ERTH 2403

Lecture 6 Ocean Chemistry

Chemical Equilibrium of Oceans

Input of salts is constant
Salinity not increased = steady state
Output
o Seafloor sediments
o Organism/shells
o Biogeochemical cycles
Residence time = Amount of elements in the Ocean versus rate at which the
element is added to (or removed from) the Oceana

Mixing Time
1600 years via ocean circulation
Conservative constituent long residence time
Non-conservative constituent short residence timemove to new reservoir

Gases (Dissolve In seawater)

Important to life
Increase with pressure
Decrease with temperature and with salinity
Temperature = most important factor for dissolution of gasses in seawater
Nitrogen
Surface water ~ saturated
Organisms cannot utilize directly
Need nitrogen fixing bacteria

Oxygen
Some atmospheric diffusion
Most photosynthesis: Phytoplankton
Surface water high. Drops below surface
Carbon Dioxide
Very soluble in seawater
Combines with water to form carbonic acid
Enters shells and sediments
Organisms need it for photosynthesis
Surface water low photosynthesis
Below photic zone CO2 increases
o Respiration
o Solubility increases with pressure
o Solubility greater in cold water
Acidity and Alkalinity pH
Log scale
Water dissociates H+ and OH-
Pure water: 7.0 pH
Seawater 8.0pH, slightly alkaline
Buffering Capacity of Oceans
Ability to buffer changes in acidity and alkalinity

CO2 +H2O (water) H2CO3 (carbonic acid) H+ + HCO3- (hydrogen ion +

bicarbonate ion) H+ + CO32- (carbonate ion) CO32- + Ca2+ (calcium ion) CaCO3
(calcium carbonate) Precipitation Carbonate sediments shells

Atmospheric Circulation
The atmosphere = Envelope of gases, water vapor, and airborne particles
The atmosphere is thin: 80% of its mass is within 15km of the Earth surface
Atmosphere circulation is: a response to differences in the transfer of energy
between low and high latitudes.

1. Troposphere
a. Lowest layer 0-12km where temperature decreases with altitude.
Turbulent layer (weather zone)
2. Stratosphere
a. Above tropopause 12-50km
b. Temperature increases with altitude
c. Calm layer
3. Mesosphere
a. Temperature decreases
b. 50-90km
c. Cold layer
4. Thermosphere
a. >90km
b. Extends out to space

Composition of the atmosphere

The atmosphere is composed of:
o Permanent gases = present in constant %
Nitrogen: 78.1%
Oxygen: 20.9%
Other elements and compound <1%
o Variable Gases = Concentration changes with time and location
Water vapor
Carbon dioxide
Methane
Nitrous oxide
Ozone
Properties of the atmosphere
Water vapor: up to 4% of the volume of the atmosphere
The density of air depends on temperature and water content
Ascending warm air cools as it expands and cooler air can hold less water
vapor and water vapor condenses into tiny droplets clouds
Descending air warms as it compresses the droplets (clouds) evaporates
The rising-expanding-cooling and the falling-compressing heating process:
important for understanding atmospheric circulation
Atmosphere Moves in Response to Uneven solar heating and Earths
Rotation
On an average day: half of the solar energy at the upper atmosphere is
absorbed at Earths surface
Light (short-wave) energy (about 51%) absorbed at the surface is converted
into heat
Heat leaves Earth as infrared (long-wave) radiation
Since input equals output over long periods of time, the heat budgets is
balanced = Earth is in thermal equilibrium.

1. Solar Heating of the Earth varies with Latitude

a. The atmosphere reflects, scatters and absorbs solar radiation
b. At high latitudes solar radiation travels a longer path through atmosphere
c. Lower radiation at high latitude
d. Polar latitudes loses more heat than they gain
e. Tropical latitudes gain more heat than they lose
f. The amount of radiation received equal the amount lost at about 38 oN and
S;
g. The area of heat gained (orange area) equals the area of heat lost (blue
areas) = Earths total heat budget is balanced
h. Winds (atmospheric circulation) and ocean currents redistribute heat from
equatorial to polar regions
2. The Solar heating of Earth Varies with Seasons
a. Earth Rotates around the Sun (365 days)
b. Earth rotates around its own axis (1 day)
c. Angle (tilt) = Angle between Earths axis of rotation and the plane
containing trajectory around the Sun is 23.5 o
d. During the Northern hemisphere winter, the Southern hemisphere is tilted
toward the sun = the Northern Hemisphere receives less light and heat
e. During the Norther Hemisphere summer, the situation is reversed
3. Large Scale Atmospheric Circulation as a Response to Earths Uneven
Solar Heating
a. Factors that govern the global circulation of air are
i. Uneven solar heating
ii. The Coriolis effect
b. A convection current forms in a room
c. Air flows from a hot radiator to a cold window and back
d. Air warms, expands, become less dense and rises
e. Air cools, contracts, becomes more dense and falls near the cold window
f. A convection cell is driven by density different
4. The Coriolis Effect Deflects the Path of moving objects
a. The Coriolis effect is the observed deflection of a moving objects
b. In the atmosphere, as air warms, expands, and rises at the equator, it
moves toward the pole
c. The air is deflected eastward
d. In the Northern Hemisphere air turns to the right whereas in the Southern
Hemisphere air turns to the left.
5. The Coriolis Effect Influences the Movement of Air in atmospheric
Circulation Cells
a. An atmospheric circulation cell = large circuit of air
 b. There are 3 atmospheric circulation cells in each hemisphere
i. Hadley cells are tropical and found on each side of the equator
ii. Ferrell cells are found at the mid-latitudes
iii. Polar cells are found near the poles
c. Wind patterns found between and within cells
i. Doldrums: two Hadley cells converges
ii. Horse latitudes: are areas between Hadley and Ferrel cells
iii. Trade winds are surface winds of Hadley cells
iv. Westerlies are surface winds of Ferrel cells
Wind bands Three Convenction cells in each hemisphere
d. Trade winds = NE and SE

In the Northern Hemisphere

Air flows clockwise

6. Atmospheric Circulation Results in Large Scale Surface Wind

a. Intertropical Convergence Zone ITCZ
b. A monsoon is a pattern of wind circulation changing with seasons
c. Areas affected by the monsoon have wet summers and dry winter
d. During the monsoon circulation of January and July: Surface winds are
deflected to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the let in the
Southern Hemisphere

Storms are Variation in Large-Scale Atmospheric Circulation

Storms are regional atmospheric disturbances
Storms have high winds and most have precipitation
Tropical cyclones occurs in tropical regions. The storms can cause millions of
dollars worth of damage and endanger lives
Extratropical cyclones occur in Ferrel cells, and are winter weather
disturbances. These storms can also cause extensive damage
Both types of storms are cyclones, or rotation masses of low-pressure air

Ocean Currents

Ocean Currents
It is the moving seawater
Two types of ocean currents
o Surface currents
o Deep Ocean Currents
Surface Currents
Transfer heat from warmer to cooler areas
Affects surface water within and above the pycnocline (10% of ocean water)
Driven by major wind belts of the world
Mostly horizontal motion
Affect coastal climates
Measuring Surface Currents
Direct methods
 o Float meters (Lagrangian: Float with current)
Intentional
Inadvertent
o Propeller meters
Eularian: Stay in one place
Indirect methods
o Pressure gradients
o Satellites
Ekman Spiral: Wind Driven
Ekman spiral: shows the speed and direction of flow of surface water at
different depths
Factor
o Wind pushes water through wind stress
o Coriolis effect pushes water to right (left)
Water velocity spins to the right (left) with depth

Ekman Transport
Water movement due to Ekman spiral
Transport is 90o from the wind
Transport direction depends on the hemisphere

Surface Currents
Friction drags between wind and ocean
Wind-driven
Wind & other factors
o Gravity
o Friction
o Coriolis Effect
Flow around the periphery of ocean basins

Gyres
Large circular-moving loops of water
Subtropical Gyres
o Five main gyres (one in each ocean basins)
North Pacific, South Pacific, North Atlantic, South Atlantic, Indian
o Generally 4 currents in each gyre
Subpolar gyres
o Smaller and fewer
o Generally 2 currents in each gyres
o Rotate in the opposition direction of subtropical gyres
North Atlantic Gyre
North Equatorial Current
Gulf Stream
North Atlantic Current
Canary Current

Climate effects of North Atlantic currents

 Gulf stream warms East coast of U.S and Northern Europe
Canary Current cools North Africa coast
North Atlantic and Norwegian

South Atlantic gyre

Brazil Current
South Equatorial Current
Benguela Current
Antarctica Circumpolar current

North Pacific Gyre

Kuroshio Current
North Pacific current
California Current
North Equatorial Current

South Pacific Gyre

East Australian Current
Antarctica Circumpolar Current
Peru Current
South Equatorial Current

Indian Ocean Gyre

Agulhas Currents
South Equatorial Current
West Australian Currents
Antarctic Circumpolar Current