1.

Points and Straight Lines

1.1 Distance between two points in a coordinate plane

The distance d(P, Q) between the two points P ( x1 , y1 ) and Q ( x2 , y 2 ) in a
coordinate plane is
d ( P , Q) = ( x2 x1) 2 + ( y2 y1) 2
Example 1
Consider the points A(-1, -3), B(6, 1), and C(2, -5). Show that the triangle with the
vertices A, B, and C is a right triangle, and find its area.

Solution

Using the Distance Formula,

d ( A, B ) = (1 6) 2 + (3 1) 2 = 49 + 16 = 65

d ( B, C ) = (6 2) 2 + (1 + 5) 2 = 16 + 36 = 52

d ( A, C ) = (1 2) 2 + (3 + 5) 2 = 9+4 = 13
Since,
d 2 ( A, B ) = d 2 ( B, C ) + d 2 ( A, C ) , the triangle is a right triangle with hypotenuse AB.
1
The area is 52 13 = 13 square unit.
2

Example 2
If a point P(x, y) is such that its distance from point A(3, 2) is always twice its
distance from B(-4, 1). Find an equation which the coordinates of P must satisfy.

Solution
From the statement of the problem
d ( P , A) = 2 d ( P , B ) , hence
( x 3) 2 + ( y 2) 2 = 2 ( x + 4) 2 + ( y 1) 2
Squaring on both sides, we have
x 2 6 x + 9 + y 2 4 y + 4 = 4 ( x 2 + 8 x + 16 + y 2 2 y + 1)
or
3 x 2 + 3 y 2 + 38 x 4 y + 55 = 0
Example 3
Show that the triangle with vertices at A(-2, 4), B(-5, 1), and C(-6, 5) is isosceles.

Solution
Lengths of the sides of the triangle are:
d ( B , C ) = (6 + 5) 2 + (5 1) 2 = 1 + 16 = 17
d ( A , C ) = (6 + 2) 2 + (5 4) 2 = 16 + 1 = 17
d ( B , A) = (2 + 5) 2 + (4 1) 2 = 9 + 9 = 3 2
d (B , C ) = d ( A , C )
Hence, triangle ABC is isosceles.

1 FE 2011
M. Moustafa
1.2 Midpoint of two points in a coordinate plane

The midpoint of a line segment from P ( x1 , y1 ) to Q ( x2 , y 2 ) is

x1 + x2 y1 + y2
,
2 2

Example 4
Find the midpoint M of the line segment from P(-2, 3) to Q(4, -2).

Solution
By the Midpoint Formula, the coordinates of M are
2 + 4 3 + (2) 1
, or 1 ,
2 2 2

1.3 Slope of a straight line through two points

For x1 x2 , the slope of the straight line through the points ( x1 , y1 ) and
( x2 , y2 ) is the number
y y1
m= 2
x 2 x1
When x1 = x2 , the line through ( x1 , y1 ) and ( x2 , y2 ) is vertical and the slope is
undefined.

Points are called collinear, i.e. are located on the same line, if the slope between
every two points is the same.

Example 5
Find the slope of the line through the points (4, 3) and (2, 5).

Solution
53 2
m= = = 1
2 4 2

Example 6
Determine whether the points (1, 2), (3, 10), and (4, 14) are collinear.

Solution
(1) Slope of the line joining (1, 2) and (3, 10) is
10 2 8
m= = = 4.
3 1 2
(2) Slope of the line joining (3, 10) and (4, 14) is
14 10
m= = 4.
43
Since the slopes are the same, the points must be collinear.

2 FE 2011
M. Moustafa
1.4 Equation of a straight line through two points
The equation of straight line through the two points the points ( x1 , y1 ) and ( x2 , y2 ) is
y y1 y 2 y1 y y 2 y 2 y1
= or =
x x1 x 2 x1 x x2 x 2 x1
Example 7
Find the equation of the line through the points (4, 3) and (2, 5).

Solution
y 3 5 3 2
= = = 1
x4 24 2
y = x + 7
1.5 Equation of a straight line of slope m and through a point
A straight line has slope m and passes through a point ( x0 , y0 ) has the following
equation:
From the formula of the slope at any general point (x, y):
y y0
m= ,
x x0
From which we get
y = m ( x x0 ) + y 0

Example 8
If a line passes through the point (2, 1) with slope 2/3, find a second point on the line
and then graph the line.

Solution
From the formula of the slope we have
2 y2 1
= .
3 x2 2
You are free to choose the x-coordinate of the second point. For instance, to find the
point at x2 = 5 , substitute this in and solve. From
2 y 2 1 y2 1 y2 1
= = = ,
3 x2 2 5 2 3
We get 2 = y 2 1 or y 2 = 3 . A second point is then (5, 3).

Example 9
Find an equation of the line through the points (3, 1) and (4, -1).

Solution
1 1
The slope of the line: m = = 2 .
43
y = 2 ( x 3) + 1
The equation of the line:
= 2x + 7.

3 FE 2011
M. Moustafa
THEOREM
Two (non-vertical) lines are parallel if they have the same slope. Further, any two
vertical lines are parallel.
Two (non-vertical) lines of slopes m1 and m2 are perpendicular whenever the
product of their slopes is -1. Also, any vertical line and any horizontal line are
perpendicular.

Example 10
Show that the two lines 3 y = 6 x 3 and 2 y = 4 x + 10 are parallel.

Solution
Equation of the first line can be written in the form: y = 2 x 1 , from which its slope
m1 = 2 .
Equation of the second line can be written in the form: y = 2 x + 5 , from which its
slope m1 = 2 .
Since the two slopes are the same, the two lines are parallel.

Example 11
Find an equation of the line parallel to y = 3 x 2 and through the point (-1, 3).

Solution
The slope of y = 3 x 2 is 3.
The equation of the parallel line is then
y = 3[ ( x (1) ] + 3
= 3x + 6 .

Example 12
Find an equation of the line perpendicular to y = 2 x + 4 and intersecting the line at
the point (1, 2).

Solution
The slope of y = 2 x + 4 is -2.
The slope of the perpendicular line is then -1/(-2) = 0.5.
Since the line must pass through the point (1, 2), the equation of the perpendicular
line is
1
y= ( x 1) + 2
2
1 3
= x+ .
2 2

Example 13
A line is defined by y + 2 x = 0 , passes through the point
(A)(-1, 3) (B) (0,1) (C) (0,0) D(3,2)

Solution (C).

4 FE 2011
M. Moustafa
Example 14

The slope of line is defined by 3 y + 2 x 1 = 0 , is

(A) 3 (B) 2 (C) 0 (D) None of the above.

Solution (D)

Example 15
The equation of the line through the points (1, 1) and (2, 2) is
(A) x = y (B) x + y = 0 (C) x 2 y = 0 (D) 2 x + y = 1 .

Solution (A)

Example 16

The intercept and the slope of line defined by y = 3 x 1 , are respectively

(A)(-1, 1) (B) (-1,3) (C) (3,1) D(3,-1)

Solution (D)

2. Quadratic Equations and Conic Sections

A quadratic equation is a an equation of the form
Ax 2 + B xy + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0

Example 17

The graph of the general quadratic equation

36 x 2 + 24 xy + 29 y 2 72 x + 126 y + 81 = 0 , is
(A) an ellipse (B) a parabola (C) a hyperbola (D) a circle

Solution (24) 2 = 576 < 4(36)(29) , (A).

Example 18

The graph of the general quadratic equation

3 x 2 + 3 y 2 + 6 x + y = 0 , is
(A) an ellipse (B) a parabola (C) a hyperbola (D) a circle

Solution A = C , B = 0 , (D).

Example 19

The graph of the general quadratic equation

3 x 2 + 4 xy 6 = 0 , is

5 FE 2011
M. Moustafa
(A) an ellipse (B) a parabola (C) a hyperbola (D) a circle

Solution (4) 2 = 16 > 4(3)(09) , (B).

3. Circle and Sphere

The equation of the circle of center (-a, -b) and radius R is

( x + a ) 2 + ( y + b) 2 = R 2
The center and the radius of the circle x 2 + y 2 + 2ax + 2by + d = 0 , are
(-a,-b) and R = a 2 + b 2 d .

The equation of sphere of center (-a, -b,-c) and radius R is

( x + a ) 2 + ( y + b) 2 + ( z + c) 2 = R 2 .

The center and the radius of the circle x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2ax + 2by + 2cz + d = 0 , are
(-a,-b,-c) and R = a 2 + b 2 + c 2 d

Example 20

The center of the circle

3 x 2 + 3 y 2 + 6 x + y = 0 , is
(A) (6,1) (B) (-6,-1) (C) (0,0) (D) (-1,-1/6)

Solution (D).

Example 21

The radius of the circle

3 x 2 + 3 y 2 + 6 x + y = 0 , is
37
(A) (1) (B) (3) (C) (6) (D)( )
6

Solution (D).

4. Exponential and Logarithm Functions

Example 22
Solve the equation 5 ex 3 = 4.
Solution

First divide each side by 5,

e x 3 = 0 .8 .

6 FE 2011
M. Moustafa
Taking the logarithm of each side, we have
ln (e x 3 ) = ln 0.8
x 3 = ln 0.8
x = 3 + ln 0.8
x = 3 0.22314
x = 2.77686 .

Example 23
Solve the equation 2 ln x + 7 = 0 .

Solution
2 ln x = 7
ln x = 3.5
e l n x = e 3 .5
x = e 3.5 .

Example 24
Simplify the following quantities:
(1) ln 5 + 2 ln 3 ,
1
(2) ln 4 t ln t 2 + 1 ,
2
( ) (3) ln x + ln 3 + ln y ln 5 .

Solution
(1) ln 5 + 2 ln 3 = ln 5 + ln 3 2 = ln 5 + ln 9 = ln (5) (9) = ln 45 .

(2)
1
( ) 1
( )
2 t
ln 4 t ln t 2 + 1 = ln (4 t ) 2 ln t 2 + 1 = ln

.

t + 1
2 2

ln x + ln 3 + ln y ln 5 = (ln x + ln 3) + ln y ln 5
= ln (3 x ) + ln y ln 5
(3) = ln (3 x y ) ln 5
3x y
= ln .
5
5. Limits, Continuity and Derivatives

Example 25
Compute the following limits:
2
2 x 1
(a) lim (2 x + 4 x 3) , (b) lim , (c) lim x+ , (d)
x2 x x + x 1 x
sin x
lim .
x 2 + cos x

7 FE 2011
M. Moustafa
Solution
(a) lim (2 x 2 + 4 x 3) = 2 (2) 2 + 4 (2) 3 = 8 + 8 3 = 13 .
x2
x x 0
(b) lim = lim = = 0.
x x+ x x +
2 2
1 1
(c) lim x+ = lim x+ = (1 + 1) 2 = 4 .
x 1 x x 1 x
sin x 0
(d) lim = = 0.
x 2 + cos x 2 1

Example 26
Compute the following limits:
x2 9 x+42 sin 2 x tan x
(a) lim , (b) lim , (c) lim , (d) lim .
x3 x 3 x0 x x0 x x 0 4x

Solution
Apply L'Hopstial's Rule
x2 9 2x
(a) lim = lim = 6.
x3 x 3 x3 1
x+42 1 1
(b) lim = lim = .
x0 x x 0 2 x + 4 4
sin 2 x 2 cos 2 x
(c) lim = lim = 2.
x0 x x0 1
tan x sec 2 x 1
(d) lim = lim = .
x 0 4x x0 4 4

Example 27
Compute the following limits:
4x3 2 x2 x + 3 3x + 4
(a) lim , (b) lim , (c) lim ,
x + 2 x + 5 x 4 x3 1 x + 2x 5
2

3x + 4
(d) lim ,(e) lim x 2 + 1 x , (f) lim x 2 + x x .
x 2 x2 5 x + x +

Solution
(a) Apply L'Hopstial's Rule
4x3 4
lim = = = 2.
x + 2 x + 5 2

(b) Apply L'Hopstial's Rule

8 FE 2011
M. Moustafa
 2 x2 x + 3 4x
lim = lim = 0.
x 4 x3 1 x 12 x 2

3x + 4 3+ 4 3
(c) lim = lim . x =
x + 2x 5 2 2 x +
5 2
x2
[Here we divided the numerator and denominator by x. In the denominator we
let x 2 = x since we are considering only positive values of x ]

3x + 4
3x + 4 ( x) ( x) 3
(d) lim = lim . =
x 2 x2 5 x 2 5 2 2
x
[Here we divided the numerator and denominator by (- x). In the denominator we
let x 2 = x since we are considering only negative values of x ]
(e)
x2 + 1 + x

lim x + 1 x = lim x + 1 x
2 2
x x + x2 + 1 + x

x2 + 1 x2
= lim
x + x2 + 1 + x
1
= lim
x + x2 + 1 + x
1
= lim x
x + 1 + 1 +1
x2
=0.
(f)
x2 + x + x
lim x 2 + x x = lim x 2 + x x
x x + x +x+x
2

x2 + x x2
= lim
x + x2 + x + x
x
= lim
x + x2 + x + x
1
= lim
x + 1+ 1 +1
x
1
= .
2

9 FE 2011
M. Moustafa
Definition
A function f is said to be continuous at a number a if and only if the following three
conditions are satisfied:
(i) f (a) exists
(ii) lim f ( x) exists
x a

(iii) lim f ( x) = f (a )
x a

If one or more of these three conditions fails to hold at a, the function f is said to be
discontinuous at a.

df ( x)
Definition: The derivative of a function f (x) is the function f ' ( x) = whose
dx
df ( x) f ( x + x) f ( x)
value at x is given by f ' ( x) = = Lim , provided the limit
dx x 0 x
exists. The process of computing a derivative is called differentiation.

The Relation between Continuity and Differentiation

1. If a function is differentiable at x = c , then it is continuous at x = c . Thus,
differentiability implies continuity.
2. It is possible for a function to be continuous at x = c and not differentiable
at x = c . Thus, continuity does not imply differentiability.

Example 28
df ( x)
Find f ' ( x) = of the following
dx
1+ x2
(a) f ( x) = ln (b) f ( x) = (ln x) 4 + ln x 4
2
1 x
(c) f ( x) = e + e 2 ln x (d) f ( x) = log10 ( x 2 + x + 5)
2x

Solution
Use the properties of the logarithm, then apply the derivative rules.
1
(a) f ( x) = [ln(1 + x 2 ) ln(1 x 2 )]
2
df ( x) x x 2x
f ' ( x) = = = .
2 2
dx 1+ x 1 x 1 x4
(b) f ( x) = (ln x) 4 + 4 ln x
1 4 4
f ' ( x) = 4(ln x) 3 ( ) + = [1 + (ln x) 3 ] .
x x x
(c) f ( x) = e 2 x + x 2
f ' ( x) = 2e 2 x + 2 x .
2 ln( x 2 + x + 5)
(d) f ( x) = log10 ( x + x + 5) =
ln 10
2 x + 1
f ' ( x) = .
( x 2 + x + 5) ln 10

10 FE 2011
M. Moustafa
Example 29
df ( x)
Find f ' ( x) = of the following
dx
1 x2
(a) f ( x) = 4 x ( x 2 + 1) (b) f ( x) = (1 x 2 ) 3 (1 + x 3 ) 2
1+ x2
(c) f ( x) = ( x 2 + 1) x (d) f ( x) = 3 x x 2 + 1
Solution
Take the logarithm of both sides using the properties of the logarithm, then apply the
derivative rules.

(a) f ( x) = 4 x ( x 2 + 1)
ln f ( x) = x ln 4 + ln( x 2 + 1)
f ' ( x) 2x
= ln 4 +
f ( x) 1+ x2
2x
f ' ( x) = [ln 4 + ] f ( x)]
1+ x2
2 3 3 2 1 x2
(b) f ( x) = (1 x ) (1 + x )
1+ x2
1 1
ln f ( x) = 3 ln(1 x 2 ) + 2 ln(1 + x 3 ) + ln(1 x 2 ) ln(1 + x 2 ) .
2 2
f ' ( x) 6 x 6x 2 x x
= +
f ( x) 1 x 2 1 + x 3 1 x 2 1 + x 2
7x 6x 2 x
f ' ( x) = [ + ] f ( x)
1 x 2 1 + x3 1 + x 2
(c) f ( x) = ( x 2 + 1) x
ln f ( x) = x ln( x 2 + 1)
f ' ( x) 2x
= x + ln( x 2 + 1)
2
f ( x) 1+ x
2x
f ' ( x) = x + ln( x 2 + 1) f ( x)
1 + x
2

(d) f ( x) = 3 x x2 +1
1
ln f ( x) = x ln 3 + ln( x 2 + 1)
2
'
f ( x) 1 2x
= ln 3 +
f ( x) 2 1 + x 2
1 2 x
f ' ( x) = ln 3 + f ( x)
2
2 1 + x

11 FE 2011
M. Moustafa
Example 30
f ( x)
Find of the following
x
f ( x, y ) = sin(2 xyz ) + x + yz
Solution

f
= 2 yz cos(2 xyz ) + 1
x
Example 31 Find the slope of the tangent line to the curve f ( x) = x 2 8 x + 9 at the
point (3,6).
Solution

f ' ( x) = 2 x 8
The slope at (3,6) is f ' (3) = 2(3) 8 = 2 .
Example 32 Find the slope of the tangent line to the curve f ( x) = x at the point
(1,1).
Solution

1
f ' ( x) =
2 x
1
The slope at (1,1) is f ' (1) = .
2
Example 33
Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve f ( x) = 2 x 3 + 4 x 2 + 3 at the point
(1,5).
Solution
f ' ( x) = 8 x 6 x 2
f ' (1) = 2
The equation of the tangent line at (1,5) is
y5
2= y = 2 x + 3.
x 1
Example 34
Find the points on the curve f ( x) = x 3 + 6 x 2 at which the tangent line is horizontal.
Solution
Since the slope of the tangent line is horizontal f ' ( x) = 0
0 = 3x 2 + 12 x = 3x( x 4) x = 0, x = 4
y = f ( 0) = 0
y = f (4) = (4) 3 + 6(4) 2 = 32
Thus the points are (0,0). and (4,32).

12 FE 2011
M. Moustafa
Example 35
Find the instantaneous velocity, and instantaneous the acceleration at t=1 second, if
the distance in meter is given by s(t ) = t 3 + 6t 2 .
Solution
ds
V= = 3t 2 + 12t = 9 m / s
dt
d 2s
A= = 6t + 12 = 6 m / s 2
2
dt
Example 36
Find the maximum and minimum values of the function f ( x) = x 3 + 6 x 2 .
Solution
For max. or min. f ' ( x) = 0
0 = 3x 2 + 12 x = 3x( x 4) x = 0, x = 4
f '' ( x) = 6 x + 12
f '' (0) = 12 > 0
f min (0) = 0.
f '' (4) = 12 < 0
f max (4) = (4) 3 + 6(4) 2 = 32 .

6. Integrations, Areas and Volumes

Rules of Integration
6.1 Product of two functions one of them is the derivative of the other

Power and Natural Logarithmic Rules

[ f ( x )]r +1
[ f ( x)] df ( x) = r + 1 + C , r 1.
r

If r = 1
df ( x)
f ( x) = ln f ( x) + C , f ( x) 0.
Exponential Rule
e
f ( x)
df ( x) =e f ( x ) + C
Example 37

Evaluate the following indefinite integrals :

5x 2 1 5x 2 1 2
1. e 10
xdx =
e (10 x)dx = e 5 x + C
10
1 1
2. [1 + x 3 ]2 dx = [1 + 2 x 3 + x 6 ]dx = x + x 4 + x 7 + C
2 7

13 FE 2011
M. Moustafa
 1 1
[1 + x
3 2 2
3. [1 + x 3 ] 2 3 x 2 dx = [1 + x 3 ]3 + C
] x dx =
3 9
xdx 1 2 xdx 1
4.
2 2
= = ln( x 2 + 1) + C
2 2
1+ x 1+ x

x +1 1 1 1
5.
x2
dx = [ +
x x2
]dx = ln x + ( ) + C
x
x x +11
6. dx = dx =x ln x + 1 + C
x +1 x +1
x2 x2 1 +1 1 1 2
7. x + 1 x + 1 dx = [ x 1 + x + 1]dx = 2 x x + ln x + 1 + C
dx =

ex
e x + 1 dx = ln e
x
8. +1 + C

ex + 2
9. dx = [1 + 2e x ]dx = x 2e x + C
x
e
e2x ex (e x + 1) 1 x
10. ex +1 dx =
ex +1
e x dx = [
x
e +1
]e dx =e x ln e x + 1 + C

x +1 1 2 3
11. x
dx = [ x +
x
]dx =
3
x +2 x +C

1
sin
2
12. x cos xdx = sin 3 x + C
3

1
sin x
2
13. xdx = cos x 2 + C
2

2
14. tan x sec 2 xdx =
3
tan 3 x + C

sin x 1
15. 1 2 cos x dx = 2 ln 1 2 cos x + C
Example 38

(a) Find the area under the curve f ( x) = x from x = 1 to x = 2 .

(b) Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating about the x-axis the region in
(a).
(c) Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating about the y-axis the region
bounded by y = x 3 , y = 8, and x = 0 .

14 FE 2011
M. Moustafa
Solution
(a)
2 2
1 2 2 3
Area = f ( x) dx = xdx = x = .
2 1 2
1 1
2 2
7
(b) V = [ f ( x)]2 dx = x 2 dx =
.
3
1 1
8 8
96
(c) V = [ g ( x)]2 dy = y 2 / 3 dy =
5
0 0

Example 39

Find the area under the curve f ( x ) = x 2

3 x + 5 from x = 1 to x = 4 .
Solution

4 4
1 3 3 2 4 27
Area = f ( x )dx = ( x 2 3 x + 5) dx = x x + 5x = .
3 2 1 2
1 1
6.2 Product of two functions one of them is not the derivative of the other

udv = uv vdu By Parts

Choose dv first then u by x n , n is positive integer.

Example 40

Evaluate the following indefinite integrals :

xe dx = xe x e x dx = xe x e x + c
x

1 1 1
x ln xdx = 2 [ x ln x xdx] = [ x 2 ln x x 2 ] + c
2
2 2

7. Differential Equations

7.1 Separable First Order DE

Example 41
Find the general solution of
xdy + ( y + xy )dx = 0
Solution
xdy = y (1 + x)dx

15 FE 2011
M. Moustafa
dy 1
= ( + 1)dx
y x
ln y = (ln x + x) + k Implicit Solution

c x
y= e Explicit Solution
x
7.2 First Order Linear Homogeneous DEs with Constant
Coefficients

dy
+ my = 0
dx
dy
= mdx
y
y = ce mx

Example 42
Find the general solution of
2dy + (10 y )dx = 0
Solution
dy
+ 5y = 0
dx
y = ce 5 x

7.3 Second Order Linear Homogeneous DEs. with Constant

Coefficients
Example 43
Solve y '' 3 y ' + 2 y = 0
Solution

C.E. m 2 3m + 2 = 0
y h = y g = c1e x + c 2 e 2 x

Example 44
Solve y ' ' 2 y ' + y = 0
Solution

C.E. m 2 2m + 1 = 0

y g = c1e x + c 2 xe x

16 FE 2011
M. Moustafa
Example 45
Solve y ' ' + y ' + y = 0
Solution

C.E. m2 + m + 1 = 0

x
3 3
y h = y g =e 2 [c cos
1 x + c 2 sin x]
2 2
Example 46
Solve y ( 4) + y ( 2) = 0
Solution

C.E. (m 2 )(m 2 + 1) = 0

y h = y g = [c1 cos x + c 2 sin x] + [c3 + c 4 x]

Example 47
Solve y ( 4) + 2 y ( 2) + y = 0
C.E. (m 2 + 1)(m 2 + 1) = 0

y h = y g = [c1 cos x + c2 sin x] + x[c3 cos x + c4 sin x] .

7.4 Second Order Linear Non- Homogeneous DEs. with Constant

Coefficients
y g ( x) = y h ( x) + y p ( x)

8. Matrices, Determinants and Vectors

8.1 Matrix Algebra

1 1 1 1 1 2
Example 48 If A = and B = , Does A = B ?
1 2 3 1 2 3
Solution
1 1 1 1 1 2
A= =B
1 2 3 1 2 3
1 1 1 1 1 1
Example 49 If A = and B =
1 2 3 1 2 3
Find A + B

Solution
1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 0
A+ B = + =
1 2 3 1 2 3 2 0 6
17 FE 2011
M. Moustafa
 1 1 1
Example 50 If A = , find 2 A.
1 2 3
Solution

1 1 1 2 2 2
2A = 2 = .
1 2 3 2 4 6
7 2 6
1 1 1
Example 51 Find the transpose of A = , and B = 1 2 3 .
1 2 3 5 0 4
Solution

T
1 1 7 2 6 7 1 5
A = 1
T
2 , and B = 1 2 3
T
= 2 2 0
1 3 5 0 4 6 3 4

Definition: The tow matrices Am n = [aij ] and B p q = [bij ] can be multiplied

together in the order AB if and only if n = p .
n
Am n Bn q = C m q = [cij = aik bkj ]
k =1
b1 j
a b2 j
i1 ai 2 L ain = cij
M

bnj
Example 52

3 2 1 1 1
If A = , and B = 1 2 3 , find AB and BA if possible
1 4
Solution
3 2 1 1 1 1 1 3
AB = =
1 4 1 2 3 3 7 11

BA
does not exist at all.
2
1
Example 53 If A = [1 0 0 1] , and B = , find AB and BA if possible.
3

1

18 FE 2011
M. Moustafa
Solution

2
1
AB = [1 0 0 1] = 3
3

1

2 2 0 0 2
1 1 0 0 1
BA = [1 0 0 1] =

3 3 0 0 3

1 1 0 0 1

Remarks
(i) AB BA
(ii) AB = 0 , does not imply that A = 0, or B = 0 .
(iii) AB = AC , does not imply that B = C in general

Example 54
Let
a 0 0 0
A= , and B = .
b 0 c d
Find AB and BA
Solution
0 0 0 0
AB = BA =
0 0 ac + bd 0
Example 55
1 1 6 1 4 2
If A = , B= , and C= , show that AB = AC , while
1 1 2 4 4 7
B C.
Solution

1 1 6 1 8 5 1 1 4 2 8 5
AB = = , AC = =
1 1 2 4 8 5 1 1 4 7 8 5

Definition: The square matrix An n is called nonsingular (or invertible), if there

exists an nxn matrix B such that AB = BA = I n . B is called the inverse of A and it
is denoted by A 1 .
If there exists no such matrix B , then A is called singular (or noninvertible)
a b 1 d b
Theorem The inverse of A = is A 1 = , provided that
c d ad bc c a
ad bc 0 .
Unfortunately, there is no correspondingly simple rule for higher-order
matrices.

19 FE 2011
M. Moustafa
Example 56
1 1
If Q = , find Q 1 .
1 2
Solution
ad bc = 2 + 1 = 3 0
2 1
1 2 1
Q 1 = = 3 3 .
3 1 1 1 1
3 3
Example 57
Solve the following system
1 1 x 3
1 2 y = 3

Solution
2 1
3 3 3 1
x
y = 1 1 3 . = 2

3 3

8.2 Determinants
a b
Definition: The determinants of a matrix 2x2, A = is the number denoted by
c d
a b
det A = A = = ad bc
c d
The determinant of the 3x3 matrix A is
a11 a12 a13
a a 23 a a 23 a a 22
a 21 a 22 a 23 = a11 22 a12 21 + a13 21
a32 a33 a31 a33 a31 a32
a31 a32 a33

5 2 3
Example 58 Find the value of 4 0 1 .
3 1 2
Solution
5 2 3
0 1 4 1 4 0
4 0 1 = (5) (2) + (3) = 27
1 2 3 2 3 1
3 1 2
1 15 1
Example 59 Find the value of 3 9 6
5 12 1

20 FE 2011
M. Moustafa
Solution
1 15 1 1 5 1 1 5 1
3 9 6 = (3) 3 3 6 = (3)(3) 1 1 2 = 585
5 12 1 5 4 1 5 4 1
by factoring 3 out of the second column, then by factoring 3 out of the second row.

Example 60
2 3 4
The matrix A = 1 4 2 has no zero elements to simplify the computation of
3 10 1
its determinant as it stands, but we get two zeros by adding twice the first column to
the third column:

2 3 4 2 3 0
2 3
det A = 1 4 2 = 1 4 0 = (+ 7 ) = 35.
1 4
3 10 1 3 10 7

Example 61 Evaluate
2 1 3
2 1 5 .
4 2 10
Solution
We first add the first row to the second and then subtract twice that first row from the
third.

2 1 3 2 1 3
This yields to 2 1 5 = 0 0 8 = (2)(0)(4) = 0 , because we produced a
4 2 10 0 0 4
triangular matrix having a zero on its main diagonal.

3 11 9 2
0 2 8 6
Example 62 Find the value of
0 0 5 17
0 0 0 4
Solution

3 11 9 2
0 2 8 6
= (3)(2)(5)(4) = 120 , since it is a triangular.
0 0 5 17
0 0 0 4

21 FE 2011
M. Moustafa
Example 63
If A is 2x 2 matrix with A = 23 , find AT , 3 A and A1 .
Solution
AT = A = 23,

Since kAn n = k n A , 3 A = 32 A = 207

AA 1 = A A 1 = I = 1 ,
1
A 1 = .
23

8.3 Vectors
Dot Product a. b = a b Cos It is also called Scalar Product.

1. a. b = b. a
a. b
2. = b cos , the projection b of on a .
a
3. a.b = 0 b and a are perpendicular, = / 2 , provided non-zero vectors.
a1b1 + a 2 b2 + a3b3
4. cos =
a 21 + a 2 2 + a 2 3 b 21 + b 2 2 + b 2 3
Divergence of a Vector
a a a
.a = 1 + 2 + 3
x y z
Gradient of a Scalar

= i+ j+ k
x y z
i j k
Cross Product a b = a b sin n = a1 a2 a3
b1 b2 b3
It is also called vector Product.
n is unit vector perpendicular to the plane of b and a
1. a b = b a
a b
2. is area of the triangle formed by b and a .
2
3. a b = 0 b and a are parallel, provided non-zero vectors.
Curl of a Vector
i j k

b =
x y z
b1 b2 b3

22 FE 2011
M. Moustafa
Scalar Triple Product.

c1 c2 c3
c.(a b) = a1 a2 a3 is the volume of parallelepiped formed by the 3 vectors.
b1 b2 b3
c.(a b) = 0 the vectors are co-planer, provided non-zero vectors, and non-
parallel vectors.

Curl of a Vector
i j k

b =
x y z
b1 b2 b3
Example 64 Consider the following vectors
a = 0i + 2 j + k
b = 2i + 3 j + 5k
c=i+ j+k
c1 c2 c3
Find (a) a. b (b) a b (c) c.(a b) = a1 a2 a3
b1 b2 b3
Solution
(a) a. b = 11 .
i j k
(b) a b = 0 2 1 = 7i + 2 j 4k .
2 3 5
c1 c2 c3 1 1 1
(c) c.(a b) = a1 a2 a3 = 0 2 1 = 7 + 2 4 = 5 .
b1 b2 b3 2 3 5

9. Progressions and Power Series

9.1 Arithmetic Progression and Series

a, (a + d ), (a + 2d ), L , (a + (n 1)d ) .
n
S n = a + (a + d ) + (a + 2d ) + L + (a + (n 1)d ) = [2a + (n 1)d ]
2

9.2 Geometric Progression and Series

a, ar , ar 2 , L , ar n 1 .

23 FE 2011
M. Moustafa
 1 rn
S n = a + ar + ar 2 + L + ar n 1 = a ,r 1
1 r
1
S = a + ar + ar 2 + L = a ,r <1
1 r
9.3 Taylor Series
f ' ' (a)
f ( x) = f (a) + f ' (a)( x a) + ( x a) 2 + L
2!
9.4 Maclaurin Series
f ' ' (0) 2
f ( x) = f (0) + f ' (0) x + x +L
2!

n
x2 x
x
e = 1+ x + +L =
2! n =0
n!
2 n +1
x3 n x
sin x = x + L = (1)
3! n=0 (2n + 1)!

x2 n x
2n
cos x = 1 + L = (1)
2! n=0
(2n)!

1
= 1 + x + x2 + L = xn , x < 1 .
1 x n =0

Example 65
Find the power series of
2 1+ x
(a) f ( x) = e x (b) f ( x) = cos x (c) f ( x) = .
1 x
Solution
2n
x2 x4 x
(a) f ( x) = e 2
= 1+ x + +L = .
2! n=0
n!

x x2 xn
(b) f ( x) = cos x = 1 + L = (1) n .
2! 4! n=0
( 2 n )!

1+ x
(c) f ( x) = = (1 + x)(1 + x + x 2 + L) = 1 + 2 x n , x < 1 .
1 x n =1

10. Trigonometry, Polar Coordinates and Complex Numbers

10.1 Trigonometry
Example 66
df ( x)
Find f ' ( x) = of the following
dx

24 FE 2011
M. Moustafa
 sec x
(a) f ( x) = sin( x cos x) (b) f ( x) =
1 + sec x
(c) f ( x) = sin 1 + x 2 (d) f ( x) = sec 2 x + tan 2 x
Solution

(a) f ' ( x) = cox( x cos x)[ x sin x + cos x) .

(1 + sec x) sec x tan x sec x(sec x tan x) sec x tan x
(b) f ' ( x) = = .
(1 + sec x) 2 (1 + sec x) 2

' x cos 1 + x 2
(c) f ( x) = .
1+ x2
(d) f ' ( x) = 2 sec 2 x tan x + 2 tan x sec 2 x = 4 tan x sec 2 x

10.2 Polar Coordinates

y
r = x 2 + y 2 , = tan 1
x
x = r cos , y = r sin
Area in Polar Coordinates
2
1 2
A= r d
2
1
Example 67
Find the polar coordinates of the lemiscate : ( x 2 + y 2 ) 2 = 2a 2 ( x 2 y 2 ) .
Solution
The polar coordinates of
( x 2 + y 2 ) 2 = 2a 2 ( x 2 y 2 ) is
(r 2 ) 2 = 2a 2 r 2 [cos 2 sin 2 ]
r 2 = 2a 2 cos 2 .

Example 68
(a)Find the polar coordinates of the circle : x 2 + y 2 4 y = 0 .
(b) Find the area of this circle.
(c) Find the volume of the solid obtained by rotating this circle about the y-axis

Solution
(a)The polar coordinates of
x 2 + y 2 4 y = 0 is
r = 4 sin .

1 1
2 (4 sin ) d = 8 2 [1 cos 2 ]d = 4 .
2
A=
(b) 0 0
or R = 0 + 4 0 = 2 A = R 2 = 2 2 = 4 .

25 FE 2011
M. Moustafa
 4 4
32
V = x dy = (4 y y 2 )dy =
2
3
(c) 0 0
4 4 32
or R = 2 V = R 3 = (2) 3 =
3 3 3

10.3 Complex Numbers

z = x + iy = r cos + ir sin = re i
z = x iy = r cos ir sin = re i
z1 + z 2 = ( x1 + x 2 ) + i ( y1 + y 2 )
cz = cr[cos + i sin ]
z1 z 2 = r1r2 e i (1 + 2 )
z1 / z 2 = r1 / r2 e i (1 2 )

Example 69
2+i
Simplify the following (a) z = (b) z = (i ) i
1+ i
Solution
2 + i 2 + i 1 i 1
(a) z = = = (3 i )
1 + i 1 + i 1 i 2
(b) i = e i / 2 (i ) i = e / 2

De Moiver Theorem
k z = k r [cos + 2n + i sin + 2n ], n = 0,1, L , k 1 .

k k
Example 70
Find the roots of (a) ( x 1) 3 = 0 , (b) x 3 1 = 0 , (c) ( x 4 1) = 0 (d) x 4 + 1 = 0
(e) z = i
Solution

(a) ( x 1)( x 1)( x 1) = 0 x = 1,1,1

(b) x 3 = 1 = e 2 ni x = e 2ni / 3 , n = 0,1,2
2 2
x = 1, x = e 2 i / 3 = cos = [1 + i 3 ], x = e 4 i / 3 = [1 i 3 ]
1 1
+ i sin
3 3 2 2

(c) ( x 4 1) = 0 x 4 = 1 x 2 = 1, x 2 = 1 x = 1, i

(d) x 4 = 1 = e i ( + 2 n) x = e i ( + 2 n) / 4 , n = 0,1,2,3.

(e) i = e i ( / 2 + 2 n) i = e i ( / 2 + 2 n) / 2 , n = 0,1.

26 FE 2011
M. Moustafa