Chapter:-7 Value Engineering Introduction

Value Engineering Definition : -

An organized study of functions to satisfy the users needs with a quality
product at the lowest life cycle cost through applied creativity. USACE
Value engineering is a proven management tool that can be used by agencies
to streamline operations, improve quality and reduce contract costs.
- Franklin Rains, U.S. Office of Management and Budget
Value Engineering is the systematic application of recognized techniques by
multidiscipline team(s) that identifies the function of a product or service; establishes a worth for
that function; generates alternatives through the use of creative thinking; and provides the needed
functions, reliably, at the lowest overall cost.
Value Engineering may be defined in other ways, as long as the definition
contains the following three basic precepts:

An organized review to improve value by using multi-disciplined teams of specialists knowing

various aspects of the problem being studied.
A function oriented approach to identify the essential functions of the system, product, or
service being studied, and the cost associated with those functions.
Creative thinking using recognized techniques to explore alternative ways of performing the
functions at a lower cost, or to otherwise improve the design.

Value Methodology (also called Value Engineering, Value Analysis or Value

Management) is a powerful problem-solving tool that can reduce costs while maintaining or
improving performance and quality requirements.
It is a function-oriented, systematic team approach to providing value in a product
or service. The value methodology helps organizations compete more effectively in local,
national and international markets by:
- Decreasing costs - Increasing profits
- Improving quality - Expanding market share
- Saving time - Solving problems
- Using resources more effectively

Value Engineering (VE) is a methodology that is known and accepted in the

industrial sector. It is an organized process with an impressive history of improving value and
quality. The VE process identifies opportunities to remove unnecessary costs while assuring that
quality, reliability, performance, and other critical factors will meet or exceed the customer's
expectations. The improvements are the result of recommendations made by multidisciplinary
teams representing all parties involved. VE is a rigorous, systematic effort to improve the value
and optimize the life cycle cost of a facility.
VE generates these cost improvements without sacrificing needed performance
levels. A wide range of companies and establishments have used VE effectively to achieve their
continuous goal of improving decision making.
 Value Engineering Terminology : -

The term Value Engineering is synonymous with value management, value

analysis, and value control. Some of these terms were coined to minimize confusion about the
word engineering. You do not have to be an engineer to apply VE. The following terms are used
throughout this document:

i. Value Engineering Project: A preplanned effort to study a specific area or task, the primary
objective being to improve value using VE methodology while maintaining required functions.

ii. Function: The purpose or use of an item or process. The VE approach first concerns itself with
what the item or process is supposed to do. The consideration of function is the fundamental
basis of the VE method.

iii. Value: The relationship between the worth or utility of an item (expressed in monetary terms)
and the actual monetary cost of the item. The highest value is represented by an item with the
essential quality available at the lowest possible overall cost that will reliably perform the
required function at the desired time and place.

iv. Worth: The lowest cost to reliably achieve the required function. Worth is established by
comparing various alternatives to accomplish that function and selecting the lowest cost
alternative.

v. Value Engineering Proposal: A specific proposal developed internally by DoD personnel for
total value improvement from the use of VE techniques. Since Value Engineering Proposals are
developed and implemented by Government personnel, all resulting savings accrue to the
Government. A Value Engineering Proposal can also be the result of a technical support
contractor effort if it is funded by the Government specifically to conduct a VE study on a
contract to which it is not a party.

vi. Value Engineering Change Proposal (VECP): A proposal submitted to the Government by the
contractor in accordance with the VE clause in the contract. A VECP proposes a change that, if
accepted and implemented, provides an eventual, overall cost savings to the Government and a
substantial share in the savings accrued as a result of implementation of the change for the
contractor. It provides a vehicle through which acquisition and operating costs can be reduced
while the contractors rate of return is increased.

Benefits of Value Engineering : -

Value Engineering helps in improving efficiency and effectiveness of products,

systems and procedures. In general, VE does the following:

It helps us to pinpoint areas that need attention and improvement.

It helps in generating ideas and alternatives for possible solution to a problem.
It provides a method to evaluate alternatives.
 It provides a platform for dialogue.
It records the logic behind the decisions.
It improves the value of goods and services significantly.

Function Analysis : -

Function analysis, the study of design performance, is the heart of value

methodology. It is one of the few things that make this technique different from all other cost
reduction techniques.
The glossary accompanying this text provides definitions for 24 different types of
functions that all value engineers need to study and understand. The key function of all those
defined is the basic function.

Classifying Function : -

In an effort to make the classical methodology work better in the construction area
(as opposed to the industrial area), the classifications of function were modified to include the
following:
Basic function(s)
Required secondary functions (modification to industrial area)
Secondary functions
These classifications are defined in the following paragraphs.

Basic Function : -

Basic function is:

1. That which is essential to the performance of a user function, or
2. The function describing the primary utilitarian characteristic of a product or design to fulfill a
user requirement.
The determination of a basic function is made by asking, "Can the function be
eliminated and still satisfy the user?" If the answer is no, the function is basic. All basic functions
must be achieved as the result of VE. One cannot eliminate a basic function and satisfy the user.
VE does not recommend changes that eliminate or compromise basic function. For example, the
basic function & a match are to generate flame. The phosphorus tip is classified as a basic
function. No flame can be generated without the tip.

Required Secondary Function : -

Since the construction field works according to many codes, standards, and safety
requirements that must be met if a permit to construct is awarded, a new category-required
secondary function-was developed by the author. A required secondary function is any function
that must be achieved to meet codes, standards, or mandatory owner requirements.
 Without this innovation, the worth of the project function developed under the classical
approach-ether basic function with worth, or secondary function with no worth, resulted in a
project worth so low Chapter Five Function Analysis that the value engineer appeared "foolish"
to peers. In most cases, the impression it made on peers negated any value gained.
For example, under the classical approach, the basic function of a hospital is to
treat patients. Using the classical approach, the fire protection system function is to
control/extinguish fire-a secondary function worth zero.
Patients can still realize treatment without this system. But, who would build a hospital without a
fire protection system? Classifying the function as a required secondary function having worth is
a more realistic approach. One can still challenge the extent and manner of performance, but the
function is required by code.

Secondary Function : -
If secondary functions are removed from the design, both the basic and required
secondary functions can be realized. As such, their worth is zero. Consider these examples:
The label on a pencil that identities product is a secondary function. The basic function of the
pencil, making marks, can be achieved without the label.
A secondary function would be a leveling slab under a slab on grade whose function is to
prepare subgrade-a secondary function. The slab's basic function is to "support load." If the
leveling slab were removed, you could still support load.

Defining Functions : -

Functions are defined by using a verb (active if possible) and a noun (measurable
if possible). Everything that exists has a function(s) that can be defined in the two words, verb-
noun form. Thus VE methodology can be applied to everything.
Functions can be defined at various levels of indenture. For example, the function
of a store is to sell merchandise. The next higher-order function is to generate sales, and the next
higher order function would be to generate profits. At the project level, a value engineer asks,
"What is the function of the building?" For a prison, the project function might be to confine
convicts; for a hospital, to treat patients; for a school, to teach students.
Unless the VE is done at the early program phase, the probability of success for
the value engineer working on the higher-order project function(s) of the project is relatively
slim. However, this does not mean that the VE team should not challenge the project function(s)
if there are strong feelings about it. Working at the lower level of indenture, however, provides
greater opportunity for savings, because implementation does not depend on major project
changes.
For example, if a prison, hospital, or school project were to include a cafeteria,
one might explore alternative ways to feed people and achieve implementation with a higher
success rate than working on alternatives to teaching students.

Chapter: - 8 Value Engineering Job Plan

Introduction: -
 The VE job plan can be applied to any subject. It is a mechanism for guiding a
study from inception to conclusion. By adhering to certain formalities, the VE job plan ensures
that consideration is given to all necessary facets of the problem.
The VE job plan breaks out the task being studied into functions. It provides time
for the essential creative work and its necessary analysis so that the best choices can be made for
further development. The job plan leads to the establishment of an effective program aimed at
the selection of best value alternatives. It concludes with specific recommendations, the
necessary data supporting them, a list of implementing actions, a proposed implementation
schedule, and a required follow-up procedure.
The job plan is normally organized by a value team leader. It is typically
conducted in eight sequential phases:
1. Orientation Phase
2. Information Phase
3. Function Analysis Phase
4. Creative Phase
5. Evaluation Phase
6. Development Phase
7. Presentation Phase
8. Implementation Phase
The Orientation Phase is conducted to prepare for the value analysis. This phase,
which may last several weeks, lays the groundwork for an efficient and productive study by
refining the problem statement, collecting much of the data needed, and organizing for the efforts
to follow.
The value study comprises Phases 2 through 7 of the job plan. The more
analytical steps in the value methodology, the phases typically performed in a workshop setting
involving all stakeholders. Systematic pursuit of the methodologies within these phases leads to
recommendations for improving the existing situation and thereby increasing value for everyone
involved. They conclude with a presentation of recommendations for improvement to the
decision-maker.
The Implementation Phase occurs after the value study is over and decisions have
been made. It monitors the approval process and implementation of the action plan. The name of
the phase may be slightly misleading. Project approval is normally not given solely on the basis
of the brief presentation that occurs at the conclusion of the workshop. Approval will usually be
obtained after the completion of follow-up actions such as providing more data and meeting with
others. Implementation itself begins after the final approval is granted.
Figure 5 depicts each phase of the job plan. It lists the questions that each phase is
designed to answer and identifies the activities performed. This chart is discussed in detail in
Chapter V, where each phase is described.
Although the job plan divides the study into a distinct set of work elements,
judgment is necessary to determine the depth to which each phase is performed as a function of
the resources available and the results expected. The VE program in the Defense Department
does not necessarily use all the steps of the job plan. In fact, the only requirement for the
Government is that a change made to improve the value (i.e., performance and/or cost) of a
required function be based on a function analysis to determine the best value. For example, an
activity supporting the DoD Component Breakout, Competition, or Spares Management
 initiatives may be a relevant use of VE. From a contractor perspective, any analysis leading to an
approved VECP is applicable.

A. ORIENTATION PHASE: -

The purpose of the Orientation Phase is to refine the problem and prepare for the
value study. Although a problem area may have been identified, the value study or workshop has
a far greater likelihood of success if ample preparation time has been devoted to
(1) Determining what aspects of the problem will be addressed in detail and
(2) Preparing everything needed for the analysis itself.
Throughout these preparatory activities, a close working relationship between the
value team leader and the manager sponsoring the project also contributes significantly to a
successful outcome.
The following subsections describe the activities that occur during the Orientation
Phase. Note that the activities may occur in an order different from that shown here. Some
activities may also be repeated or may occur simultaneously if other people are supporting the
team leaders efforts.
Note that the first five activities represent one systematic approach to refining the
problem. The job plan itself can also be used entirely in the context of the Orientation Phase as a
formal project planning tool.
i. Identify the Specific Issues To Be Addressed

The problem area should be divided into its constituent elements. Each element
should represent a specific issue that can be addressed and resolved. Consider the Navys
Standard missile program. The program office found itself in a situation where missile demand
was level, but the price was increasing while budgets were decreasing. Of the three controllable
constituent elements of missile cost (production, development, and logistics), production costs
were determined to be the most fruitful area for further investigation, primarily because trade-
offs could be made between cost and performance. In fact, the production costs could readily be
broken down into smaller and smaller constituent elements to form the basis of individual VE
projects.
Identifying such specific issues is accomplished by developing an understanding
of the sponsors problems and avoiding areas that the sponsor would not be able change because
of political, cultural, or feasibility implications. Once the problems are understood, they can be
addressed at varying levels of detail. At this stage of the value methodology, enough detail is
needed to obtain a general grasp of potential VE projects.
ii. Assess the Potential Gains for Resolving Each of These Issues

The purpose of this activity is to identify issues that have the greatest potential for
value improvement. Solution areas postulated this early in the process should be used for this
purpose only. Such solutions should not inhibit creative activities applied later in the job plan to
generate alternatives.
The assessment of the potential gains for resolving issues should be as
quantitative as possible; however, at this stage of the analysis, estimates will be crude. While it
may not be too difficult to develop a reasonable understanding of the costs involved, savings
 estimates are much more problematical since no solution has been developed. Some information
is normally available, however.
In the Standard Missile example, one of the VE projects involved the transceiver
assembly. One potential solution was replacing the assembly with a less costly one. Savings
estimates were very difficult since the characteristics of the new assembly were unknown.
Another potential solution involved developing a higher component level of aggregation. Here,
savings would be generated by eliminating tests.
iii. Prioritize the Issues

While prioritization should take into account the potential gains, it should also
consider the likelihood of determining an effective solution and the feasibility of implementing
that solution. In the case of the transceiver assembly for the Standard missile, the second
potential solution, developing a higher component level of aggregation, was much more
straightforward and had a higher likelihood of success than replacing the assembly with one less
costly, the first potential solution.
Understanding the importance of the problem to the project sponsor is also a key
factor. If the sponsor is determined to solve the problem, the likelihood of success is enhanced.
Once management commitment is understood, it is useful to ask why a problem has not been
solved before.
The answer to this question may identify roadblocks to be overcome. Knowing
what stands in the way of a solution is another important feasibility consideration that should
enter into the prioritization process. Finally, other benefits such as performance improvement
should also be taken into account.
iv. Draft a Scope and Objective for the Value Study

The study teams efficiency is significantly enhanced when limits are established
in advance. More than one of the constituent problem elements may be included in the scope.
The scope must be approved by the study sponsor. Ultimately, the scope and objective will be
finalized in the Information Phase. This preliminary work will expedite that process.
v. Establish Evaluation Factors

Targets for improvement should be challenging, and evaluation factors must be

measurable. They determine the relative importance of the ideas and potential solutions
generated by the team. Both improvement targets and evaluation factors must be approved by the
study sponsor.
vi. Determine Team Composition

Essential characteristics for team members include technical or functional

expertise, problem-solving and decision-making ability, and interpersonal skills. Participants
should be team players who are willing to share responsibilities and accountability while
working together toward a common objective. The team should also be multidisciplinary and
include all factions affected by the study to ensure that relevant stakeholders and experts are
included. Kaufman suggests that because gathering all the information needed to make a no-risk
decision is impossible, a multidisciplinary team should provide enough different perspectives to
at least substantially reduce the risk.
 The team should ideally have no more than 12 participants. After the team
members have been selected, the team leader should prepare a management memorandum to be
sent to all team members to:
Emphasize the importance of their role,
Approve the necessary time commitment,
Authorize sharing of any objective and subjective data that bear on the problem, and
Identify the team leader
vii. Collect Data

The team leader organizes the data-collection activities in advance of the

workshop. As more information is brought to bear on the problem, the probability of substantial
benefit increases. To increase the study teams productivity, collect as much data as possible in
advance. It is often beneficial to involve the entire team in the data-collection effort. Some team
members may have key information readily available to them.
The data should be as tangible and quantitative as possible; they should include
anything potentially useful for
(1) Understanding the problem,
(2) Developing solutions, and
(3) Evaluating pros and cons of the solutions.
The paramount considerations are getting enough facts and getting them from
reliable sources.
In addition to possessing specific knowledge of the item or process under study, it
is important to have all available information concerning the technologies involved and to be
aware of the latest technical developments pertinent to the subject being reviewed.
Developing alternative solutions and ranking them depend on having cost data.
Data on customer and user attitudes also play a key role.
Part of the VE study is aimed at identifying which aspect of the task holds the
greatest potential for payoff. This potential for payoff is a function of the importance to the user
and customer. The seriousness of user-perceived faults is also a factor in prioritization.
viii. Prepare Logistically for the Value Study

The value study facilitator, who may also be the team leader, is responsible for
preparing the team to participate in the value study. Initially, brief meetings with potential team
members may be held to determine who should participate. The team leader/facilitator should:
Ensure participants know what data they should bring,
Set up study facilities and prepare materials (easels, markers, etc.),
Set up kickoff briefing and results briefing with management, and
Obtain an example of a study item for the team to use.
Pre-study reading materials should be identified and distributed to participants.
Documents that may be assigned as advanced reading include the agenda, operational
requirements documents, design documents, performance requirements, production quantities,
inventory data, failure/quality information, and others necessary to ensure consistent
understanding of the issues.
It may be useful to schedule a pre-workshop orientation meeting to:
Review workshop procedures;
Acquaint people with the problem and the read-ahead material;
 Eliminate incorrect preconceived notions about VE, the job plan, the workshop itself, the
problem, the people, and so on;
Jump-start the team-building process;
Clarify acceptable and unacceptable behaviors (rules of the road) for team member
participation; and
Identify additional information needs.
It is a good idea to set the date reasonably far in advance (4 to 6 weeks) to allow
personnel to arrange their schedules around the study. When a workshop setting is used, the
value study typically takes 3 to 5 days.

B. INFORMATION PHASE

The purpose of the Information Phase is to finalize the scope of the issues to be
addressed, targets for improvement, and evaluation factors while building cohesion among team
members. In many respects, the Information Phase completes the activities begun in the
Orientation Phase. This work is normally carried out in the workshop setting and is therefore
usually the first opportunity for all team members to be together. Consequently, it is important to
use the Information Phase to motivate the team to work toward a common goal.
Finalizing the scope of the issues to be addressed, targets for improvement,
evaluation factors, and data collection are ideal endeavors for building that cohesion. The
specific activities are described in the following subsections.

i. Establish Workshop Rules of the Road

This activity is the beginning of the team-building process; the facilitator should
ensure that all team members know each other and their relevant backgrounds, authority, and
expertise. Some authors (e.g., Stewart) suggest team-building exercises be conducted at the
beginning of the Workshop. The following guidelines should be established to set the stage for an
effective working relationship among the team members:
Share workload equally whenever possible.
Be willing to admit that you do not know something, but strive to get the answer. Do not be
afraid to make mistakes.
Stay focusedoff tangentsand follows the basic problem-solving steps. Do not waste time
discussing whether or not you should use each step; do it and evaluate it all after you have
completed the entire workshop. Be sure you understand the approach and its purpose, including
the reason for each step and the technique being applied. Keep the discussions relevant.
Do the job together as a team. Do not force your solutions, sell them! Remember, there can be
more than one solution to a problem.
Be a good listener; do not cut people off and do not second-guess what other people are about
to say and what they are thinking.
Keep an open mind and do not be a roadblock.
Be enthusiastic about the project and what it is that you are doing.
Do not attempt to take over as a team leader; be as helpful as possible. Remember, the leader
already has a difficult job in trying to guide, control, and coordinate the overall effort.
 Accept conflicts as necessary and desirable. Do not suppress them or ignore them. Work them
through openly as a team.
Respect individual differences. Do not push each other to conform to central ideas or ways of
thinking.
Work hard. Keep the team climate free, open, and supportive.
Fully use individual and team abilities, knowledge, and experience.
Accept and give advice, counsel, and support to each other while recognizing individual
accountability and specialization.
ii. Finalize the Problem and the Associated Facts

Discuss the problem so that all team members achieve a consistent understanding
of the issues at hand. Work on specifics, not generalities. This approach also serves as a useful
team-building exercise.
The VE team should have gathered information consistent with the study schedule
before the start of the workshop. If possible, obtain physical objects (e.g., parts) that demonstrate
the problem. Where supported facts are not obtainable, the opinions of knowledgeable persons
may be used. Such people may be invited to participate in the workshop, or their opinions may
be documented.

The Information Phase is typically used to familiarize the team members with the
data and the data sources in the context of defining the problem. The keys are:
Get up-to-date facts,
Get facts from the best sources,
Separate facts from opinion, and
Question assumptions.
Having all of the pertinent information is the ideal situation, but missing
information should not preclude the performance of the VE effort.
Quality Function Deployment is a structured approach to defining customer needs
or requirements and translating them into specific plans to produce products or develop
processes to meet those needs. Ball suggests that Quality Function Deployment techniques can
be beneficial in the Information Phase because a better understanding of customer requirements
leads to a better understanding of function.
iii. Refine the Scope

The problem at hand often requires more time than the workshop schedule
permits. In these cases, it is important to re-scope the problem to ensure that the most important
elements are examined during the workshop. Plans for continuing the effort on the balance of the
problem can be made at the end of the workshop.
Once the scope is determined and the final set of facts are collected from the best
possible sources of data, targets for improvement and evaluation factors should be reexamined
and finalized. The study sponsor should approve any changes.
 C. FUNCTION ANALYSIS PHASE

The purpose of the function analysis phase is to identify the most beneficial areas
for study. The analytical efforts in this phase form the foundation of the job plan. The disciplined
use of function analysis is the principal feature that distinguishes the value methodology from
other improvement methods. The following subsections describe the activities in the Function
Analysis Phase.
i. Determine the Functions

For the product or process under study, this activity encompasses determining 40
to 60 functions that are performed by the product or process itself or by any of the parts or labor
operations therein. Functions are defined for every element of the product or process that
consumes resources. The functions are typically recorded on adhesive backed cards for later
manipulation.
A function is defined as the natural or characteristic action performed by a
product or service. Unstructured attempts to define the function(s) of an item will usually result
in several concepts described in many words. Such an approach is not amenable to
quantification. In VE, a function must be defined by two words: an active verb and a measurable
noun.
The verb should answer the question, What does it do? For example, it may generate, shoot,
detect, emit, protect, or launch. This approach is a radical departure from traditional cost-
reduction efforts because it focuses attention on the required action rather than the design. The
traditional approaches ask the question, What is it? and then concentrate on making the same
item less expensive by answering the question, How do we reduce the cost of this design?
The noun answers the question, What does it do this to? The noun tells what is acted upon,
(e.g., electricity, bullets, movement, radiation, facilities, or missiles). It must be measurable or at
least understood in measurable terms, since a specific value must be assigned to it during the
later evaluation process that relates cost to function.
A measurable noun together with an active verb provides a description of a work
function (e.g., generate electricity, shoot bullets, detect movement, etc.). They establish
quantitative statements. Functional definitions containing a verb and a non-measurable noun are
classified as sell functions. They establish qualitative statements (e.g., improve appearance,
decrease effect, increase convenience, etc.). It is important to provide the correct level of
function definition. For example, the function of a water service line to a building could be stated
as provide service. Service, not being readily measurable, is not amenable to determining
alternatives. On the other hand, if the function of the line was stated as conduct fluid, the noun
in the definition is measurable, and alternatives dependent upon the amount of fluid being
transported can be readily determined.
The system of defining a function in two words, a verb and a noun, is known as
two-word abridgment. Advantages of this system are that it:
Forces conciseness. If a function cannot be defined in two words, insufficient information is
known about the problem or too large a segment of the problem is being attempted to be defined.
Avoids combining functions and defining more than one simple function. By using only two
words, the problem is broken down into its simplest element.
 Aids in achieving the broadest level of dissociation from specifics. When only two words are
used, the possibility of faulty communication or misunderstanding is reduced to a minimum.
Focuses on function rather than the item.
Encourages creativity.
Frees the mind from specific configurations.
Enables the determination of unnecessary costs.
Facilitates comparison.

ii. Classify the functions

The second major activity in the Function Analysis Phase is to group the functions
into two categories, basic and secondary.
The basic function is the required reason for the existence of an item or a product,
and answers the question, What must it do? Basic functions have or use value:
A basic function is the primary purpose or most important action performed by a
product or service. The basic function must always exist, although methods or designs to achieve
it may vary.
A product or service may possess more than one basic function. This is
determined by considering the users needs. A non-load-bearing exterior wall might be initially
defined by the function description enclose space. However, further function analysis
determines that, for this particular wall, two basic functions more definitive than the above exist;
they are secure area and shield interior. Both answer the question: What does it do?
Secondary functions answer the question What else does it do? Secondary
functions are support functions and usually result from the particular design configuration.
Generally, secondary functions contribute greatly to cost and may or may not be essential to the
performance of the primary function:
A function that supports the basic function and results from the specific design
approach to achieve the basic function. As methods or design approaches to achieve the basic
function are changed, secondary functions may also change.
There are four kinds of secondary functions:
1. Requireda secondary function that is essential to support the performance of the basic
function under the current design.
2. Aesthetica secondary function describing esteems value.
3. Unwanteda negative function caused by the method used to achieve the basic function such
as the heat generated from lighting which must be cooled.
4. Sella function that provides primarily esteem value. For marketing studies, it may be the
basic function.
Secondary functions that lend esteem value (convenience, user satisfaction, and
appearance) are permissible only insofar as they are necessary to permit the design or item to
work or sell. Therefore, they sometimes play an important part in the marketing or acceptance of
a design or product. Value analysis separates costs required for primary function performance
from those incurred for secondary functions to eliminate as many non-value-added secondary
functions as possible, improve the value of the remaining ones, and still provide the appeal
necessary to permit the design to sell.
iii. Develop Function Relationships
 Two principal techniques have been developed to create a better understanding of
functional relationshipsa Function Hierarchy Logic model and the Function Analysis System
Technique (FAST). This handbook concentrates on the customer-oriented FAST approach and
the use of the FAST diagram. FAST was developed by Charles W. Bytheway of the Sperry Rand
Corporation and introduced in a paper presented at the 1965 National Conference of the Society
of American Value Engineers in Boston.
Since then, FAST has been widely used by Government agencies, private firms,
and VE consultants. FAST is particularly applicable to a total project, program, or process
requiring interrelated steps or a series of actions. The basic customer-oriented FAST steps are
briefly described below.
Step 1determine the task function: A FAST diagram begins with the basic functions on the
top and the secondary functions on the bottom. A task function is that function which fulfills the
overall needs and wants of the userin other words, is the main reason for the existence of the
product or process in the eyes of the customer or user. If the task function is among the basic
functions already identified, it should be pulled to the left side of the FAST diagram. If it does
not exist, it must be created. Determining the task function is not always an easy process. For
instance, the most offered task function for a cigarette lighter is lights cigarettes. This,
however, immediately stumbles over the obvious question, What about pipes and cigars? An
alternative might then be generates flame. However, the electrical resistance lighter in a car
only emits energy. It becomes apparent that the thought process must focus in either one
direction or another to develop a multiplicity of two-word abridgements from which one or more
levels may be chosen as the level of the primary functions to be studied.
Step 2Identify the primary basic functions: Select the basic functions that directly answer
the question How does (the product or process) perform the task function? If all direct answers
are not among the existing basic functions, create a new one. All of these primary basic
functions are grouped at the top of the first column to the right of the task function.
Step 3identify the primary supporting functions: All customer-oriented FAST diagrams
contain primary supporting functions that assure dependability, assure convenience, satisfy the
user, or attract the user. In the FAST diagram, place all of the primary support functions to the
right of the task function, below the primary basic functions.
Step 4Expand the FAST diagram to the right: Keep asking how (the product or process)
does this from the viewpoint of a user. Most answers will be found among the existing functions.
Add second, third level, and lesser functions as needed, but dont expand a function unless the
how question is answered by two or more functions. Both primary basic and primary
supporting functions should be expanded in this way. Repeating the how question in this way
is sometimes called the ladder of abstraction method. It is a thought-forcing process. Because
using more than one definition can generate more creative ideas, this approach leads to greater
fluency (more ideas), greater flexibility (variety of ideas), and improved function understanding
of the problem.
Step 5verify the FAST diagram: The FAST diagram (see Figure 6) is verified by driving
ones thinking up the ladder of abstraction. Asking why raises the level, making the function
description more general.
In practice, the desired level is one that makes possible the largest number of feasible
alternatives. Since the higher levels are more inclusive, affording more opportunities, what is
desired is the highest level that includes applicable, achievable alternatives. A practical limit to
the why direction is the highest level at which the practitioner is able to make changes. If the
 level selected is too low, alternatives may be restricted to those resembling the existing design. If
the level is too high, it may obscure achievable alternatives and suggest alternatives that are
beyond the scope of effort.

Figure 6. Illustrative Customer-Oriented FAST Diagram

iv. Estimate the Cost of Performing Each Function

All VE efforts include some type of economic analysis that is used to identify
areas of VE opportunity and provide a monetary base from which the economic impact of the
effort can be determined. The prerequisite for any economic analysis is reliable and appropriate
cost data.
Consequently, the VE effort should use the services of one or more individuals
who are skilled in estimating, developing, and analyzing cost data. The cost of the original or
present method of performing the function (i.e., the cost for each block of the FAST diagram) is
determined as carefully and precisely as possible given the time constraints for preparing the
estimate.
 The accuracy of a cost estimate for a product depends on the:
Maturity of the item,
Availability of detailed specifications and drawings, and
Availability of historical cost data.
Similarly, the accuracy of a cost estimate for a service depends on the:
People involved;
Time spent performing the service;
Waiting time; and
Direct, indirect, and overhead labor and material costs.
In some cases, a VE study will involve both products and services.
v. Determine the Best Opportunities for Improvement

The objective of this activity is to select functions for continued analyses. This is
often accomplished by comparing function worth to function cost, where value is defined by the
ratio of worth to cost. Thus function worth helps determine whether the VE effort will be
worthwhile and provides a reference point to compare alternatives. It can even be used as a
psychological incentive to discourage prematurely stopping the VE effort before all alternatives
are considered.
It is usually not necessary to determine the worth of every function. Cost data aid
in determining the priority of effort. Because significant savings potential in low-cost areas may
not be a worthwhile pursuit and high-cost areas may be indicative of poor value, the latter are
prime candidates for initial function worth determination. Costs are usually distributed in
accordance with Paretos Law of Maldistribution; that is, a few areas, the significant few,
(generally 20 percent or less) represent most (80 percent or more) of the cost. Conversely, 80
percent of the items, the insignificant many, represent only 20 percent of total costs. Figure 7
illustrates this relationship.

Figure 7. Paretos Law of Maldistribution

A technique for developing the worth of functions developed in the early days of
value analysis and still effective today is comparing the selected function to the simplest method
or product that can be imagined. A technique to assign worth of functions that has become
increasingly popular is to ascertain the primary material cost associated with the function.
The value calculation can be done in many ways. For example, some workshop
facilitators use a ratio of percent relative importance to percent of cost. In this approach, all
 functions are evaluated pairwise, with different numbers assigned to reflect the relative
importance of the two functions being compared (e.g., 3 may mean a large difference in
importance, 1 may mean a small difference in importance). A relative importance is calculated
for each function individually as the sum of the relative importance scores that function received
when it was ranked higher than another function in the pairwise comparisons. The percent
relative importance is calculated by converting the individual function relative importance
scores to a percentage of the total. The percent of cost is the cost of a function relative to the
total cost of all functions. Snodgrass suggests another approach based on high, medium, and low
scores for function acceptance, function cost, and function importance.
Whatever approach is used, the best opportunities for improvement are
determined by improving functions having excessively low ratios of worth to cost. This ratio is
referred to as the value index.

vi. Refine Study Scope

As a final activity in the Function Analysis Phase, the study scope is refined to
reflect the changes that have taken place.

D. CREATIVE PHASE (SPECULATION PHASE)

The purpose of the Creative Phase is to develop a large number of ideas for
alternative ways to perform each function selected for further study. The two approaches to
solving a problem are analytical and creative. In the analytical approach, the problem is stated
exactly and a direct, step-by-step approach to the solution is taken. An analytical problem is one
that frequently has only one solution that will work. The creative approach is an idea-producing
process specifically intended to generate a number of solutions, each of which solves the
problem at hand. All solutions could work, but one is better than the others; it is the optimum
solution among those available. Once a list of potential solutions is generated, determining the
best value solution is an analytical process (as discussed in the latter phases of the job plan).
Creative problem-solving techniques are an indispensable ingredient of effective
VE. By using the expertise and experience of the study team members, some new ideas will be
developed. The synergistic effect of combining the expertise and experience of all team members
will lead to a far greater number of possibilities. The subsections that follow describe the
activities in the Creative Phase (also called the Speculation Phase).

i. Discourage Creativity Inhibitors

For these processes to work well, mental attitudes that retard creativity must be
overcome. The facilitator should point out creativity inhibitors to the study team. Awareness of
these inhibitors encourages people to overcome them. Parker identifies the following as common
habitual, perceptual, cultural, and emotional blocks to creativity:
Habitual Blocks:
- Continuing to use tried and true procedures even though new and better ones are available.
- Rejection of alternative solutions those are incompatible with habitual solutions.
- Lack of positive outlook, lack of effort, conformity to custom, and reliance on authority.
Perceptual Blocks:
- Failure to use all the senses for observation.
- Failure to investigate the obvious.
- Inability to define terms.
- Difficulty in visualizing remote relationships.
- Failure to distinguish between cause and effect.
- Inability to define the problem clearly in terms that will lead to the solution of the real
problem.
Cultural Blocks:
- Desire to conform to proper patterns, customs, or methods.
- Overemphasis on competition or cooperation.
- The drive to be practical above all else, thus making decisions too quickly.
- Belief that all indulgence in fantasy is a waste of time.
- Faith only in reason and logic.
Emotional Blocks:
- Fear of making a mistake or of appearing foolish.
- Fear of supervisors and distrust of colleagues.
- Too much emphasis on succeeding quickly.
- Difficulty in rejecting a workable solution and searching for a better one.
- Difficulty in changing set ideas (no flexibility) depending entirely upon judicial (biased)
opinion.
- Inability to relax and let incubation take place.
The following list adapted from Thirtys good idea killers could also be pointed out to the team
as attitudes to avoid:
It is not realistic.
It is technically impossible.
It does not apply.
It will never work.
It does not correspond to standards.
It is not part of our mandate.
It would be too difficult to manage.
It would change things too much.
It will cost too much.
Management will never agree.
We do not have time.
We have always done it that way.
We already tried it.
We never thought of it that way.
We are already too far.
It should be emphasized that the Creative Phase does not necessarily identify final
solutions or ideas ready for immediate implementation. It often provides leads that point to final
solutions.
Beginning the Creative Phase with a creativity-stimulating exercise can also be
useful. Kaufman and McCuish report a threefold increase in ideas with the use of such a
stimulus.
ii. Establish Ground Rules

The ground rules for creative idea generation, as adapted from Parker, are summarized as
follows:
Do not attempt to generate new ideas and judge them at the same time. Reserve all judgment
and evaluation until the Evaluation Phase.
Focus on quantity, not quality. Generate a large quantity of possible solutions. As a goal,
multiply the number of ideas produced in the first rush of thinking by 5 or even 10.
Seek a wide variety of solutions that represent a broad spectrum of attacks upon the problem;
the greater number of ideas conceived, the more likely there will be an alternative that leads to
better value.
Freewheeling is welcome. Deliberately seek unusual ideas.
Watch for opportunities to combine or expand ideas as they are generated. Include them as new
ideas; do not replace anything.
Do not discard any ideas, even if they appear to be impractical.
Do not criticize or ridicule any ideas. (It may be useful to turn the tables on criticism by, for
example, maintaining a criticizer list or imposing a mock penalty on criticizers.)

iii. Generate Alternative Ideas

In this phase of the study, it is important to generate a free flow of thoughts and
ideas for alternative ways to perform the functions selected for study, not how to design a
product or service. While creativity tools are available for problem-solving situations, no specific
combination of techniques is prescribed for all VE efforts, nor is the degree to which they should
be used predetermined.
The selection of specific techniques and the depth to which they are used is
primarily a matter of judgment and varies according to the complexity of the subject under study.
The following describes some idea-generation techniques commonly used in the
VE context:
Brainstorming. Brainstorming is a free-association technique groups use to solve specific
problems by recording ideas individuals in the group spontaneously contribute. Brainstorming is
primarily based on the premise that one idea suggests others, and these suggest others, and so on.
Brainstorming could be done by an individual, but experience has shown that a group can
generate more ideas collectively than the same number of persons thinking individually. Sperling
has suggested combining group and individual brainstorming. He found that after the group
brainstorming process was complete, individual brainstorming can generate additional ideas of
comparable quality.
Gordon Technique. The Gordon technique is closely related to brainstorming. The principal
difference is that no one except the group leader knows the exact nature of the problem under
consideration. This difference helps avoid premature ending of the session or egocentric
involvement. A participant may cease to produce additional ideas or devote energy only to
defending an idea if convinced that one of the already proposed ideas is the best solution to the
problem. It is more difficult to select a topic for such a session than for a brainstorming session.
 The subject must be closely related to the problem at hand, but its exact nature must not be
revealed until the discussion is concluded.
Checklist. This technique generates ideas by comparing a logical list of categories with the
problem or subject under consideration. Checklists range in type from the specialized to the
extremely generalized.
Morphological Analysis. Morphological analysis is a structured, comprehensive system for
methodically relating problem elements to develop new solutions. In this approach, the problem
is defined in terms of its dimensions or parameters, and a model is developed to visualize every
possible solution. Problems with too many parameters rapidly become intractable.
Attribute Listing. This approach lists all the various characteristics of a subject first and then
measures the impact of changes. By so doing, new combinations of characteristics (attributes)
that will better fulfill some existing need may be determined.
Input-Output Technique. The input-output technique (1) establishes output, (2) establishes
input as the starting point, and (3) varies combinations of input/output until an optimum mix is
achieved.
Theory of Inventive Problem Solving (TRIZ). TRIZ is a proven management tool whose use
will increase with greater awareness of its capabilities. The methods and tools are embodied in a
five-step process: problem documentation and preliminary analysis; problem formulation;
prioritization of directions for innovation; development of concepts; and evaluation of results.
Dull points out that VE and TRIZ have strengths and weaknesses. Combining these two
problem-solving methodologies can create synergies that lead to more robust and comprehensive
results, especially for more technically complex projects where the added benefit is worth the
effort. He suggests it is easier to integrate TRIZ into the VE job plan than vice-versa and
provides an example of a way to do so. Clarke goes into greater detail in the Creative Phase by
suggesting how TRIZ can be used to augment traditional brainstorming. Ball supports Clarkes
conclusion: This is a much more intensive method of identifying potential solutions than
generally used in a VM study.
When using any one of these techniques, review (and rearrange) the elements of
the problem several times. If possible, discuss the problem with others to get a new viewpoint.
Try different approaches if one technique is not effective. Before closing the book on possible
solutions, take a break to allow time for subconscious thought on the problem while consciously
performing other tasks.

E. EVALUATION PHASE

The purpose of the Evaluation Phase is to refine and select the best ideas for
development into specific value improvement recommendations. Ultimately, the decision-maker
should be presented with a small number of choices. In the Creative Phase, there was a conscious
effort to prohibit judgmental thinking because it inhibits the creative process. The Evaluation
Phase must critically assess all the alternatives to identify the best opportunities for value
improvement. This phase is not the last chance to defer ideas; detailed cost-benefit analyses
conducted in the Development Phase lead to the final set of choices presented to the decision-
maker. The following subsections describe the activities in the Evaluation Phase.
i. Eliminate Low Potential Ideas

Eliminate ideas that are not feasible, not promising, or do not perform the basic
function. A useful approach to this activity is to classify the ideas into three categories:
Yes: These ideas appear to be feasible and have a relatively high probability of success.
Maybe: These ideas have potential but appear to need additional refinement or work before
they can become proposals.
Not Now: These ideas have little or no potential at this time.
At this point, eliminate only the not now ideas.

ii. Group Similar Ideas

Group the remaining ideas into several (three or more) subject-related categories.
Examine the ideas to determine if they should be modified or combined with others.
Sometimes the strong parts of two different ideas can be developed into a winning
idea. In other cases, several ideas may be so similar that they can be combined into a single all-
encompassing idea. Some workshops employ a forced relationships technique that deliberately
attempts to combine ideas from the different subject-related categories in order to discover new,
innovative alternatives.

iii. Establish Idea Champions

The remaining activities in this phase are designed to prioritize the ideas for
further development. An idea champion is a study team member who will serve as a proponent
throughout the prioritization process. If an idea has no champion, it should be eliminated at this
point.

iv. List the Advantages and Disadvantages of Each Idea

Identify advantages and disadvantages of each idea. At a minimum include

relative ease of change, cost, savings potential, time to implement, degree to which all
requirements are met, and likelihood of success. Try to anticipate all of the effects, repercussions,
and consequences that might occur in trying to accomplish a solution.
It is also useful to suggest how to overcome the disadvantages. No matter how
many advantages an idea has, disadvantages that cannot be overcome may lead to its rejection.

v. Rank the Ideas

Develop a set of evaluation criteria to judge the ideas using the factors considered
when listing advantages and disadvantages (e.g., cost, technical feasibility, likelihood of
approval, time to implement, and potential benefit). Rank the ideas according to the criteria
developed. No idea should be discarded; all should be evaluated as objectively as possible.
Ratings and their weights are based on the judgment of the people performing the evaluation.
Techniques such as evaluation by comparison, numerical evaluation, or team consensus may be
used. Chang and Liou suggest using a simplified risk identification and analysis process to
 evaluate the performance of alternatives and combine these results with criteria weights to
determine the best alternatives for further development.
This initial analysis will produce a shorter list of alternatives, each of which has
met the evaluation standards set by the team. At this point in the Evaluation Phase, it may be
useful to adapt an idea suggested by Pucetas for the Creative Phase. Pucetas recommends using
Force Field Analysis to measure the sensitivity of the VE team regarding controversial project
issues. For the higher ranked ideas, the VE team should suggest ways to improve upon the
disadvantages and enhance the advantages.
This exercise can lead to the following potential benefits:
Ideas may be revised to improve their potential for success.
Insight into implementation issues may be obtained from the suggested ways to improve the
disadvantages.
Insight into the acceptability of the idea and the likelihood of management approval may be
derived from suggested ways to enhance the advantages.
This approach can therefore serve as a basis for distinguishing among the higher
ranked ideas (i.e., re-ranking them) and consequently simplifying and strengthening the process
of selecting ideas for further development.

vi. Select Ideas for Further Development

Typically, a cutoff point is established for identifying ideas for further

development. If there is a natural break in quantitative evaluation scores, a cutoff point may be
obvious. If only qualitative evaluation scores are used, or quantitative scores are very close, a
more refined ranking scheme may be needed to make the selection. However, if several
alternatives are not decisively different at this point, they should all be developed further.
Alternatives with the greatest value potential will normally be among those
selected. If that is not the case, reexamine those ideas to determine whether they should also be
developed further. It is also useful to retain at least one idea from each of the subject-related
categories used to group ideas at the beginning of the Evaluation Phase.

F. DEVELOPMENT PHASE

The purpose of the Development Phase is to determine the best alternative(s)

for presentation to the decision-maker. In the Development Phase, detailed technical analyses are
made for the remaining alternatives. These analyses form the basis for eliminating weaker
alternatives. The activities in this phase are described in the following subsections.

i. Conduct a Life-Cycle Cost Analysis

Life-cycle cost is the economic measure of value. A life-cycle cost analysis must
rank all remaining alternatives according to an estimate of their life-cycle cost-reduction
potential relative to the present method. Cost estimates must be as complete, accurate, and
consistent as possible to minimize the possibility of error in assessing the relative economic
 potential of the alternatives. Specifically, the method used to cost the original or present method
should also be used to cost the alternatives.
Be thorough in identifying all costs. For the originating organization, costs may
include:
New tools or fixtures;
Additional materials;
New assembly instructions;
Changes to plant layout and assembly methods;
Revisions to test and/or inspection procedures;
Retraining assembly, test, or inspection personnel;
Reworking parts or assemblies to make them compatible with the new design; or
Tests for feasibility.
Other costs not normally incurred by the originating activity but that should be
considered include:
Technical and economic evaluation of proposals by cognizant personnel;
Prototypes;
Testing the proposed change, including laboratory, firing range, and missile range charges;
Additional Government-furnished equipment that must be provided;
If applicable, retrofit kits (used to change design of equipment already in field use);
Installation and testing of retrofit kits;
Changes to engineering drawings and manuals;
Training Government personnel to operate and maintain the new item;
Obtaining new and deleting obsolete Federal stock numbers;
Paperwork associated with adding or subtracting items from the Government supply system;
Maintaining new parts inventory in the supply system (warehousing);
Purging the supply system of parts made obsolete by the change; and
Changing the contract work statements and specifications to permit implementation of the
proposal.
It is not always possible to determine the precise cost of certain elements of a
change. For example, it is difficult to obtain the actual cost of revising, printing, and issuing a
page of a maintenance manual. Nevertheless, this is a recognized item of cost, because the
manual must be changed if the configuration of the item is changed. It is common practice to use
a schedule of surcharges to cover areas of cost that defy precise determination. Such a schedule
is usually based on the average of data obtained from various sources.
It is easier to compare alternatives using a constant dollar analysis in lieu of a
current dollar approach. This permits labor and material cost estimates to be based on current
operational and maintenance data and eliminates the need to figure out how they would inflate in
some future year. Therefore, the net present worth of each of the alternatives should be
calculated, but only after there is management agreement on the following two factors:
The discount rate to be used. This is the difference between the inflation rate assumed and the
time value of money (interest rate).
The length of the life cycle. This is the number of years of intended use or operation of the
object being studied.
The Office of Management and Budget Circular A-94, Guidelines and Discount
Rates for Benefit-Cost Analysis of Federal Programs, provides annual guidance on appropriate
discount rates to use. Normally, the Defense Department allows a period of 1520 years as a
 reasonable life cycle. However, program or command may have guidance for a particular
situation.

ii. Determine the Most Beneficial Alternatives

Certain key questions should be answered as part of this effort:

What are the life-cycle savings?
Do the benefits outweigh the costs?
What are the major risks?
How can the risks be mitigated?
Are there any outstanding technical issues?
If more than one alternative offers a significant savings potential, it is common to
recommend all of them. One becomes the primary recommendation and the others are alternative
recommendations, usually presented in decreasing order of saving potential. Take other non-
quantified benefits into account.
The VE team should consult with personnel knowledgeable about what the item
must do, the operational constraints it faces, how dependable the item must be, and what
environmental conditions it must operate under. Technical problems related to design,
implementation, procurement, or operation must be determined and resolved.

iii. Develop Implementation (Action) Plans

The implementation plan for each alternative should include a schedule of the
steps required to implement the idea, who is to do it, the resources required, the approval
process, the documents needed, the timing requirements, coordination required, and so on.
Anticipate problems relating to implementation and propose specific solutions to each.
Particularly helpful in solving such problems are conferences with specialists in relevant areas.
When needed, testing and evaluation should be planned for and scheduled in the
recommended implementation process. Occasionally, a significant reduction in implementation
investment is made possible by concurrent testing of two or more proposals. Also, significant
reductions in test cost can often be achieved by scheduling tests into other test programs
scheduled within the desirable time frame. This is particularly true when items to be tested are a
part of a larger system also being tested. However, care must be exercised in instances of
combined testing to prevent masking the feasibility of one concept by the failure of another.

G. PRESENTATION PHASE

The purpose of the Presentation Phase is to obtain a commitment to follow a

course of action for initiating an alternative. A presentation to the decision-maker (or study
sponsor) is made at the conclusion of the workshop. This presentation is normally the first step
 (not the last step) in the approval process. Typically, a decision to implement is not made at the
time of the briefing. Additional steps include:
Answering additional questions,
Collection of additional data,
Review of supporting documentation, and
Involvement of other decisions-makers.
The sole activity in this phase is preparation of a presentation to encourage
commitment. An oral presentation can be the keystone to selling a proposal. It should make an
impact and start the process of winning management and other stakeholder support. The
presentation gives the VE team a chance to ensure that the written proposal is correctly
understood and that proper communication exists between the parties concerned. The
presentations effectiveness will be enhanced if:
The entire team is present and is introduced;
The presentation lasts no longer than 20 minutes with time for questions at the end;
The presentation is illustrated using mockups, models, slides, vu-graphs, or flip charts; and
The team is prepared with sufficient backup material to answer all questions during the
presentation.
The presentation should:
Describe the workshop objectives and scope,
Identify the team members and recognize their contributions,
Describe the before and after conditions for each alternative,
Present the costs and benefits/advantages and disadvantages/impact of each alternative,
Identify how to overcome roadblocks,
Demonstrate the validity of the data sources, and
Suggest an action plan and implementation schedule.
Many suggestions may be offered to improve the probability of success and
reduce the time required for acceptance and implementation of proposals. Those that appear to be
most successful are as follows:
Consider the reviewers needs. Use terminology appropriate to the training and experience of
the reviewer. Each proposal is usually directed toward two audiences. First is the technical
authority that requires sufficient technical detail to demonstrate the engineering feasibility of the
proposed change. Second are the administrative reviewers for whom the technical details can be
summarized while the financial implications (implementations cost and likely benefits) are
emphasized. Long-range effects on policies, procurement, and applications are usually more
significant to the administrator than to the technical reviewer.
Address risk. Decision-makers are often more interested in the risk involved in making a
decision than the benefits or value that might be achieved. Do not confuse decision-making risk
with technical risk. Decision-making risk encompasses the uncertainty and complexity generated
from making change. Therefore, consider the organizational culture and behavior when
characterizing the recommendation.

Relate benefits to organizational objectives. If the proposal represents advancement toward

some approved objective, it is most likely to receive favorable consideration from management.
Therefore, the presentation should exploit all the advantages a proposal may offer toward
fulfilling organizational objectives and goals. When reviewing a proposal, the manager normally
seeks either lower total cost of ownership or increased capability at the same or lower cost. The
 objective may be not only savings but also the attainment of some other mission-related goal of
the manager.
Show collateral benefits of the investment. Often, VE proposals offer greater benefits than the
cost improvement specifically identified. Some of the benefits are collateral in nature and may be
difficult to quantify. Nevertheless, collateral benefits should be included in the proposal. The
likelihood of acceptance of the proposal is improved when all its collateral benefits are clearly
identified and completely described.
The Presentation Phase should end with a list of actions leading to approval:
Preparation and submission of a final workshop report with all the necessary supporting
documentation,
Briefings to other key stakeholders, and
A schedule for a follow-up meeting to approve the proposal.

H. IMPLEMENTATION PHASE

The purpose of the Implementation Phase is to obtain final approval of the

proposal and facilitate its implementation. Throughout this phase, it is useful to keep in mind
factors that contribute to successful change:
The VE/VA techniques provide an excellent method for planned and managed
change. However, even when the job plan is applied well, challenges to the change process occur
due to individual differences and human interpretation. At each stage of the change process, a
number of varying responses may be expected from individuals involved throughout the
organization. These responses range from active support to resistance. One of the approaches that
have demonstrably improved the chances for success of the planned change and reduced reactive
resistance is to let people in on the actionto participate in the decision-making process.
Fraser goes on to note the five factors Kolb and Boyatzis have identified as most
highly related to goal achievement: awareness, expectation of success, psychological safety,
measurability of the change goal, and self-controlled evaluation.
VE is ideally suited to meeting these challenges. The following subsections depict
a typical sequence of events.

i. Prepare a Written Report

It is unusual to base a decision only on the basis of an oral presentation;

supporting documentation is normally required. Therefore, the results of the study should also be
documented in written form. Failure to provide adequate documentation is a prime factor in
proposal rejection.
Oral presentation of study results is most helpful to the person who is responsible
for making the decision; however, it should never replace the written report. A written report
normally demands and receives a written reply; whereas oral reports can be forgotten and
overlooked after they are presented. In the rush to wrap up a project, promote a great idea, or
save the laborious effort of writing a report, many proposals have fallen by the wayside because
the oral presentation came first and was inadequate. The systematic approach of the VE job plan
 must be followed all the way through to include the meticulous and careful preparation of a
written report. Like any other well-prepared staff report, this final report should:
Satisfy questions the decision-maker is likely to ask,
Provide assurance that approval would benefit the organization,
Include sufficient documentation to warrant a favorable decision with reasonable risk factors
(both technical and economic), and
Show how performance is not adversely affected.
The report should be accompanied by a team letter that summarizes the
recommendation and action plan. This letter should also request action from the sponsor. Send
the letter and the report to all stakeholders.

ii. Enhance the Probability of Approval

Approval of a proposal involves change to the status quo. Because of this, or other
pressing priorities, a manager may be slow in making a decision. The manager who makes an
investment in a VE study expects to receive periodic progress reports before a final decision is
made. Regular reporting helps ensure top management awareness, support, and participation in
any improvement program. Therefore, it is advisable to discuss the change with the decision-
makers or their advisors both before and after submitting the final report. This practice
familiarizes key personnel with impending proposals and enables a more rapid evaluation. Early
disclosure may also serve to warn the originators of any objections to the proposal. This early
warning will give the originators opportunity to incorporate explanations and details into the
final report to overcome the objections. These preliminary discussions often produce additional
suggestions that improve the proposal and enable the decision-maker to contribute directly.
Implementation depends on the expeditious approval by the decision-makers in
each organizational component affected by the proposal. The VE team should become liaisons
between decision-makers and stakeholders by preparing information that weighs the risk against
the potential reward and thinking about potential roadblocks to determine, in advance, how they
should be overcome.
Some organizations have found it helpful to convene an implementation meeting
with all stakeholders. Once tentative decisions have been made, this meeting is used to help
everyone understand which proposals or modified proposals have been accepted, rejected, or will
be studied further.
In some cases, the tentative decisions are changed based on a clarification of a misunderstood
assumption.

iii. Monitor Progress

Implementation progress must be monitored just as systematically as the VE

study. It is the responsibility of the VE study team to ensure that implementation is actually
achieved. A person could be given the responsibility of monitoring deadline dates in the
implementation plan and the process for obtaining any implementation funding.

iv. Expedite Implementation

 To minimize delays in the implementation process, use the knowledge gained by
those who originated it. The VE team should be called on to provide assistance, clear up
misconceptions, and resolve problems that may develop. In addition, where possible, the VE
team should prepare first drafts of documents necessary to revise handbooks, specifications,
change orders, drawings, and contract requirements. Such drafts will help to ensure proper
translation of the idea into action and will serve as a baseline from which to monitor progress of
final implementation. The VE team should review all implementation actions to ensure
communication channels are open and that approved ideas are not compromised by losing their
cost effectiveness or basis for original selection.

v. Follow-up

The final activity of the Implementation Phase includes several diverse tasks that
foster and promote the success of subsequent VE efforts:
Obtain copies of all complete implementation actions,
Compare actual results with original expectations,
Submit cost savings or other benefit reports to management,
Submit technical cross-feed reports to management,
Conduct a lessons-learned analysis of the project to identify problems encountered and
recommend corrective action for the next project,
Publicize accomplishments,
Initiate recommendations for potential VE study on ideas evolving from the study just
completed, and
Screen all contributors to the effort for possible receipt of an award and initiate
recommendation for appropriate recognition.
 Chapter:-11Fast Diagramming, Life Cycle Cost

Cost: -The basic anatomy of cost consists of three elements. They are:
1. Direct material cost
2. Direct labor cost
3. Overhead cost

Direct material cost: -

It is the material which goes into the product, process, service or system. The
method of identification of this element of cost is that it should have a direct relation with the
unit. If for one unit it requires x quantity, for two units it should take 2x quantity.
It may so happen that a material which is not a direct material in one item may be
a direct material in another item. It is wise to find as much direct material as possible, but in
actual situation, it may not be feasible.

Direct labor cost: -

Based on the mentioned logic, direct labour cost is that cost which can be directly
attributed to the item, that is, if one unit requires 1 hour then two units should take 2 hours.

Overhead cost: -

While the first two costs are easily comprehensible, the third requires more
elaboration. The cost elements which cannot be directly associated with a product, process,
service or system are considered as overhead. In the absorption costing method, the overhead is
divided into:

1. Production overhead
2. Administrative overhead
3. Selling and distribution overhead

Managements are interested to use the past cost to take future action. But this
absorption method may not be so helpful for doing that. In order to use the cost for future
 decision making, marginal cost came into being. Marginal cost is not a method of costing; it is
a technique. As per this technique, overhead costs are divided into:

1. Variable overhead
2. Semi-variable overhead
3. Fixed overhead

Those overheads which have direct relation with the volume of production are
variable and those which are not are called fixed. It analyzes the effect of fixed cost on the
product, which will help in decision making.
To elaborate, let us take an example.
The fixed cost is Rs 10,000.
The variable cost is Rs 10.00 per unit.

At the production level of 10,000, the fixed cost per unit is Re1 and the product
cost will be Rs 11. If the production increases to 20,000 units, while the variable cost remains at
Rs 10, the fixed cost per unit will be Rs 0.50 and the product cost will reduce to Rs 10.50.

Life cycle costs: -

The Life cycle cost, which is also known as cradle to grave cost, is the total cost
from acquisition of an item to the final disposal of the same after the life of the item. The
elements of Life cycle cost can be narrated as:
i. Acquisition cost
ii. Operational cost
iii. Maintenance cost
iv. Repair and replacement cost
v. Salvage cost
These costs arise at different times of the product cycle and need some
explanation.
i. Acquisition cost

It is not only the raw material cost for manufacturing of the item. It also includes
the drawing and design cost as well as development cost.

ii. Operational cost

Customer, after purchasing the item, may have to spend a certain amount of
money to use the item. It is like petrol/diesel cost for running a car. Such type of costs will fall in
this category.

iii. Maintenance cost

There is always a cost of involvement for the maintenance of the item. This is
because there may be some need to keep the item in good condition. It is like the change of
engine oil for the engine of a car.
iv. Repair and replacement cost

The item may have wear and tear, and may need repair after certain period of
time. There may be some components in the item which have a limited life and need to be
replaced. These costs will come under this category. Retreading a car tyre is a repair cost and
providing a new tyre is a replacement cost.

v. Salvage cost

The customer may sell the product and receive some amount in return. This
amount is called the salvage cost.
There are two methods of calculating the Life cycle cost. These are: -
1. Present worth Method
2. Annualized Method
Assumptions: -

The calculation of Life cycle cost needs the following assumptions:

i. The alternatives which will be compared through Life cycle cost should be equivalent to each
other. In other words, comparison with an apple to apple only.
ii. The acquisition cost is in the first day of the calendar year.
iii. All other costs are presumed to happen in the last day of the calendar year.
iv. Discounted rate is valid throughout the Life cycle. The cardinal rule is to use the same life span
for all the alternatives.

Procedures for Calculating the Life Cycle Cost

Present worth Method: -

i. Acquisition cost: Since the acquisition cost is in the first day of the calendar year, it is the
present worth and its Present worth factor is 1.

ii. Operation and maintenance cost: These costs take place every year. Using the discount rate
and the year when operation and maintenance cost recur, find out the Present worth factor.
Multiply the costs with those factors to achieve the present worth of the individual item.

iii. Repair and replacement cost: These are single payments which may happen at any time of the
life cycle. Using the discount rate and the year when repair and replacement cost recur, find out
the Present worth factor. Multiply the costs with those factors to achieve the present worth of the
individual item.
iv. Salvage value: This will happen at the end of the life cycle. This is the only item which is an
income, when all others are expenses. Using the discount rate and the year when it is being
salvaged, find out the Present worth factor. Multiply the salvage value with that factor to achieve
the present worth of the item.

v. Life cycle cost: To arrive at the Life cycle cost, add all the items from serial number 1 to
3, then deduct item 4 from that total.

Annualized Method: -

i. Acquisition cost: Since the acquisition cost is in the first day of the calendar year, it is the
present worth. To get the annualized cost, it has to be multiplied by the Capital recovery factor
based on discount rate and the life of the items.

ii. Operation and maintenance cost: These costs happen every year. Hence, they do not
require any further treatment.

iii. Repair and replacement cost: These are single payments which may happen at any time of the
life cycle. Using the discount rate and the year when repair and replacement cost recur, find out
the Present worth factor. Multiply the costs with those factors to achieve the present worth of the
individual item. To get the annualized cost, it has to be multiplied by the Capital recovery factor
based on discount rate and the life of the items.

iv. Salvage value: This item will happen at the end of the life cycle. This is the only item which is
an income, when all others are expenses. Using the discount rate and the year when it is being
salvaged, find out the present worth factor. Multiply the salvage value with that factor to achieve
the Present worth of the item. To get the annualized cost, it has to be multiplied by the capital
recovery factor based on discount rate and the life of the items.

v. Life cycle cost: To arrive at the Life cycle cost, add all the items from serial number 1 to
3, then deduct item 4 from that total.

Limitations of Life cycle cost: -

 i. Life of the item: Determining the life of an item is difficult.

ii. Interest rate: The interest rate may not be same every year.

iii. Annual expenses: Annually operation and maintenance costs are assumed as the
expenses occurring at the end of the year while calculating the LCC. Intermediate
expenses are not taken into consideration.

iv. Quality/reliability: Not considering the quality and reliability of the item, since the focus
is only on costs. The lowest LCC item may not be a good quality item.

v. Aesthetic: Not focusing on the esteem value of the item. Hence, the lowest LCC item
may fail to add to the esteem of the owner even though it provides the use value.
vi. Comfort and safety: The comfort and safety of the customer are not considered while
determining the LCC. Hence, there is a chance that the lowest LCC item may not provide
sufficient comfort/safety resulting in poor value to the customer.

Function Analysis System Technique (FAST): -

History of FAST: -
Charles Bytheway, of SperryRands UNIVAC division, was not satisfied with the
way the basic function was identified. It was that constructive dissatisfaction and the subsequent
endeavor which created this powerful technique. He presented his new technique at the SAVE
Conference in 1965.
Any new concept always goes through evolution. The FAST diagram, started by
Charles Bytheway, also encounters various changes in order to make it more user-friendly and
understandable to all. Wayne Ruggles made a format in the year 1967, applying various aspects
of FAST diagramming. This was subsequently known as the Technical FAST Diagram. The
aspects included by Ruggles were:
i. Scope lines added
ii. Two basic questions: how and why
iii. Required and unrequired functions separated
iv. Functions entered in the columnar fashion

R.J. Park in 1968, incorporated the when logic to the Technical FAST Diagram.
Subsequently, Thomas J. Snodgrass and Theodore Fowler drew the FAST diagram using
the customers point of view in the year 1969. This diagram is now known as the Customer
Oriented
 FAST. It has only the left scope line and customers requirement is mentioned as task. It can be
narrated as:

i. Task defined
ii. Supporting functions established
iii. Supporting functions contribute to selling and acceptance
Definition of FAST: -
The FAST is a Systematic Diagramming Technique that logically identifies and
visually displays the necessary function to accommodate a design purpose.

Use of the FAST diagram: -

i. Organize random listing of functions

ii. Helps check for and identify missing function
iii. Simplifies the list of functions first generated
iv. Aids in identification of basic function
v. Aids in setting scope of the study
vi. Deepens understanding of the problem
vii. Demonstrates that a thorough team analysis has been made

Different types of FAST: -

i. Classic FAST
ii. Technically Oriented FAST
iii. Customer Oriented FAST

How to draw a FAST diagram: -

FAST diagram (Classic): -

1. Prepare a list of all functions.

2. Use verb and noun to define a function.
3. Write each function in a small card.
4. Involve the whole team in the diagramming exercise.
5. Select the card which appears to be a basic function.
6. Apply logical question how and why on selected function to determine functions to right
and left on this selected function.
7. Functions satisfying howwhy logic are Major Critical Path functions to be put in line.
8. Draw scope line (dotted line) on left side of basic function.
9. Place higher order functions on the left side of scope line.
10. Independent function can branch out from the function of the Major Critical Path.
11. Dependent function may come from the independent function. This path is called Minor
Critical Path.
12. Design objectives is placed above the basic function.
13. Right scope line (dotted) to be drawn left of function that is suitable input to the system.
14. Function right to the right side of right scope line is lower order/causative function (see Figure
8.1).

FAST diagram (technically oriented): -

1. Prepare a list of all functions.

2. Use verb and noun to define a function.
3. Write each function in a small card.
4. Involve the whole team in the diagramming exercise.
5. Select the card which appears to be basic function.
6. Apply logical question how and why on selected function to determine functions to right
and left on this selected function.
7. Functions satisfy howwhy logic are required secondary functions to be put in line.
8. Draw scope line (dotted line) on left side of basic function.
9. Higher order functions on the left side of scope line.
10. All time function to be placed in right hand top corner above critical path.
11. Design objectives is placed above the basic function.
12. Functions that happen at the same time placed below that function.
13. Right scope line (dotted) to be drawn left of function that is suitable input to the system.
14. Function right to the right side of right scope line is lower order/causative function (see Figure
8.2).

FAST diagram (customer oriented): -

1. Prepare a list of all functions.

2. Use verb and noun to define a function.
3. Write each function in a small card.
4. Involve the whole team in the diagramming exercise.
5. Select the card which appears to be basic function.
6. Apply logical question how and why on selected function to determine functions to right
and left on this selected function.
7. The logical question why to basic function will provide task.
8. Draw scope line (dotted line) on left side of basic function.
9. Task will be on the left side of scope line.
10. Support functions should be placed below the basic function.
11. There are four supporting functions at the primary level.
12. They are: assure convenience; assure dependability; satisfy user; attract user.
13. Each supporting function will branch out to secondary level function.
14. Secondary level functions will branch out to third level functions (see Figure 8.3).
Diagramming perspectives: -

1. The FAST diagramming is just a tool, which can be used to clarify the project.
2. The process in making the diagram is important, not the perfection of the resulting diagram. As
such there cannot be a unique FAST diagram.
3. The value engineering team can draw existing systems or existing designs, as well as propose
system and propose design.
Caution: -

Do not include alternatives and choices not in the existing system.

If one wants to use the FAST in the design stage, he should:

1. Restrict the diagram to a specific concept.

2. The method selected to perform a function brings many other functions into existence.
3. Use the future oriented questions.

Figure : Customer oriented FAST diagram