounding a wood chisel or a gouge.
part of the individual, nor additional training as the
need arises. There are many times when ingenuity and When using a hammer or mallet, choose the one best
resourcefulness can supplement the basic rules. Sound suited for the job. Ensure that the handle is tight. When
knowledge is required of these basic rules and of the striking a blow with the hammer, use the forearm as an
situations in which they apply. The use of tools may extension of the handle. Swing the hammer by bend-
vary, but good practices for safety, care, and storage ing the elbow, not the wrist. Always strike the work
of tools remain the same. squarely with the full face of the hammer. When strik-
ing a metal tool with a metal hammer, the use of safety
glasses or goggles is strongly encouraged.
General Purpose Tools
Hammers and Mallets Always keep the faces of hammers and mallets smooth
and free from dents, chips, or gouges to prevent mar-
Figure 9-1 shows some of the hammers that the aviation
ring the work.
mechanic may be required to use. Metal head hammers
are usually sized according to the weight of the head Screwdrivers
without the handle. The screwdriver can be classified by its shape, type of
blade, and blade length. It is made for only one pur-

Ball peen Straight peen Cross peen Tinners mallet Riveting hammer

Figure 9-1. Hammers.

9-1
 The common screwdriver is used only where slotted
head screws or fasteners are found on aircraft. An
example of a fastener that requires the use of a com-
mon screwdriver is the camlock style fastener that is
used to secure the cowling on some aircraft.
Phillips Screwdriver
The two types of recessed head screws in common use
are the Phillips and the Reed & Prince.

Both the Phillips and Reed & Prince recessed heads are
optional on several types of screws. As shown in Figure
9-2, the Reed & Prince recessed head forms a perfect
cross. The screwdriver used with this screw is pointed
on the end. Since the Phillips screw has a slightly larger
center in the cross, the Phillips screwdriver is blunt on
the end. The Phillips screwdriver is not interchangeable
with the Reed & Prince. The use of the wrong type
screwdriver results in mutilation of the screwdriver and
the screw head. When turning a recessed head screw,
use only the proper recessed head screwdriver of the
Phillips Reed & Prince
correct size. The most common crosspoint screwdrivers
are the Number 1 and Number 2 Phillips.

An offset screwdriver may be used when vertical

space is limited. Offset screwdrivers are constructed
with both ends bent 90 to the shank handle. By using
alternate ends, most screws can be seated or loosened
even when the swinging space is limited. Offset screw-
drivers are made for both standard and recessed head
screws. Ratcheting right angle screwdrivers are also
Offset Screwdriver available, and often prove to be indispensable when
working in close quarters.

A screwdriver should not be used for chiseling or

prying. Do not use a screwdriver to check an electric
circuit since an electric arc will burn the tip and make it
useless. In some cases, an electric arc may fuse the blade
Flat blade screwdriver to the unit being checked, creating a short circuit.

When using a screwdriver on a small part, always hold

Figure 9-2. Typical screwdrivers. the part in the vise or rest it on a workbench. Do not
hold the part in the hand, as the screwdriver may slip
pose, i.e., for loosening or tightening screws or screw and cause serious personal injury.
head bolts. Figure 9-2 shows several different types of Replaceable tip screwdrivers, commonly referred to as
screwdrivers. When using the common screwdriver, 10 in 1 screwdrivers, allow for the quick changing of
select the largest screwdriver whose blade will make a screwdriver tip, and economical replacement of the
a good fit in the screw that is to be turned. tip when it becomes worn. A wide variety of screw-
A common screwdriver must fill at least 75 percent driver tips, including flat, crosspoint (Phillips and Reed
of the screw slot. If the screwdriver is the wrong size, & Prince), Torx and square drive tips are available for
it cuts and burrs the screw slot, making it worthless. use with the handles. [Figure 9-3]
The damage may be so severe that the use of screw The cordless hand-held power screwdriver has replaced
extractor may be required. A screwdriver with the most automatic or spiral screwdrivers for the removal
wrong size blade may slip and damage adjacent parts of multiple screws from an airframe. Care must be
of the structure.

9-2
 Roundnose pliers are used to crimp metal. They are not
made for heavy work because too much pressure will
spring the jaws, which are often wrapped to prevent
scarring the metal.

Needlenose pliers have half round jaws of varying

lengths. They are used to hold objects and make adjust-
Figure 9-3. Replaceable tip screwdriver. ments in tight places.

exercised when using a power screwdriver; if the slip Duckbill pliers resemble a ducks bill in that the jaws
clutch is set for too high a setting when installing a are thin, flat, and shaped like a ducks bill. They are
screw, the screwdriver tip will slip and rotate on top used exclusively for twisting safety wire.
of the screw head, damaging it. The screw should be Diagonal pliers are usually referred to as diagonals or
started by hand, to avoid driving the screw into the nut dikes. The diagonal is a short-jawed cutter with a
or nutplate in a cross-threaded manner. To avoid dam- blade set at a slight angle on each jaw. This tool can be
aging the slot or receptacle in the head of the screw, the used to cut wire, rivets, small screws, and cotter pins,
use of cordless power drills fitted with a removable tip besides being practically indispensable in removing
driver to remove or install screws is not recommended, or installing safety wire. The duckbill pliers and the
as the drill does not have a slip-clutch installed. diagonal cutting pliers are used extensively in aviation
Pliers and Plier-Type Cutting Tools for the job of safety wiring.
As shown in Figure 9-4, the pliers used most frequently Two important rules for using pliers are:
in aircraft repair work are the diagonal, needlenose,
and duckbill. The size of pliers indicates their overall 1. Do not make pliers work beyond their capacity.
length, usually ranging from 5 to 12 inches. The long-nosed variety is especially delicate. It is
easy to spring or break them, or nick the edges. If
this occurs, they are practically useless.
2. Do not use pliers to turn nuts. In just a few seconds,
a pair of pliers can damage a nut more than years
of service.
Punches
Punches are used to locate centers for drawing circles,
Diagonal cutter to start holes for drilling, to punch holes in sheet metal,
to transfer location of holes in patterns, and to remove
damaged rivets, pins or bolts.
Solid or hollow punches are the two types generally
used. Solid punches are classified according to the
shape of their points. Figure 9-5 shows several types
of punches.

Prick punches are used to place reference marks on

Duckbill
metal. This punch is often used to transfer dimensions
from a paper pattern directly on the metal. To do this,
first place the paper pattern directly on the metal. Then
go over the outline of the pattern with the prick punch,
tapping it lightly with a small hammer and making
slight indentations on the metal at the major points on
the drawing. These indentations can then be used as
Needle nose reference marks for cutting the metal. A prick punch
should never be struck a heavy blow with a hammer
because it may bend the punch or cause excessive
Figure 9-4. Pliers.
damage to the material being worked.

9-3
 the diameter of the face, in thirty-seconds of an inch,
and range from 116 to 38 inch in diameter.

In general practice, a pin or bolt which is to be driven

out is usually started and driven with a drive punch
Auto center punch
until the sides of the punch touch the side of the hole.
A pin punch is then used to drive the pin or bolt the
rest of the way out of the hole. Stubborn pins may be
started by placing a thin piece of scrap copper, brass,
Prick punch
or aluminum directly against the pin and then striking
it with a hammer until the pin begins to move.

Never use a prick punch or center punch to remove

Starting punch objects from holes because the point of the punch will
spread the object and cause it to bind even more.

The transfer punch is usually about 4 inches long. It

Pin punch has a point that tapers, and then turns straight for a
short distance in order to fit a drill locating hole in a
template. The tip has a point similar to that of a prick
punch. As its name implies, the transfer punch is used
Aligning punch to transfer the location of holes through the template
or pattern to the material.
Wrenches
The wrenches most often used in aircraft maintenance
Center punch
are classified as open-end, box-end, socket, adjustable,
ratcheting and special wrenches. The Allen wrench,
although seldom used, is required on one special type
Drift pin of recessed screw. One of the most widely used met-
als for making wrenches is chrome-vanadium steel.
Wrenches made of this metal are almost unbreakable.
Figure 9-5. Punches. Solid, nonadjustable wrenches with open parallel jaws
on one or both ends are known as open-end wrenches.
Large indentations in metal, which are necessary to These wrenches may have their jaws parallel to the
start a twist drill, are made with a center punch. It handle or at an angle up to 90; most are set at an
should never be struck with enough force to dimple the angle of 15. The wrenches are designed to fit a nut,
material around the indentation or to cause the metal to bolt head, or other object, which makes it possible to
protrude through the other side of the sheet. A center exert a turning action.
punch has a heavier body than a prick punch and is
ground to a point with an angle of about 60. Box-end wrenches are popular tools because of their
usefulness in close quarters. They are called box
The drive punch, which is often called a tapered punch, wrenches since they box, or completely surround, the
is used for driving out damaged rivets, pins, and bolts nut or bolt head. Practically all well-manufactured
that sometimes bind in holes. The drive punch is there- box-end wrenches are made with 12 points so they
fore made with a flat face instead of a point. The size can be used in places having as little as 15 swing. In
of the punch is determined by the width of the face, Figure 9-6, point A on the illustrated double broached
which is usually 18 inch to 14 inch. hexagon wrench is nearer the centerline of the head and
the wrench handle than point B, and also the centerline
Pin punches, often called drift punches, are similar of nut C. If the wrench is inverted and installed on nut
to drive punches and are used for the same purposes. C, point A will be centered over side Y instead of
The difference between the two is that the sides of a side X. The centerline of the handle will now be in
drive punch taper all the way to the face while the pin the dotted line position. It is by reversing (turning the
punch has a straight shank. Pin punches are sized by

9-4
 Box-end

Open-end

A B
X Y
C Ratcheting wrench

Box-end wrench

Figure 9-6. Box-end wrench use. Combination wrench

Figure 9-7. Box-end and combination wrenches.

wrench over) the position of the wrench that a 15 arc
may be made with the wrench handle.
Sockets with detachable handles usually come in sets
Although box-end wrenches are ideal to break loose and fit several types of handles, such as the T, ratchet,
tight nuts or pull tight nuts tighter, time is lost turn- screwdriver grip, and speed handle. Socket wrench
ing the nut off the bolt once the nut is broken loose. handles have a square lug on one end that fits into a
Only when there is sufficient clearance to rotate the square recess in the socket head. The two parts are held
wrench in a complete circle can this tedious process together by a light spring-loaded poppet. Two types
be avoided. of sockets, a set of handles, and an extension bar are
shown in Figure 9-8.
After a tight nut is broken loose, it can be completely
backed off or unscrewed more quickly with an open- The adjustable wrench is a handy utility tool that has
end than with a box-end wrench. In this case, a combi- smooth jaws and is designed as an open-end wrench.
nation wrench can be used; it has a box end on one end One jaw is fixed, but the other may be moved by a
and an open-end wrench of the same size on the other. thumbscrew or spiral screwworm adjustment in the
handle. The width of the jaws may be varied from 0
Another option for removing a nut from a bolt is the to 12 inch or more. The angle of the opening to the
ratcheting box-end wrench, which can be swung back handle is 22 12 degrees on an adjustable wrench. One
and forth to remove the nut or bolt. The box-end, adjustable wrench does the work of several open-end
combination, and ratcheting wrenches are shown in wrenches. Although versatile, they are not intended
Figure 9-7. to replace the standard open-end, box-end, or socket
wrenches. When using any adjustable wrench, always
A socket wrench is made of two parts: (1) the socket,
exert the pull on the side of the handle attached to the
which is placed over the top of a nut or bolt head, and
fixed jaw of the wrench. To minimize the possibility
(2) a handle, which is attached to the socket. Many
or rounding off the fastener, use care to fit the wrench
types of handles, extensions, and attachments are
to the bolt or nut to be turned.
available to make it possible to use socket wrenches in
almost any location or position. Sockets are made with Special Wrenches
either fixed or detachable handles. Socket wrenches The category of special wrenches includes the crow-
with fixed handles are usually furnished as an acces- foot, flare nut, spanner, torque, and Allen wrenches.
sory to a machine. They have either a four, six, or [Figures 9-9 and 9-10]
twelve-sided recess to fit a nut or bolt head that needs
regular adjustment.

9-5
 Speed handle

Ratchet handle

Hinge handle

Socket and universal Socket Extension bar

joint combined

Figure 9-8. Socket wrench set.

The crowfoot wrench is normally used when access- hydraulic, or oxygen line. Since it mounts using the
ing nuts that must be removed from studs or bolt that standard square adapter, like the crowfoot wrench, it
cannot be accessed using other tools. can be used in conjunction with a torque wrench.

The flare nut wrench has the appearance of a box-end The hook spanner is for a round nut with a series of
wrench that has been cut open on one end. This opening notches cut in the outer edge. This wrench has a curved
allows the wrench to be used on the B-nut of a fuel, arm with a hook on the end that fits into one of the

A = Outside diameter
F C = Center to center
D = Length
Crowfoot E E = Head depth
F = Total depth
A

C
A A = Outside diameter
B = Wall opening
C = Center to center
Flare nut E = Head depth
E
B

Hook spanner Allen wrench

Figure 9-9. Special wrenches.

9-6
notches on the nut. The hook is placed in one of these
notches with the handle pointing in the direction the
nut is to be turned.

Some hook spanner wrenches are adjustable and will

fit nuts of various diameters. U-shaped hook spanners
have two lugs on the face of the wrench to fit notches
cut in the face of the nut or screw plug. End spanners
resemble a socket wrench, but have a series of lugs
that fit into corresponding notches in a nut or plug. Pin Dial indicating torque wrench
spanners have a pin in place of a lug, and the pin fits
into a round hole in the edge of a nut. Face pin spanners
are similar to the U-shaped hook spanners except that
they have pins instead of lugs.

Most headless setscrews are the hex-head Allen type

and must be installed and removed with an Allen Micrometer click-type torque wrench
wrench. Allen wrenches are six-sided bars in the shape
of an L, or they can be hex-shaped bars mounted in
adapters for use with hand ratchets. They range in size
from 364 to 12 inch and fit into a hexagonal recess in
the setscrew.
Torque Wrench
Electronic torque wrench
There are times when definite pressure must be applied
to a nut or bolt as it is installed. In such cases a torque
wrench must be used. The torque wrench is a preci- Figure 9-10. Torque wrenches.
sion tool consisting of a torque indicating handle and
appropriate adapter or attachments. It measures the
Strap Wrenches
amount of turning or twisting force applied to a nut,
bolt, or screw. The strap wrench can prove to be an invaluable tool
for the AMT. By their very nature, aircraft compo-
Before each use, the torque wrench should be visu- nents such as tubing, pipes, small fittings, and round
ally inspected for damage. If a bent pointer, cracked or irregularly shaped components are built to be as
or broken glass (dial type), or signs of rough handling light as possible, while still retaining enough strength
are found, the wrench must be tested. Torque wrenches to function properly. The misuse of pliers or other
must be tested at periodic intervals to ensure accuracy. gripping tools can quickly damage these parts. If it is
necessary to grip a part to hold it in place, or to rotate
Commonly used torque wrenches include the deflect- it to facilitate removal, consider using a strap wrench
ing beam (not shown), dial indicating, micrometer, and that uses a plastic covered fabric strap to grip the part.
electronic setting types. [Figure 9-10] [Figure 9-11]
When using the deflecting beam and the dial indicat-
ing torque wrenches, the torque is read visually on a
dial or scale mounted on the handle of the wrench.
The micrometer setting torque wrench is preset to
the desired torque. When this torque is reached, the
operator notices a sharp impulse or breakaway click.
For additional information on the installation of fas-
teners requiring the use of a torque wrench, refer to
Installation of Nuts, Washers, and Bolts located in
chapter 5.
Figure 9-11. Strap wrench.

9-7
 Aviation snips are designed especially for cutting heat-
treated aluminum alloy and stainless steel. They are
also adaptable for enlarging small holes. The blades
have small teeth on the cutting edges and are shaped
for cutting very small circles and irregular outlines.
The handles are the compound leverage type, making it
possible to cut material as thick as 0.051 inch. Aviation
snips are available in two types, those which cut from
right to left and those which cut from left to right.
Figure 9-12. Impact driver.
Unlike the hacksaw, snips do not remove any material
Impact Drivers when the cut is made, but minute fractures often occur
In certain applications, the use of an impact driver may along the cut. Therefore, cuts should be made about
1 inch from the layout line and finished by hand fil-
be required. Struck with a mallet, the impact driver 32

uses cam action to impart a high amount of torque in ing down to the line.
a sharp impact to break loose a stubborn fastener. The Hacksaws
drive portion of the impact driver can accept a number
The common hacksaw has a blade, a frame, and a
of different drive bits and sockets. The use of special
handle. The handle can be obtained in two styles: pistol
bits and sockets specifically manufactured for use with
grip and straight. [Figure 9-14]
an impact driver is required. [Figure 9-12]
Hacksaw blades have holes in both ends; they are
Metal Cutting Tools mounted on pins attached to the frame. When installing
a blade in a hacksaw frame, mount the blade with the
Hand Snips
teeth pointing forward, away from the handle.
There are several kinds of hand snips, each of which
serves a different purpose. Straight, curved, hawksbill, Blades are made of high-grade tool steel or tungsten
and aviation snips are in common use. Straight snips steel and are available in sizes from 6 to 16 inches in
are used for cutting straight lines when the distance is length. The 10-inch blade is most commonly used.
not great enough to use a squaring shear and for cut- There are two types, the all-hard blade and the flexible
ting the outside of a curve. The other types are used for blade. In flexible blades, only the teeth are hardened.
cutting the inside of curves or radii. Snips should never
be used to cut heavy sheet metal. [Figure 9-13] Selection of the best blade for the job involves finding
the right type and pitch. An all-hard blade is best for
sawing brass, tool steel, cast iron, and heavy cross-sec-
tion materials. A flexible blade is usually best for sawing
hollow shapes and metals having a thin cross section.

Left cut snips

Straight snips

Figure 9-13. Typical snips.

Figure 9-14. Hacksaws.

9-8
The pitch of a blade indicates the number of teeth per
inch. Pitches of 14, 18, 24, and 32 teeth per inch are 6070
available. A blade with 14 teeth per inch is preferred
when cutting machine steel, cold rolled steel, or struc-
tural steel. A blade with 18 teeth per inch is preferred
for solid stock aluminum, bearing metal, tool steel,
and cast iron. Use a blade with 24 teeth per inch when
cutting thick-walled tubing, pipe, brass, copper, chan-
nel, and angle iron. Use the 32 teeth per inch blade for Flat cold chisel
Convex
cutting thin-walled tubing and sheet metal. When using
a hacksaw, observe the following procedures:

1. Select an appropriate saw blade for the job.

2. Assemble the blade in the frame so that the cutting
edge of the teeth points away from the handle.
3. Adjust tension of the blade in the frame to prevent Single bevel point
the saw from buckling and drifting.
4. Clamp the work in the vise in such a way that will
provide as much bearing surface as possible and
will engage the greatest number of teeth.
Double bevel point
5. Indicate the starting point by nicking the surface
with the edge of a file to break any sharp corner
that might strip the teeth. This mark will also aid
in starting the saw at the proper place.
6. Hold the saw at an angle that will keep at least two
teeth in contact with the work at all times. Start the
cut with a light, steady, forward stroke just outside
the cutting line. At the end of the stroke, relieve
Round nose
the pressure and draw the blade back. (The cut is
made on the forward stroke.)
7. After the first few strokes, make each stroke as long
as the hacksaw frame will allow. This will prevent
the blade from overheating. Apply just enough
Diamond point
pressure on the forward stroke to cause each tooth
to remove a small amount of metal. The strokes
should be long and steady with a speed not more
than 40 to 50 strokes per minute.
8. After completing the cut, remove chips from the
Figure 9-15. Chisels.
blade, loosen tension on the blade, and return the
hacksaw to its proper place.
Chisels are usually made of eight-sided tool steel bar
Chisels stock, carefully hardened and tempered. Since the cut-
A chisel is a hard steel cutting tool that can be used for ting edge is slightly convex, the center portion receives
cutting and chipping any metal softer than the chisel the greatest shock when cutting, and the weaker corners
itself. It can be used in restricted areas and for such are protected. The cutting angle should be 60 to 70
work as shearing rivets, or splitting seized or damaged for general use, such as for cutting wire, strap iron, or
nuts from bolts. [Figure 9-15] small bars and rods.
The size of a flat cold chisel is determined by the width When using a chisel, hold it firmly in one hand. With
of the cutting edge. Lengths will vary, but chisels are the other hand, strike the chisel head squarely with a
seldom under 5 inches or over 8 inches long. ball peen hammer.

9-9
When cutting square corners or slots, a special cold Files Care and Use
chisel called a cape chisel should be used. It is like a Files and rasps are catalogued in three ways:
flat chisel except the cutting edge is very narrow. It
has the same cutting angle and is held and used in the Length. Measuring from the tip to the heel of the
same manner as any other chisel. file. The tang is never included in the length.
Shape. Refers to the physical configuration of
Rounded or semicircular grooves and corners that have
the file (circular, rectangular, or triangular or a
fillets should be cut with a roundnose chisel. This chisel
variation thereof).
is also used to re-center a drill that has moved away
from its intended center. Cut. Refers to both the character of the teeth or
the coarsenessrough, coarse, and bastard for
The diamond point chisel is tapered square at the cut- use on heavier classes of work and second cut,
ting end, and then ground at an angle to provide the smooth and dead smooth for finishing work.
sharp diamond point. It is used for cutting B-grooves
and inside sharp angles. Most Commonly Used Files [Figure 9-17]
Files Hand files These are parallel in width and tapered
in thickness. They have one safe edge (smooth edge)
Most files are made of high-grade tool steels that are
which permits filing in corners, and on other work
hardened and tempered. Files are manufactured in a
where a safe edge is required. Hand files are double
variety of shapes and sizes. They are known either
cut and used principally for finishing flat surfaces and
by the cross section, the general shape, or by their
similar work.
particular use. The cuts of files must be considered when
selecting them for various types of work and materials. Flat files These files are slightly tapered toward the
point in both width and thickness. They cut on both
Files are used to square ends, file rounded corners, edges as well as on the sides. They are the most com-
remove burrs and slivers from metal, straighten uneven mon files in use. Flat files are double cut on both sides
edges, file holes and slots, and smooth rough edges. and single cut on both edges.
Files have three distinguishing features: (1) their Mill files These are usually tapered slightly in thick-
length, measured exclusive of the tang [Figure 9-16]; ness and in width for about one-third of their length.
(2) their kind or name, which has reference to the rela- The teeth are ordinarily single cut. These files are used
tive coarseness of the teeth; and (3) their cut. for drawfiling and to some extent for filing soft metals.
Files are usually made in two types of cuts: single cut Square files These files may be tapered or blunt and
and double cut. The single cut file has a single row are double cut. They are used principally for filing slots
of teeth extending across the face at an angle of 65 and key seats, and for surface filing.
to 85 with the length of the file. The size of the cuts
depends on the coarseness of the file. The double cut Round or rattail files These are circular in cross sec-
file has two rows of teeth that cross each other. For tion and may be either tapered or blunt and single or
general work, the angle of the first row is 40 to 45. double cut. They are used principally for filing circular
The first row is generally referred to as overcut, and openings or concave surfaces.
the second row as upcut; the upcut is somewhat finer
and not as deep as the overcut. Triangular and three square files These files are
triangular in cross section. Triangular files are single
cut and are used for filing the gullet between saw teeth.
Three square files, which are double cut, may be used
Tang Length for filing internal angles, clearing out corners, and fil-
ing taps and cutters.

Half-round files These files cut on both the flat and

round sides. They may be single or double cut. Their
Heel Face Edge Point
shape permits them to be used where other files would
be unsatisfactory.
Figure 9-16. Hand file.

9-10
 aluminum, wood, slate, marble, fiber, rubber, and so
forth. The fine cut gives excellent results on steel, cast
iron, phosphor bronze, white brass, and all hard metals.
Hand taper width, parallel thickness. The smooth cut is used where the amount of material
to be removed is very slight, but where a superior fin-
ish is desired.

Mill taper width, parallel thickness. The following methods are recommended for
using files:

1. Crossfiling. Before attempting to use a file, place

Pillar taper thickness, parallel width.
a handle on the tang of the file. This is essential
for proper guiding and safe use. In moving the
file endwise across the work (commonly known
as crossfiling), grasp the handle so that its end fits
Warding much taper width, parallel thickness. into and against the fleshy part of the palm with
the thumb lying along the top of the handle in
a lengthwise direction. Grasp the end of the file
between the thumb and first two fingers. To prevent
Square, round and three square taper.
undue wear of the file, relieve the pressure during
the return stroke.
2. Drawfiling. A file is sometimes used by grasping
it at each end, crosswise to the work, then moving
Half round taper.
it lengthwise with the work. When done properly,
work may be finished somewhat finer than when
crossfiling with the same file. In drawfiling, the
Knife taper.
teeth of the file produce a shearing effect. To
accomplish this shearing effect, the angle at which
the file is held with respect to its line of movement
varies with different files, depending on the angle
Vixen parallel edges and sides. at which the teeth are cut. Pressure should be
relieved during the backstroke.
3. Rounding corners. The method used in filing
Figure 9-17. Types of files.
a rounded surface depends upon its width and
the radius of the rounded surface. If the surface
Lead float files These are especially designed for is narrow or only a portion of a surface is to
use on soft metals. They are single cut and are made be rounded, start the forward stroke of the file
in various lengths. with the point of the file inclined downward at
approximately a 45 angle. Using a rocking chair
Warding file Rectangular in section and tapers to nar-
motion, finish the stroke with the heel of the file
row point in width. This file is used for narrow space
near the curved surface. This method allows use
filing where other files cannot be used.
of the full length of the file.
Knife file Knife blade section. This file is used by tool 4. Removing burred or slivered edges. Practically
and die makers on work having acute angles. every cutting operation on sheet metal produces
burrs or slivers. These must be removed to avoid
Wood file Same section as flat and half-round files. personal injury and to prevent scratching and marring
This file has coarser teeth and is especially adaptable of parts to be assembled. Burrs and slivers will
for use on wood. prevent parts from fitting properly and should always
Vixen (curved-tooth files) Curved-tooth files are be removed from the work as a matter of habit.
especially designed for rapid filing and smooth finish Lathe filing requires that the file be held against the
on soft metals and wood. The regular cut is adapted work revolving in the lathe. The file should not be held
for tough work on cast iron, soft steel, copper, brass, rigid or stationary but should be stroked constantly with

9-11
a slight gliding or lateral motion along the work. A able in various shapes and sizes to satisfy almost any
standard mill file may be used for this operation, but the requirement.
long angle lathe file provides a much cleaner shearing
and self-clearing action. Use a file with safe edges to Pneumatic drills are preferred for use around flam-
protect work with shoulders from being marred. mable materials, since sparks from an electric drill are
a fire or explosion hazard.
Care of Files
Twist Drills
There are several precautions that any good craftsman
will take in caring for files. A twist drill is a pointed tool that is rotated to cut holes
in material. It is made of a cylindrical hardened steel
1. Choose the right file for the material and work to bar having spiral flutes (grooves) running the length of
be performed. the body, and a conical point with cutting edges formed
2. Keep all files racked and separated so they do not by the ends of the flutes.
bear against each other. Twist drills are made of carbon steel or high-speed
3. Keep the files in a dry place rust will corrode alloy steel. Carbon steel twist drills are satisfactory for
the teeth points, dulling the file. the general run of work and are relatively inexpensive.
4. Keep files clean. Tap the end of the file against The more expensive high-speed twist drills are used
the bench after every few strokes, to loosen and for the tough materials such as stainless steels. Twist
clear the filings. Use the file card to keep files drills have from one to four spiral flutes. Drills with
clean a dirty file is a dull file. A dirty file can two flutes are used for most drilling; those with three
also contaminate different metals when the same or four flutes are used principally to follow smaller
file is used on multiple metal surfaces. drills or to enlarge holes.

Particles of metal collect between the teeth of a file The principal parts of a twist drill are the shank, the
and may make deep scratches in the material being body, and the heel. [Figure 9-19] The drill shank is the
filed. When these particles of metal are lodged too end that fits into the chuck of a hand or power drill.
firmly between the teeth and cannot be removed by The two shank shapes most commonly used in hand
tapping the edge of the file, remove them with a file drills are the straight shank and the square or bit stock
card or wire brush. Draw the brush across the file so shank. The straight shank generally is used in hand,
that the bristles pass down the gullet between the teeth. breast, and portable electric or pneumatic drills; the
[Figure 9-18] square shank is made to fit into a carpenters brace.
Tapered shanks generally are used in machine shop
Drills drill presses. [Figure 9-20]
There are generally four types of portable drills used in
The metal column forming the core of the drill is the
aviation for holding and turning twist drills. Holes 14
body. The body clearance area lies just back of the mar-
inch in diameter and under can be drilled using a hand
gin; it is slightly smaller in diameter than the margin,
drill. This drill is commonly called an egg beater.
to reduce the friction between the drill and the sides of
The breast drill is designed to hold larger size twist
the hole. The angle at which the drill point is ground is
drills than the hand drill. In addition, a breastplate is
the lip clearance angle. On standard drills used to cut
affixed at the upper end of the drill to permit the use
steel and cast iron, the angle should be 59 from the
of body weight to increase the cutting power of the
axis of the drill. For faster drilling of soft materials,
drill. Electric and pneumatic power drills are avail-
sharper angles are used.

The diameter of a twist drill may be given in one of

three ways: (1) by fractions, (2) letters, or (3) numbers.
Fractionally, they are classified by sixteenths of an
inch (from 116 to 3 1 2 inch), by thirty-seconds (from
1 to 2 1 inch), or by sixty-fourths (from 1 to 1 1
32 2 64 4
inch). For a more exact measurement, a letter system
is used with decimal equivalents: A (0.234 inch) to Z
(0.413 inch). The number system of classification is
Figure 9-18. File card.

9-12
 Point Margin Flute

Lip or cutting edge

Straight Shank
Shank

Lip clearance
(125135)
Size stamped here

Taper shank

Flute
Square shank (used in brace)

Figure 9-20. Drill types.

Land
Body

3. Place the hand on the tool rest with the centerline

of the drill making a 59 angle with the cutting
face of the grinding wheel. Lower the shank end
Heel angle of the drill slightly.
(1215)
4. Slowly place the cutting edge of the drill against
Lip angle (normally 59) the grinding wheel. Gradually lower the shank
of the drill as you twist the drill in a clockwise
direction. Maintain pressure against the grinding
Heel

Lip or cutting edges surface only until you reach the heel of the drill.
5. Check the results of grinding with a gauge to
determine whether or not the lips are the same
Figure 9-19. Twist drill. length and at a 59 angle.

Alternatively, there are commercially available twist

most accurate: No. 80 (0.0314 inch) to No. 1 (0.228 drill grinders available, as well as attachments for
inch). Drill sizes and their decimal equivalents are bench grinders which will ensure consistent, even
shown in Figure 9-21. sharpening of twist drills.
The twist drill should be sharpened at the first sign of Reamers
dullness. For most drilling, a twist drill with a cutting
Reamers are used to smooth and enlarge holes to exact
angle of 118 (59 on either side of center) will be suf-
size. Hand reamers have square end shanks so that they
ficient; however, when drilling soft metals, a cutting
can be turned with a tap wrench or similar handle. The
angle of 90 may be more efficient.
various types of reamers are illustrated in Figure 9-23.
Typical procedures for sharpening drills are as follows:
A hole that is to be reamed to exact size must be drilled
[Figure 9-22]
about 0.003 to 0.007 inch undersize. A cut that removes
1. Adjust the grinder tool rest to a convenient height more than 0.007 inch places too much load on the
for resting the back of the hand while grinding. reamer and should not be attempted.
2. Hold the drill between the thumb and index finger Reamers are made of either carbon tool steel or high-
of the right or left hand. Grasp the body of the drill speed steel. The cutting blades of a high-speed steel
near the shank with the other hand. reamer lose their original keenness sooner than those

9-13
 Equivalent

Equivalent

Equivalent

Equivalent
Millimeter

Millimeter

Millimeter

Millimeter
Fractional

Fractional

Fractional

Fractional
Number

Number

Number

Number
Decimal

Decimal

Decimal

Decimal
.1 .0039 .0410 59 2.2 .0866 .1470 26
.15 .0059 1.05 .0413 2.25 .0885 3.75 .1476
.2 .0079 .0420 58 .0890 43 .1495 25
.25 .0098 .0430 57 2.3 .0905 3.8 .1496
.3 .0118 1.1 .0433 2.35 .0925 .1520 24
.0135 80 1.15 .0452 .0935 42 3.9 .1535
.35 .0138 .0465 56 2.38 .0937 3 .1540 23
32
.0145 79 1.19 .0469 3 2.4 .0945 3.97 .1562 5
64 32
.39 .0156 1 1.2 .0472 .0960 41 .1570 22
64
.4 .0157 1.25 .0492 2.45 .0964 4.0 .1575
.0160 78 1.3 .0512 .0980 40 .1590 21
.45 .0177 .0520 55 2.5 .0984 .1610 20
.0180 77 1.35 .0531 .0995 39 4.1 .1614
.5 .0197 .0550 54 .1015 38 4.2 .1654
.0200 76 1.4 .0551 2.6 .1024 .1660 19
.0210 75 1.45 .0570 .1040 37 4.25 .1673
.55 .0217 1.5 .0591 2.7 .1063 4.3 .1693
.0225 74 .0595 53 .1065 36 .1695 18
.6 .0236 1.55 .0610 2.75 .1082 4.37 .1719 11
64
.0240 73 1.59 .0625 1 2.78 .1094 7 .1730 17
16 64
.0250 72 1.6 .0629 - .1100 35 4.4 .1732
.65 .0256 .0635 52 2.8 .1102 .1770 16
.0260 71 1.65 .0649 .1110 34 4.5 .1771
.0280 70 1.7 .0669 .1130 33 .1800 15
.7 .0276 .0670 51 2.9 .1141 4.6 .1811
.0292 69 1.75 .0689 .1160 32 .1820 14
.75 .0295 0.700 50 3.0 .1181 4.7 .1850 13
.0310 68 1.8 .0709 .1200 31 4.75 .1870
.79 .0312 1 1.85 .0728 3.1 .1220 4.76 .1875 3
32 16
.8 .0315 .0730 49 3.18 .1250 1 4.8 .1890 12
8
.0320 67 1.9 .0748 3.2 .1260 1910 11
.0330 66 .0760 48 3.25 .1279 4.9 .1929
.85 .0335 1.95 .0767 .1285 30 .1935 10
.0350 65 1.98 .0781 5 3.3 .1299 .1960 9
64
.9 .0354 .0785 47 3.4 .1338 5.0 .1968
.0360 64 2.0 .0787 .1360 29 .1990 8
.0370 63 2.05 .0807 3.5 .1378 5.1 .2008
.95 .0374 .0810 46 .1405 28 .2010 7
.0380 62 .0820 45 3.57 .1406 9 5.16 .2031 13
64 64
.0390 61 2.1 .0827 3.6 .1417 .2040 6
1.0 .0394 2.15 .0846 .1440 27 5.2 .2047
.0400 60 .0860 44 3.7 .1457 .2055 5

Figure 9-21. Drill sizes.

9-14
 Equivalent

Equivalent

Equivalent

Equivalent
Millimeter

Millimeter

Millimeter

Millimeter
Fractional

Fractional

Fractional

Fractional
Number

Number

Number

Number
Decimal

Decimal

Decimal

Decimal
5.25 .2067 7.25 .2854 9.5 .3740 16.5 .6496
5.3 .2086 7.3 .2874 9.53 .3750 3 16.67 .6562 21
8 32
.2090 4 2900 L .3770 V 17.0 .6693
5.4 .2126 7.4 .2913 9.6 .3780 17.06 .6719 43
64
.2130 .2950 M 9.7 .3819 17.46 .6875 11
16
5.5 .2165 7.5 .2953 9.75 .3838 17.5 .6890
5.56 .2187 1 7.54 .2968 19 9.8 .3858 17.86 .7031 45
32 64 64
5.6 .2205 7.6 .2992 .3860 W 18.0 7087
.2210 2 .3020 N 9.9 .3898 18.26 .7187 23
32
5.7 .2244 7.7 .3031 9.92 .3906 25 18.5 .7283
64
5.75 .2263 7.75 .3051 10.0 .3937 18.65 .7344 47
64
.2280 1 7.8 .3071 .3970 X 19.0 .7480
5.8 .2283 7.9 .3110 .4040 Y 19.05 7500 3
4
5.9 .2323 7.94 .3125 5 10.32 .4062 13 19.45 .7656 49
16 32 64
.2340 A 8.0 .3150 .4130 Z 19.5 .7677
5.95 .2344 15 .3160 O 10.5 .4134 19.84 .7812 25
64 32
6.0 .2362 8.1 .3189 10.72 .4219 27 20.0 7874
64
.2380 B 8.2 .3228 11.0 .4330 20.24 .7969 51
64
6.1 .2401 .3230 P 11.11 .4375 7 20.5 .8071
16
.2420 C 8.25 .3248 11.5 .4528 20.64 .8125 13
16
6.2 .2441 8.3 .3268 11.51 .4531 29 21.0 .8268
64
6.25 .2460 D 8.33 .3281 21 11.91 .4687 15 21.03 .8281 53
64 32 64
6.3 .2480 8.4 .3307 12.0 .4724 21.43 .8437 27
32
6.35 .2500 1 E .3320 Q 12.30 .4843 31 21.5 .8465
4 64
6.4 .2520 8.5 .3346 12.5 .4921 21.83 .8594 55
64
6.5 .2559 8.6 .3386 12.7 .5000 1 22.0 .8661
2
.2570 F .3390 R 13.0 .5118 22.23 .8750 7
8
6.6 .2598 8.7 .3425 13.10 .5156 33 22.5 .8858
64
.2610 G 8.73 .3437 11 13.49 .5312 17 22.62 .8906 57
32 32 64
6.7 .2638 8.75 .3445 13.5 .5315 23.0 .9055
6.75 .2657 17 8.8 .3465 13.89 .5469 35 23.02 .9062 29
64 64 32
6.75 .2657 .3480 S 14.0 .5512 23.42 .9219 59
64
.2660 H 8.9 .3504 14.29 .5625 9 23.5 .9252
16
6.8 .2677 9.0 .3543 14.5 .5709 23.81 .9375 15
16
6.9 .2716 .3580 T 14.68 .5781 37 24.0 .9449
64
.2720 I 9.1 .3583 15.0 .5906 24.21 .9531 61
64
7.0 .2756 9.13 .3594 23 15.08 .5937 19 24.5 .9646
64 32
.2770 J 9.2 .3622 15.48 .6094 39 24.61 .9687 31
32 32
7.1 .2795 9.25 .3641 15.5 .6102 25.0 .9843
.2811 K 9.3 .3661 15.88 .6250 5 25.03 .9844 63
8 64
7.14 .2812 9 .3680 U 16.0 .6299 25.4 1.0000 1
32
7.2 .2835 9.4 .3701 16.27 .6406 41
64

Figure 9-21. Drill sizes (continued).

9-15
 of a carbon steel reamer; however, after the first super
keenness is gone, they are still serviceable. The high-
speed reamer usually lasts much longer than the carbon
steel type.
Reamer blades are hardened to the point of being
59
brittle and must be handled carefully to avoid chipping
them. When reaming a hole, rotate the reamer in the
cutting direction only. Do not back a reamer out of a
A hole by rotating it opposite the cutting direction. Turn
the reamer steadily and evenly to prevent chattering,
or marking and scoring of the hole walls.

Reamers are available in any standard size. The straight

fluted reamer is less expensive than the spiral fluted
reamer, but the spiral type has less tendency to chatter.
B Both types are tapered for a short distance back of the
end to aid in starting. Bottoming reamers have no taper
and are used to complete the reaming of blind holes.

For general use, an expansion reamer is the most

practical. This type is furnished in standard sizes from
1 inch to 1 inch, increasing in diameter by 1 -inch
4 32
increments.

Taper reamers, both hand and machine operated, are

used to smooth and true taper holes and recesses.
C

Straight reamer
(hand)

Taper reamer Spiral taper reamer

D 1215 (hand) (power)
Straight reamer
(power)

59 59

Expansion reamer

Adjustable reamer
E

Figure 9-23. Reamers.

Figure 9-22. Drill sharpening procedures.

9-16
 Cutter shaft

Cutter

Pilot
Body

Lock nut
100
Stop
Chip opening

100

Standard countersink Stop countersink Fiber collar

Figure 9-24. Countersinks.

Countersink
A countersink is a tool that cuts a cone shaped depres-
sion around the hole to allow a rivet or screw to set
flush with the surface of the material. Countersinks are Taper
made with various angles to correspond to the various
angles of the countersunk rivet and screwheads. The
angle of the standard countersink shown in Figure
Plug
9-24 is 100.

Special stop countersinks are available. Stop counter-

sinks are adjustable to any desired depth, and the cutters
are interchangeable so that holes of various counter- Bottoming
sunk angles may be made. Some stop countersinks have
a micrometer set arrangement (in increments of 0.001 Figure 9-25. Hand taps.
inch) for adjusting the cutting depths. [Figure 9-24]

When using a countersink, care must be taken not to taper tap, a plug tap, and a bottoming tap. The taps in a
remove an excessive amount of material, since this set are identical in diameter and cross section; the only
reduces the strength of flush joints. difference is the amount of taper. [Figure 9-25]

The taper tap is used to begin the tapping process,

Taps and Dies because it is tapered back for 6 to 7 threads. This tap
A tap is used to cut threads on the inside of a hole, cuts a complete thread when it is cutting above the
while a die is for cutting external threads on round taper. It is the only tap needed when tapping holes that
stock. They are made of hard tempered steel and extend through thin sections. The plug tap supplements
ground to an exact size. There are four types of threads the taper tap for tapping holes in thick stock.
that can be cut with standard taps and dies. They are:
The bottoming tap is not tapered. It is used to cut full
National Coarse, National Fine, National Extra Fine,
threads to the bottom of a blind hole.
and National Pipe.
Dies may be classified as adjustable round split die and
Hand taps are usually provided in sets of three taps for
plain round split die. The adjustable split die has an
each diameter and thread series. Each set contains a
adjusting screw that can be tightened so that the die is

9-17
 Tap wrenches

Diestock

Adjusting screw
(A) Adjustable round split die

Figure 9-27. Diestock and tap wrenches.

The fractional divisions for an inch are found by divid-

(B) Plain round split die ing the inch into equal parts: halves (12), quarters (14),
eighths (18), sixteenths (116), thirty-seconds (132), and
sixty-fourths (164).
Figure 9-26. Types of dies.
The fractions of an inch may be expressed in decimals,
spread slightly. By adjusting the die, the diameter and called decimal equivalents of an inch; for example, 18
fit of the thread can be controlled. [Figure 9-26] inch is expressed as 0.0125 (one hundred twenty-five
ten-thousandths of an inch).
Solid dies are not adjustable; therefore, a variety of
thread fits cannot be obtained with this type. There are Rules are manufactured in two basic stylesthose
many types of wrenches for turning taps, as well as divided or marked in common fractions and those
turning dies. The T-handle, the adjustable tap wrench, divided or marked in decimals or divisions of one one-
and the diestock for round split dies shown in Figure hundredth of an inch. A rule may be used either as a
9-27 are a few of the more common types. measuring tool or as a straightedge. [Figure 9-31]

Information on thread sizes, fits, types, and so forth, Combination Sets

is shown in Figures 9-28, 9-29, and 9-30. The combination set, as its name implies, is a tool that
has several uses. It can be used for the same purposes
Layout and Measuring Tools as an ordinary tri-square, but it differs from the tri-
square in that the head slides along the blade and can
Layout and measuring devices are precision tools. be clamped at any desired place. Combined with the
They are carefully machined, accurately marked and, square or stock head are a level and scriber. The head
in many cases, are made up of very delicate parts. slides in a central groove on the blade or scale, which
When using these tools, be careful not to drop, bend, can be used separately as a rule. [Figure 9-32]
or scratch them. The finished product will be no more
accurate than the measurements or the layout; there- The spirit level in the stock head makes it convenient
fore, it is very important to understand how to read, to square a piece of material with a surface and at the
use, and care for these tools. same time tell whether one or the other is plumb or
level. The head can be used alone as a simple level.
Rules
Rules are made of steel and are either rigid or flexible. The combination of square head and blade can also be
The flexible steel rule will bend, but it should not be used as a marking gauge to scribe lines at a 45 angle,
bent intentionally as it may be broken rather easily. as a depth gauge, or as a height gauge. A convenient
In aircraft work, the unit of measure most commonly scriber is held frictionally in the head by a small brass
used is the inch. The inch may be divided into smaller bushing.
parts by means of either common or decimal fraction
divisions.

9-18
 National Coarse Thread Series National Fine Thread Series
Medium Fit Class 3 (NC) Medium Fit Class 3 (NF)

Diameter Tap Drill Diameter Tap Drill

Size Size
of body Body Preferred Nearest of body Body Preferred Nearest
and and
for Drill diameter standard for Drill diameter standard
Threads Threads
thread of hole drill size thread of hole drill size
0-80 .060 52 .0472 3
64

1-64 .073 47 .0575 #53 1-72 .073 47 .0591 #53

2-56 .086 42 .0682 #51 2-64 .086 42 .0700 #50
3-48 .099 37 .078 5 3-56 .099 37 .0810 #46
64

4-40 .112 31 .0866 #44 4-48 .112 31 .0911 #42

5-40 .125 29 .0995 #39 5-44 .125 25 1024 #38
6-32 .138 27 .1063 #36 6-40 .138 27 .113 #33
8-32 .164 18 .1324 #29 8-36 .164 18 .136 #29
10-24 .190 10 .1472 #26 10-32 .190 10 .159 #21
12-24 .216 2 .1732 #17 12-28 .216 2 .180 #15
1 -20 .250 1 .1990 #8 1 -28 .250 F .213 #3
4 4 4
5 -18 .3125 5 .2559 #F 5 -24 .3125 5 .2703 I
16 16 16 16
3 -16 .375 3 .3110 5 " 3 -24 .375 3 .332 Q
8 8 16 8 8
7 -14 .4375 7 .3642 U 7 -20 .4375 7 .386 W
16 16 16 16
1 -13 .500 1 .4219 27 " 1 -20 .500 1 .449 7 "
2 2 64 2 2 16
9 -12 .5625 9 .4776 31 " 9 -18 .5625 9 .506 1 "
16 16 64 16 16 2
5 -11 .625 5 .5315 17 " 5 -18 .625 5 .568 9 "
8 8 64 8 8 16
3 -10 .750 3 .6480 41 " 3 -16 .750 3 .6688 11 "
4 4 64 4 4 16
7 -9 .875 7 .7307 49 " 7 -14 .875 7 .7822 51 "
8 8 64 8 8 64

1-8 1.000 1.0 .8376 7 " 1-14 1.000 1.0 .9072 49 "
8 64

Figure 9-28. American (National) screw thread sizes.

Number Pitch Diameter Size and Threads Depth Tap drill for pipe threads
Nominal
of Pipe of
size
threads A B L2 L1 o.d. thread Minor diameter
(inches) Size drill
per inch (inches) (inches) (inches) (inches) (inches) (inches) small end of pipe
1 27 .36351 .37476 .2638 .180 .405 .02963 .33388 R
8
1 18 .47739 .48989 .4018 .200 .540 .04444 .43294 7
4 16
3 18 .61201 .62701 .4078 .240 .675 .04444 .56757 37
8 64
1 14 .75843 .77843 .5337 .320 .840 .05714 .70129 23
2 32
3 14 .96768 .98887 .5457 .339 1.050 .5714 .91054 59
4 64

1 1112 1.21363 1.23863 .6828 .400 1.315 .06957 1.14407 1532

114 1112 1.55713 1.58338 .7068 .420 1.660 .06957 1.48757 112
112 1112 1.79609 1.82234 .7235 .420 1.900 .06957 1.72652 14764
2 1112 2.26902 2.29627 .7565 .436 2.375 .06957 2.19946 1732
212 8 2.71953 2.76216 1.1375 .682 2.875 .10000 2.61953 258
3 8 3.34062 3.8850 1.2000 .766 3.500 .10000 3.24063 314
312 8 3.83750 3.88881 1.2500 .821 4.000 .10000 3.73750 334
4 8 4.33438 4.38712 1.3000 .844 4.500 .10000 4.23438 414

Figure 9-29. American (National) pipe thread dimensions and tap drill sizes.

9-19
 Plastic Tool or Alloy
Soft Annealed Malleable Hard cast
and hard Mild steel hard steel
Diameter of drill metals cast iron iron iron
rubber 100 F.P.M. steel cast steel
300 F.P.M. 140 F.P.M. 90 F.P.M. 80 F.P.M.
200 F.P.M. 60 F.P.M. 40 F.P.M.
1 (No. 5380) 18320 12217 8554 6111 5500 4889 3667 2445
16
3 (No. 4252) 12212 8142 5702 4071 3666 3258 2442 1649
32
1 (No. 3141) 9160 6112 4278 3056 2750 2445 1833 1222
8
5 (No. 2330) 7328 4888 3420 2444 2198 1954 1465 977
32
3 (No. 1322) 6106 4075 2852 2037 1833 1630 1222 815
16
7 (No. 112) 5234 3490 444 1745 1575 1396 1047 698
32
1 (AF) 4575 3055 2139 1527 1375 1222 917 611
4
9 (GK) 4071 2715 1900 1356 1222 1084 814 542
32
9 (L, M, N) 3660 2445 1711 1222 1100 978 7333 489
16
11 (OR) 3330 2220 1554 1110 1000 888 666 444
32
3 (S, T, U) 3050 2037 1426 1018 917 815 611 407
8
13 (VZ) 2818 1878 1316 939 846 752 563 376
32
7 2614 1746 1222 873 786 698 524 349
16
15 2442 1628 1140 814 732 652 488 326
32
1 2287 1528 1070 764 688 611 458 306
2
9 2035 1357 950 678 611 543 407 271
16
3 1830 1222 856 611 550 489 367 244
8
11 1665 1110 777 555 500 444 333 222
16
3 1525 1018 713 509 458 407 306 204
4

Figure 9-30. Drill speeds.

7
16 9
16
5
16 11
16
3
16
13
16
3
64 5
64

1
15
16
16
1
64
7
64

1 2 1
1
32 32
6
1
8 1 2
32 5
32
1
32
4 7
8 3
32 4

3
8 3
4
5
8
1
2

Figure 9-31. Rules.

9-20
 Pencil compasses have one leg tapered to a needle
Stock point; the other leg has a pencil or pencil lead inserted.
head
Dividers have both legs tapered to needle points.

When using pencil compasses or dividers, the follow-

ing procedures are suggested:

1. Inspect the points to make sure they are sharp.

Center head
2. To set the dividers or compasses, hold them with
Protractor the point of one leg in the graduations on the
head Level
rule. Turn the adjustment nut with the thumb and
Scriber
forefinger; adjust the dividers or compasses until
the point of the other leg rests on the graduation
of the rule that gives the required measurement.
Figure 9-32. Combination set.
3. To draw an arc or circle with either the pencil
compasses or dividers, hold the thumb attachment
on the top with the thumb and forefinger. With
pressure exerted on both legs, swing the compass
in a clockwise direction and draw the desired arc
or circle.
4. The tendency for the legs to slip is avoided by
Figure 9-33. Scriber. inclining the compasses or dividers in the direction
in which they are being rotated. In working on
The center head is used to find the center of shafts or metals, the dividers are used only to scribe arcs
other cylindrical work. The protractor head can be or circles that will later be removed by cutting.
used to check angles and also may be set at any desired All other arcs or circles are drawn with pencil
angle to draw lines. compasses to avoid scratching the material.
5. On paper layouts, the pencil compasses are used
Scriber
for describing arcs and circles. Dividers should
The scriber is designed to serve the aviation mechanic be used to transfer critical measurements because
in the same way a pencil or pen serves a writer. In gen- they are more accurate than a pencil compass.
eral, it is used to scribe or mark lines on metal surfaces.
The scriber is made of tool steel, 4 to 12 inches long, Calipers
and has two needle pointed ends. One end is bent at
Calipers are used for measuring diameters and dis-
a 90 angle for reaching and marking through holes.
tances or for comparing distances and sizes. The three
[Figure 9-33]
common types of calipers are inside, outside, and
Before using a scriber, always inspect the points for hermaphrodite calipers, such as gear tool calipers.
sharpness. Be sure the straightedge is flat on the metal [Figure 9-34]
and in position for scribing. Tilt the scriber slightly in
Outside calipers are used for measuring outside
the direction toward which it will be moved, holding
dimensionsfor example, the diameter of a piece of
it like a pencil. Keep the scribers point close to the
round stock. Inside calipers have outward curved legs
guiding edge of the straightedge. The scribed line
for measuring inside diameters, such as diameters of
should be heavy enough to be visible, but no deeper
holes, the distance between two surfaces, the width of
than necessary to serve its purpose.
slots, and other similar jobs. A hermaphrodite caliper
Dividers and Pencil Compasses is generally used as a marking gauge in layout work.
Dividers and pencil compasses have two legs joined It should not be used for precision measurement.
at the top by a pivot. They are used to scribe circles Micrometer Calipers
and arcs and for transferring measurements from the
There are four types of micrometer calipers, each
rule to the work.
designed for a specific use: outside micrometer, inside
micrometer, depth micrometer, and thread micrometer.

9-21
 Micrometers are available in a variety of sizes, either
0 to 12 inch, 0 to 1 inch, 1 to 2 inch, 2 to 3 inch, 3 to 4
inch, 4 to 5 inch, or 5 to 6 inch sizes. In addition to the
Hermaphrodite micrometer inscribed with the measurement markings,
calipers micrometers equipped with electronic digital liquid
crystal display (LCD) readouts are also in common
use.
Spring inside calipers
The AMT will use the outside micrometer more often
than any other type. It may be used to measure the
outside dimensions of shafts, thickness of sheet metal
stock, the diameter of drills, and for many other appli-
cations. [Figure 9-35]

The smallest measurement which can be made with the

use of the steel rule is one sixty-fourth of an inch in
Firm joint screw common fractions, and one one-hundredth of an inch
adjusting inside
calipers
in decimal fractions. To measure more closely than
this (in thousandths and ten-thousandths of an inch), a
micrometer is used. If a dimension given in a common
fraction is to be measured with the micrometer, the frac-
tion must be converted to its decimal equivalent.

All four types of micrometers are read in the same

way. The method of reading an outside micrometer is
discussed later in this chapter.
Micrometer Parts
Firm joint screw
The fixed parts of a micrometer are the frame, barrel,
adjusting outside and anvil. The movable parts of a micrometer are the
calipers thimble and spindle. The thimble rotates the spindle
which moves in the threaded portion inside the bar-
Spring outside calipers
rel. Turning the thimble provides an opening between
the anvil and the end of the spindle where the work
is measured. The size of the work is indicated by the
Figure 9-34. Calipers. graduations on the barrel and thimble. [Figure 9-36]
Reading a Micrometer
The lines on the barrel marked 1, 2, 3, 4, and so forth,
indicate measurements of tenths, or 0.100 inch, 0.200
inch, 0.300 inch, 0.400 inch, respectively. [Figure 9-37]

Each of the sections between the tenths divisions

(between 1, 2, 3, 4, and so forth) is divided into four
parts of 0.025 inch each. One complete revolution of
the thimble (from zero on the thimble around to the
same zero) moves it one of these divisions (0.025 inch)
along the barrel.

The bevel edge of the thimble is divided into 25 equal

parts. Each of these parts represents one twenty-fifth
of the distance the thimble travels along the barrel in
Figure 9-35. Outside micrometers. moving from one of the 0.025 inch divisions to another.
Thus, each division on the thimble represents one one-
thousandth (0.001) of an inch.

9-22
 Thread play Thimble cap
adjusting nut
Micrometer screw Fixed nut
Anvil Spindle

Measuring faces
Ratchet stop
Barrel Thimble

Clamp ring

Frame

Figure 9-36. Outside micrometer parts.

These divisions are marked for convenience at every

five spaces by 0, 5, 10, 15, and 20. When 25 of these Barrel Thimble
.300
graduations have passed the horizontal line on the
barrel, the spindle (having made one revolution) has .200
moved 0.025 inch. 0 1 2

The micrometer is read by first noting the last visible .100

figure on the horizontal line of the barrel represent-
ing tenths of an inch. Add to this the length of barrel
between the thimble and the previously noted number. 1
10 of an inch
(This is found by multiplying the number of gradua- Horizontal line
tions by 0.025 inch.) Add to this the number of divi-
sions on the bevel edge of the thimble that coincides Figure 9-37. Micrometer measurements.
with the line of the graduation. The total of the three
figures equals the measurement. (Figure 9-38 shows
several sample readings.) In reading a micrometer, an excellent way to remember
the relative scale values is to remember that the 0.025
Vernier Scale inch barrel scale graduations are established by the
Some micrometers are equipped with a vernier scale lead screw (40 threads per inch). Next, the thimble
that makes it possible to directly read the fraction of graduations divide the 0.025 inch into 25 parts, each
a division that is indicated on the thimble scale. Typi- equal to 0.001 inch. Then, the vernier graduations
cal examples of the vernier scale as it applies to the divide the 0.001 inch into 10 equal parts, each equal
micrometer are shown in Figure 9-39. to 0.0001 inch. Remembering the values of the various
scale graduations, the barrel scale reading is noted. The
All three scales on a micrometer are not fully visible thimble scale reading is added to it; then the vernier
without turning the micrometer, but the examples scale reading is added to get the final reading. The
shown in Figure 9-38 are drawn as though the barrel vernier scale line to be read is always the one aligned
and thimble of the micrometer were laid out flat so that exactly with any thimble graduation.
all three scales can be seen at the same time. The barrel
scale is the lower horizontal scale, the thimble scale is In the first example in Figure 9-39, the barrel reads
vertical on the right, and the long horizontal lines (0 0.275 inch and the thimble reads more than 0.019 inch.
through 9 and 0) make up the vernier scale. The number 1 graduation on the thimble is aligned

9-23
 5

09876543210

09876543210
5 5

Vernier Scale
1 0 0
0 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3
20 20

Barrel scale
.2947
.2944
20
.025
= .150
.100 .025

09876543210
09876543210
0 10
(A) .150 in.

20 5
0 1 2 3 0 1 32
5 15 0

1 .2153 .1005

0 .001

Figure 9-39. Vernier scale readings.

exactly with the number 4 graduation on the vernier

.025 = .151
scale. Thus, the final reading is 0.2944 inch.
.100 .025
(B) .151 in. In the second example in Figure 9-39, the barrel reads
0.275 inch, and the thimble reads more than 0.019
inch and less than 0.020 inch. On the vernier scale,
15
the number 7 graduation coincides with a line on the
thimble. This means that the thimble reading would be
1 0.0197 inch. Adding this to the barrel reading of 0.275
10 inch gives a total measurement of 0.2947 inch.

The third and fourth examples in Figure 9-39 are addi-

tional readings that would require use of the vernier
5
scale for accurate readings to ten-thousandths of an
inch.
(C) .160 in.
Using a Micrometer
15 The micrometer must be handled carefully. If it is
dropped, its accuracy may be permanently affected.
Continually sliding work between the anvil and spindle
1
may wear the surfaces. If the spindle is tightened too
0 much, the frame may be sprung permanently and inac-
curate readings will result.

To measure a piece of work with the micrometer, hold

20 the frame of the micrometer in the palm of the hand
(D) .175 in. with the little finger or third finger, whichever is more
convenient. This allows the thumb and forefinger to be
free to revolve the thimble for adjustment.
Figure 9-38. Reading a micrometer.
A variation of the micrometer is the dial indicator,
which measures variations in a surface by using an
accurately machined probe mechanically linked to a

9-24
 Figure 9-40. Dial Indicator.

circular hand whose movement indicates thousandths Figure 9-41. Electronic and dial indicator slide calipers.
of an inch, or is displayed on a liquid crystal display
(LCD) screen. [Figure 9-40]
In either case, it is imperative that the dial indicator
A typical example would be using a dial indicator to be securely fastened so that movement of the indicator
measure the amount of runout, or bend, in a shaft. If a itself induces no errors in measurement.
bend is suspected, the part can be rotated while resting
Slide Calipers
between a pair of machined V-blocks. A dial indicator
is then clamped to a machine table stand, and the probe Often used to measure the length of an object, the
of the indicator is positioned so it lightly contacts the slide caliper provides greater accuracy than the ruler.
surface. The outer portion of the dial is then rotated It can, by virtue of its specially formed jaws, measure
until the needle is pointed at zero. The part is then both inside and outside dimensions. As the tools name
rotated, and the amount of bend, or runout, is displayed implies, the slide caliper jaw is slid along a graduated
on the dial as the needle fluctuates. The total amount scale, and its jaws then contact the inside or outside
of the fluctuation is the runout. of the object to be measured. The measurement is then
read on the scale located on the body of the caliper, or
Another common use for the dial indicator is to check on the LCD screen. [Figure 9-41]
for a warp in a rotating component such as a brake
disc. In some cases, this can be done with the brake Some slide calipers also contain a depth gauge for
disc installed on the airplane, with the base clamped measuring the depth of blind holes.
to a stationary portion of the structure.

9-25
9-26