Permanent Magnet Motors
Permanent Magnet Motors
Permanent Magnet Motors
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The use of permanent magnets in construction of electrical machines brings the following benefits
No electrical energy is absorbed by the field excitation system and thus there is no excitation loss
which means substantial increase in the efficiency.
Higher torque and/or output power per volume than when using electromagnetic excitation.
Better dynamic performance than motors with electromagnetic excitation.
Simplification of construction and maintenance
Reduction of prices for some types of machines
4.2 PERMANENT MAGNET MATERIALS
There are three classes of permanent magnets currently used for electric motors
Alnicos (Al, Ni, Co, Fe);
Ceramics (Ferrites) e.g. Barium ferrite BaO x 6Fe2O3 and Strontium ferrite SrO x 6Fe2O3.
Rare earth materials i.e. Samarium cobalt SmCo and neodymium iron boron NdFeB.
4.3 TYPES OF PERMANENT MAGNET MOTORS DRIVES
There are three types of permanent magnet motor electromechanical drives they are
DC Commutator motor drives.
Brushless motor drives.
Square Wave Permanent magnet brushless motor drives (also called as PMBLDC).
Sine Wave Permanent magnet brushless motor drives (also called as PMSM).
Stepping motor drives.
4.4 APPLICATION OF PERMANENT MAGNET MOTORS
Permanent magnet motors are used in broad range from mWs to hundreds of KWs. There are also
attempts to apply PMs to large motors rated at minimum 1 MW. The application of PM electric motor
includes.
Industrial drives (e.g.) Pumps, Fans , blowers, compressors etc
Air-conditioning systems, Auto bank machines, Ticketing machines, Bar-code readers at
supermarkets etc.
Washing machines and cloth dryers, Vacuum cleaners, toys etc.
4.5 SQUARE WAVE PM BRUSHLESS MOTOR DRIVES (BLDC MOTORS)
4.5.1 Why brushless D.C.?
The brushless D.C. motor is shown in its most usual form in Figure 4.1 alongside the PM D.C.
commutator motor. The stator structure is similar to that of a polyphase a.c. induction motor. The function
of the magnet is the same in both the brushless motor and the D.C. commutator motor. In both cases the
air gap flux is ideally fixed by the magnet and little affected by armature current.
FIG. 4.1. (a) Brushless D.C. motor and (b) PM D.C. commutator motor.
The most obvious advantage of the brushless configuration is the removal of the brushes. Brush
maintenance is no longer required, and many problems associated with brushes are eliminated. For
example, brushes tend to produce RFI (radio-frequency interference) and the sparking associated with
them is a potential source of ignition in inflammable atmospheres. These problems should not be
overstated, however. RFI at least has the advantage of high frequency, so that filter components need not
be very large. This is not necessarily the case with the lower-order harmonics associated with the
commutation of the brushless motor. Commutator motors are quite commonly immersed in automobile
petrol tanks to drive the fuel pump. This shows that they are not automatically excluded from
'hazardous' environments.
The problems that arise with commutator motors are sometimes not so obvious. In some
applications the accumulation of brush debris or dust is a problem, particularly if it gets into the bearings
or if it forms a conducting track that leads to flashover. The operation and life of brushes depend on
factors such as atmospheric conditions, which may necessitate the use of different brush grades in the
same motor operating in different climates.
An advantage of the brushless configuration in which the rotor is inside the stator is that more
cross-sectional area is available for the power or 'armature' winding. At the same time the conduction of
heat through the frame is improved. Generally an increase in the electric loading is possible, providing a
greater specific torque. The efficiency is likely to be higher than that of a commutator motor of equal
size, and the absence of brush friction helps further in this regard.
The absence of commutator and brush gear reduces the motor length. This is useful not only as a
simple space saving, but also as a reduction in the length between bearings, so that for a given stack
length the lateral stiffness of the rotor is greater, permitting higher speeds or a longer active
length/diameter ratio. This is important in servo-type drives where a high torque/inertia ratio is required.
The removal of the commutator reduces the inertia still further
The brushless configuration DOES NOT COME WITHOUT SOME DISADVANTAGES. The
two main disadvantages relative to the commutator motor are
(i) The need for shaft position sensing and
(ii) Increased complexity in the electronic controller.
Also, the brushless motor is not necessarily less expensive to manufacture than the commutator
motor, which is perhaps slightly more amenable to automated manufacture.
4.5.2 CONSTRUCTION OF BLDC
STATOR
The stator of a BLDC motor consists of stacked steel laminations with windings placed in the
slots that are axially cut along the inner periphery. Traditionally, the stator resembles that of an
induction motor; however, the windings are distributed in a different manner. Most BLDC motors have
three stator windings connected in star fashion. Each of these windings is constructed with numerous
coils interconnected to form a winding. One or more coils are placed in the slots and they are
interconnected to make a winding. Each of these windings is distributed over the stator periphery to form
an even numbers of poles.
There are two types of stator windings variants: trapezoidal and sinusoidal motors. This
differentiation is made on the basis of the interconnection of coils in the stator windings to give the
different types of back Electromotive Force (EMF). As their names indicate, the trapezoidal motor gives a
back EMF in trapezoidal fashion and the sinusoidal motors back EMF is sinusoidal. In addition to the
back EMF, the phase current also has trapezoidal and sinusoidal variations in the respective types of
motor. This makes the torque output by a sinusoidal motor smoother than that of a trapezoidal motor.
However, this comes with an extra cost, as the sinusoidal motors take extra winding interconnections
because of the coils distribution on the stator periphery, thereby increasing the copper intake by the stator
windings.
ROTOR
The rotor is made of permanent magnet and can vary from two to eight pole pairs with alternate
North (N) and South (S) poles. Based on the required magnetic field density in the rotor, the proper
magnetic material is chosen to make the rotor. Ferrite magnets are traditionally used to make permanent
magnets. As the technology advances, rare earth alloy magnets are gaining popularity. The ferrite
magnets are less expensive but they have the disadvantage of low flux density for a given volume. In
contrast, the alloy material has high magnetic density per volume and enables the rotor to compress
further for the same torque. Also, these alloy magnets improve the size-to-weight ratio and give higher
torque for the same size motor using ferrite magnets. Neodymium (Nd), Samarium Cobalt (SmCo) and the
alloy of Neodymium, Ferrite and Boron (NdFeB) are some examples of rare earth alloy magnets.
Continuous research is going on to improve the flux density to compress the rotor further. Figure 4.2
shows cross sections of different arrangements of magnets in a rotor.
The rotational direction may be reversed by arranging the logic sequencer in such a way that when a photo
detector marked with a certain number is exposed to light, the transistor of the same number is turned
OFF. On the other hand, when a phototransistor is not exposed to light, the transistor of the same number
is turned ON. In the positional state of Figure.4.8, Tr2, 3, and 6 are ON, and the battery voltage E appears
at terminal V, while U and W have zero electric potential. Then, as shown in figure.4.11 (a), the magnetic
field in the stator is reversed, and the rotor's torque is counter-clockwise. After the motor revolves about
30o, Tr2 turns OFF and Tr1 turns ON. At this point, the field has revolved 60o and becomes as shown in
(b). As the rotor produces another counterclockwise torque, the counter-clockwise motion continues and
the field becomes as shown in (c). This action is replaced in the sequence of (a) (b)(c)(d)...... to
produce a continuous counter-clockwise motion.
Fig.4.11 Counter-clockwise revolutions of the stator's magnetic field and rotor
4.6 MAGNETIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS ON OPEN-CIRCUIT
Figure 4.12(a) shows the cross section of a two-pole brushless d.c. motor having high-energy rare-
earth magnets on the rotor. The demagnetization curve of the magnet is shown in Fig. 4.12(b). The axial
length of both the stator and the rotor is / = 50 mm. First we will consider the open-circuit case that is with
no stator current.
Whenever magnetic circuits are used to analyse a magnetic field, the first task is to identify the
main flux paths and assign reluctances or permeances to them. The brushless D.C. motor is very amenable
to this kind of analysis. The left half of Fig. 4.12(a) shows the expected flux pattern and Fig. 4.12(c)
shows the equivalent magnetic circuit. Only half of the equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 4.12(c); the
lower half is the mirror-image of the upper half about the horizontal axis, which is an equipotential. It is of
course permissible to simplify the circuit in this way only if the two halves are balanced. If they are not,
the horizontal axis might still be an equipotential but the fluxes and magnetic potentials in the two halves
would be different, and there could be residual flux in the axial direction, i.e. along the shaft. In practice
axial flux is undesirable because it can induce current to flow in the bearings; in some cases this results in
accelerated wear. In the following, the steel core of the stator and the rotor shaft are assumed to be
infinitely permeable. Each magnet is represented by a 'Norton' equivalent circuit consisting of a flux
generator in parallel with an internal leakage permeance (Fig. 4.12(c))
Fig. 4.12. Simple magnetic circuit analysis of BLDC motor, (a) Motor cross section and flux pattern,
(b) Magnet demagnetization curve, (c) Magnetic equivalent circuit.
0 rec Am
r = Br Am ; Pmo = (4.1)
lm
Where Am is the pole area of the magnet; lm is the magnet length in the direction of magnetization (in this
case its radial thickness); and Br is the remanent flux-density. rec is the relative recoil permeability, that
is, the slope of the demagnetization curve divided by 0). In this case the outer pole area is larger than the
inner pole area, but to keep the analysis simple we will take the average. With a magnet arc of 120
degrees,
2 l
Am = r1 g m l. (4.2)
3 2
Most of the magnet flux crosses the air gap via the air gap reluctance Rg
g'
Rg = (4.3)
0 Ag
Where g is the equivalent air gap length allowing for slotting. The slotting can be taken into account by
means of Carter's coefficient, in which case
g ' = K c g ( 4 .4 )
The air gap area Ag is the area through which the flux passes as it crosses the gap. The precise boundary of
this area is uncertain because of fringing, both at the edges of the magnet and at the ends of the rotor. An
approximate allowance for fringing can be made by adding g at each of the four boundaries, giving
2 g
Ag = r1 + 2 g (l + 2 g ) (4.5)
3 2
The remaining permeance in the magnetic circuit is the rotor leakage permeance Pr1, which represents the
paths of magnet flux components that fail to cross the air gap. The rotor leakage permeance is difficult to
estimate because the flux paths are not obvious. An accurate evaluation of rotor leakage is possible only
with numerical techniques such as the finite-element method. With the configuration shown, the rotor
leakage permeance is quite small, typically 5-20 per cent of the magnet internal permeance, and it is
convenient to include it in a modified magnet internal permeance by writing
Pm = Pmo + Pr1 = Pmo (1 + Pr1 ) (4.6)
Where pr1 is the normalized rotor leakage permeance, i.e., normalized to Pmo
The magnetic circuit can now be solved. Equating the m.m.f. across the magnet to the m.m.f. across the air
gap,
Fm =
( g )
= g Rg , g =
r
(1 + Pm Rg ) (4.7)
r
Pm
Now that we know the magnetic flux-density, it is easy to solve for the magnetizing force Hm in the
magnet using the demagnetization characteristic, Fig. 4.12(b). Mathematically the result is
Br Bm
Hm = A / m (4.11)
o rec
The negative sign signifies a demagnetizing force and indicates that the magnet operates in the second
quadrant of the B-H curve, as expected.
The line drawn from the origin through the operating point in Fig. 4.12(b) is called the 'load-line' and the
absolute value of its slope, normalized to 0, is called the 'permeance coefficient', PC. The following
formula can be derived for PC
1 + Pr1 R g
PC = rec (4.12)
Pmo R g
The basic torque and e.m.f. equations of the brushless D.C. motor are quite simple, and resemble
those of the D.C. commutator motor. The following derivation attempts to encompass several
fundamental aspects of these two equations, so as to lay a foundation for understanding the control
characteristics and limitations, and the similarities and differences with other machines.
A simple 'concept machine' is shown in Fig. 4.14(a). Note that the two-pole magnet has a pole arc
of 180 degrees, instead of the 120 degrees analysed in the previous section. The air gap flux-density
waveform is ideally a square wave as shown in Fig. 4.14(b). In practice, fringing causes the corners to be
somewhat rounded. The coordinate axes have been chosen so that the centre of a north pole of the magnet
is aligned with the x-axis, i.e. at = 0.
The stator has 12 slots and a three-phase winding. Thus there are two slots per pole per phase.
Each phase winding consists of two adjacent full-pitch coils of N1 turns each, whose axes are displaced
from one another by 30 degrees. The winding is a single-layer winding, and any slot contains N1
conductors from only one phase winding. This winding is equivalent, in the active length, to a degenerate
concentric winding with only one coil per pole per phase, having a fractional pitch of 5/6. This is a more
practical winding than the one analysed because it has less bulky end windings and is generally easier to
assemble. For the same reason, its copper losses are lower.
Consider the flux-linkage 1 of coil a1A1 as the rotor rotates. This is shown in Fig. 4.14(c). Note
that now represent the movement of the rotor from the reference position in Fig. 4.14(a). The flux-
linkage varies linearly with rotor position because the air gap flux-density set up by the magnet is constant
over each pole-pitch of the rotor. Maximum positive flux-linkage occurs at 0 and maximum negative flux-
linkage at 180. By integrating the flux-density around the air gap, the maximum flux-linkage of the coil
can be found as
1max = N1 B( )r1d l = N1Bg r1 (4.15)
and the variation with as the rotor rotates from 0 to 180 is given by
1 ( ) = 1 1 max (4.16)
2
The e.m.f. induced in coil a1A1 is given by
d1 d d d1
e1 = = 1 = (4.17)
dt d dt d
This gives e1 = 2 N1Bg lr1[Volts ] (4.18)
Fig. 4.14(d). Note that the waveform of e.m.f. in this full-pitch coil with respect to time is an exact
replica of the flux-density waveform with respect to position around the rotor in Fig. 4.14(b).
The e.m.f. induced in the second coil of phase A is identical, but retarded in phase by 30. This is
shown in Fig. 4.14(e). If the two coils are connected in series, the total phase voltage is the sum of the two
separate coil voltages, and this is shown in Fig. 4.14(f). The basic effect of distributing the winding into
two coils is to produce a stepped e.m.f. waveform. In practice, fringing causes its corners to be rounded, as
shown by the dotted lines. The waveform then has the 'trapezoidal' shape that is characteristic of the
brushless D.C. motor. With 180 magnet arcs and two slots per pole per phase, the flat top of this
waveform is ideally 150 wide, but in practice the fringing field reduces this to a somewhat smaller value,
possibly as little as 120.
FIG. 4.14. Brushless D.C. motor with ideal waveforms of flux-density, e.m.f., and current, (a) Motor
showing two coils of one phase, (b) Magnet flux-density around the air gap. (c) Flux-linkage of coils 1
and 2 as the rotor rotates, (d) e.m.f. waveform of coil 1. (e) e.m.f. waveform of coil 2. (f) e.m.f. waveform
of phase a. (g) Ideal phase current waveforms, (h) Switching pattern of switches
The magnitude of the flat-topped phase e.m.f. is given by
e1 = 2 N ph Bg lr1[Volts ] (4.19)
Where Nph is the number of turns in series per phase. In this case
N ph = 2 N 1 (4.20)
because the two coils considered are assumed to be in series. In a machine with p pole-pairs, the equation
remains valid provided Nph is the number of turns in series per phase and is in mechanical radians per
second.
Figure 4.14(g) shows an ideal rectangular waveform of phase current, in which the current pulses are
120 electrical degrees wide and of magnitude I. The positive direction of current is against the e.m.f.,
that is, positive current is motoring current. The conduction periods of the three phases are
symmetrically phased so as to produce a three-phase set of balanced 120 square waves. If the phase
windings are star-connected, as in Fig. 4.15(a), then at any time there are just two phases and two
transistors conducting.
During any 120 interval of phase current the instantaneous power being converted from electrical to
mechanical is
P = Te = 2eI (4.21)
Fig 4.15 Converter or Inverter of BLDC motor (a) With star connected Phase Winding (b) With Delta
Connected Phase Winding
The '2' in this equation arises from the fact that two phases are conducting. Using the expression derived
above for the e.m.f., the electromagnetic torque is given by
Te = 4 N ph Bg lr1I [ Nm] (4.22)
This equation is valid for any number of pole-pairs. The similarity between the brushless motor
and the commutator motor can now be seen. Writing E=2e to represent the combined e.m.f. of two phases
in series, the e.m.f. and torques equations can be written in the form
E = K and T = KI (4.23)
k is the 'armature constant' and is the flux. These equations for e.m.f. and torque are exactly the same
as for the D.C. commutator motor; only the form of the constant k is different. It is clear that with ideal
wave shapes and with perfect commutation, these equations are true at all instants of time. The electronic
commutation of the converter switches has thus assumed the function of the mechanical commutator in the
commutator motor, to give a pure 'd.c.' machine with constant, ripple-free torque.
Where R is the sum of two phase resistances in series and E is the sum of two phase e.m.f.s in series. This
equation is exactly the same as that of the commutator motor. The voltage drops across two converter
switches in series are omitted, but they correspond exactly to the two brush voltage drops in series in the
commutator motor.
Using this equation together with the e.m.f. and torque equations, the torque/speed characteristic can be
derived as:
T
= 0 1 (4.25)
T0
FIG. 4.19. (a) Ideal sine wave brushless motor with pure sine-distributed phase winding and permanent-magnet rotor with sine-distributed
flux, (b) Turns/pole for two-pole winding, (c) Turns/pole for four-pole winding.
By integrating this expression over one-half of an electrical pole-pitch, i.e., from 0 to /2p, and noting
that one turn comprises two conductors in series, the number of turns per pole, Np, is determined to be
Ns
Np = ..................................................(4.30)
2
This means that if all the poles are connected in series, Ns is automatically equal to the number of turns in
series in the whole winding, i.e. the number of turns in series per phase. The poles will be assumed to be
so connected unless it is stated otherwise. The notional distribution of the 'turns per pole' is shown in Fig.
4.19(b) and (c) for two-pole and four-pole motors
In the following analysis the angle is in mechanical degrees or radians. The stator ampere-
conductor distribution is a sine-distributed current sheet of the same form as the conductor distribution,
such that in angle d the ampere-conductors flowing in the positive direction (out of the paper) are
Ns
i sin P .......................................................( 4.31)
2
The rotor magnet flux distribution is centered on its north d-axis, which is displaced by a positive angle a
from the axis of the stator winding:
B ( ) = B cos( P )..........................................( 4.32)
Here is expressed in electrical radians, which will prove convenient later. The force on the elementary
group of ampere-conductors is in the circumferential direction and is
Ns
F = B li sin p cos( p )d ...............................(4.32)
2
Together with the corresponding force on the opposite element, this force produces a couple 2Fr1 on the
stator. An equal and opposite couple acts on the rotor and the total electromagnetic torque on the rotor is
the integral of the elementary contributions over the whole airgap periphery: over p pole-pairs
p
T = p 2 Fr1d
0
N
= - 2r1 Bli s sin cos( )d
2 0
r1 BliN s
=- sin Nm................................(4.33)
2
Maximum Positive torque is obtained when = 2 that is with the rotor north d-axis 'lagging' 90
electrical degrees behind the axis of the stator ampere-conductor distribution.
This analysis has been carried out for a stationary stator winding. To produce a constant torque with the
rotor rotating at a steady speed, the stator ampere-conductor distribution must be made to rotate in
synchronism with the rotor. This is done exactly as in induction motors, by means of a poly phase winding
supplied with poly phase balanced currents. The most common number of phases is three, but two-phase
motors are sometimes built, and occasionally four, six, and nine-phase motors.
With p pole-pairs, if Np = Ns/2p is the number of sine-distributed turns per pole, the total number of turns
per phase is Ns. If the phase current flows through all these in series, then with balanced sine wave
currents and three phase windings whose axes are 120 electrical degrees apart, the rotating ampere-
conductor distribution can be derived as
N 2 N s 2
i cos t s sin P + i cos t sin P
2 3 2 3
2 N s 2 3 N
+ i cos t + sin P + = I 2 s sin (P t )............(4.34)
3 2 3 2 2
and the rotating magnet flux distribution is
B ( ) = B cos(P t )...................( 4.35)
The torque is obtained using the same expression as for the stationary winding, with p t substituted
for p , thus
3 r lB N s
T= I 2 1 sin ...............................(4.36)
2 2
Where = . The angle is called the torque angle, and is positive for motoring; it is measured in
electrical radians or degrees. If the phase winding is divided into 'a' parallel paths, then the equation
remains valid provided that I is the total phase current and there is no change in the total number of turns
per phase, i.e. Ns. (The number of turns in series per phase is then Ns /a.)
It is worth emphasizing that the flux-density B in the torque equation is the peak airgap flux-density
produced by the magnet acting alone; in other words, it is the open-circuit value and does not include any
contribution due to the m.m.f. of the stator currents. Although the armature-reaction m.m.f. modifies the
airgap flux-density, it does not figure in the torque expression unless it significantly affects the saturation
level of the magnetic circuit. Physically the stator may be regarded as being incapable of producing torque
on itself. The armature reaction flux is aligned with the stator ampere-conductor distribution and therefore
has an effective 'torque angle' of zero.
In normal operation the stator frequency (in rad/sec) is made equal to the rotation frequency (in electrical
rad/sec), i.e.,
= 2 f electrical rad/sec
and the mechanical angular velocity is
M =
p
The stator ampere-conductor distribution rotates in synchronism with the rotor and the torque angle is kept
constant, usually by means of a simple form of 'vector' control or 'field-oriented control' which requires a
shaft position sensor (i.e. encoder or resolver feedback). If the supply frequency and the rotation
frequency were unequal, the motor would be running asynchronously. No average torque would be
produced, but there would be a large alternating torque at the 'beat' frequency or pole-slipping frequency.
EMF Equations
The e.m.f. equation of the sine wave motor can be derived by considering the e.m.f. induced in the
elementary group of conductors in Fig. 4.19. Noting that Fig. 4.19 is drawn for a two-pole machine (p = l),
for a machine with p pole-pairs in series this e.m.f. is
Ns
de = B( )lm r1 sin p d .........................( 4.37)
2
But
B ( ) = B cos( p t )............................( 4.38)
and by integrating the contributions of all the elementary groups of conductors we get the instantaneous
phase e.m.f.:
p
B lr1 N s
e = 2p de = sin (t + )...................(4.39)
0
2p
B lr1 N s
E ph = Vr .m.s ..............................(4.40)
2 2 p
It is worth emphasizing again that the flux-density B is the peak airgap flux-density produced by the
magnet acting alone; in other words, it is the open-circuit value and does not include any contribution due
to the m.m.f. of the stator currents. The voltage drop induced by flux attributable to armature reaction is
dealt with below.
The e.m.f. equation can also be derived from Faraday's law. This alternative method is included here
because it is the basis of the phasor diagram and provides the means for calculating the inductive volt
drop due to armature reaction. Faraday's law is more rigorous than the BLV formulation, but it is useful
to show that for E both methods give the same result. By Faraday's law, the instantaneous e.m.f. induced
in the stationary phase winding of Fig. 4.19 is given by
d
e= V ......................................................( 4.41)
dt
Where is the instantaneous flux-linkage. To calculate the flux-linkage consider the coil formed by the
elementary group of conductors within the angle d at angle , and assume that the return conductors of
this coil are located within the angle d at angle - . Although Fig. 4.19 is drawn for a two-pole machine
(p = 1), the results are derived for p pole-pairs.
On open-circuit there is no current in the coil, and all the flux is due to the magnet. The flux through the
elementary coil is
= B( )r1ld Wb....................................(4.42)
But
B ( ) = B cos( p t )
B Dl
= sin p cos(t + ) Wb.....................(4.43)
p
Where D =2r1 is the stator bore. The flux per pole can be extracted from this expression by setting
= p and t = 0. Thus
B Dl
M = Wb................................(4.44)
p
This is a fixed flux that rotates with the rotor. The flux-linkage of the elementary coil is
N
d = s sin p d V s..........................(4.45)
2
The total flux-linkage of the winding is obtained by integrating the contributions of all the elementary
coils: with p pole-pairs the result is
p
M = p d = M cos(t + )V s..........................(4.46)
0
Where
B lr1 N s
M = = N sM V s..........................(4.47)
2p 4
The subscript 'M' has been added as a reminder that the flux is produced only by the magnet. By Faraday's
law the instantaneous phase e.m.f. is
d M
e= = M sin (t + )V..........................(4.48)
dt
The R.M.S. phase e.mf. is
M Blr1 N s
E ph = = Vr.m.s ..........................(4.49)
2 2 2 p
4.8 Torque-speed characteristics
Ideal motors were considered in the analysis above; in practice, the construction of the stator windings,
and particularly the effect of the stator's slots, has a significant effect on the motor's performance and
characteristics. In addition, the location of the magnets either mounted on the surface or within the body of
the rotor, has to be considered in detail.
The torque equation can also be expressed in the form;
pE p I sin
T= ....................(4.50)
s
and hence
mT = 3E p I sin .................( 4.51)
The overall torque-speed characteristics of the motor derived from this equation is shown in Figure 4.20.
The peak torque can be maintained up to the base speed. Above this speed, by modifying , the motor
will effectively enter a field weakening mode, allowing an increase in the speed at the expense of the peak
torque. The motor's efficiency is reduced in this region because the motor is being supplied with the peak
current.
4.9.1 CONSTRUCTION
A D.C. PM Commutator motor can be compared with a D.C. separately excited motor. The only
difference is in the excitation flux g in the air gap: for a PM motor g = const whilst for a separately
excited motor g can be controlled. This means that the speed of a standard D.C. PM commutator motor
can normally only be controlled by changing the armature input voltage or armature current. A typical
D.C. PM Commutator motor is shown in Fig. 4.1(b). By adding an additional field excitation winding, the
flux g as well as the speed can be changed in a certain limited range. Alnico PMs used to be common in
motors having ratings in the range of 0.5 to 150 kW. Ceramic magnets are now most popular and
economical in fractional horsepower motors and may have an economic advantage over Alnico up to
about 7.5 kW. Rare-earth magnet materials are costly, but are the best economic choice in small motors.
Magnetic circuit configurations of different types of PM D.C. commutator motors are shown in Fig 4.21.
There are four fundamental armature (rotor) structures:
Conventional slotted rotor (Fig. 4.2a).
Slot less (surface wound) rotor (Fig. 4.2b).
Moving-coil cylindrical rotor.
Moving-coil disk (pancake) rotor.
The slotted- and slot less-rotor PM commutator motors have armature windings fixed to the laminated
core. The armature winding, armature core and shaft create one integral part.
Figure 4.21: Construction of d.c. PM commutator motors with laminated- core rotors: (a) slotted rotor, (b) slot less rotor.
4.9.1.1 Slotted-rotor PM D.C. motors
The core of a slotted rotor is a lamination of silicon steel sheet or carbon steel sheet. The armature
winding is located in the rotor slots. The torque acts on the conductors secured in the slots and reinforced
by the slot insulation and epoxy resin. Thus a slotted rotor is more durable and reliable than a slot less
rotor (Fig. 4.2a). A core having many slots is usually desirable, because the greater the number of slots,
the less the cogging torque and electromagnetic noise. Cores having even numbers of slots are usually
used for the motors manufactured by an automated mass production process because of the ease of
production. From the motor quality point of view, ferromagnetic cores with odd numbers of slots are
preferred due to low cogging torque.
4.9.1.2. Slot less-rotor PM motors
Extremely low cogging torque can be produced by fixing the windings on a cylindrical steel core
without any slots (Fig. 4.2b). In this case the torque is exerted on the conductors uniformly distributed on
the rotor surface. However, the flux decreases in comparison with the slotted rotor since the gap between
the rotor core and the pole shoes is larger. Therefore, larger volume of PMs must be used to get sufficient
magnetic flux.
4.10 TORQUE AND EMF EQUATIONS
4.10.1 TERMINAL VOLTAGE
From the Kirchhoffs voltage law, the terminal (input) voltage is
V = E + I a Ra + Vbr .......................(4.52)
Where E is the voltage induced in the armature winding (back EMF), Ia, is the armature current, R a is
the resistance of the armature circuit and Vbr , is the brush voltage drop. The brush voltage drop is
approximately constant and for most typical D.C. motors is practically independent of the armature
current.
4.10.2 ARMATURE WINDING EMF
The EMF induced in the armature winding by the main flux g in the air gap is
N
E= pn g = cE n g ........................(4.53)
a
Where N is the number of armature conductors, a is the number of pairs of armature current parallel paths,
p is the number of pole pairs, g is the air gap (useful) magnetic flux, and
Np
cE = .........................................................( 4.54)
a
is the EMF constant or armature constant. For a. PM excitation K E = cE g = Cons tan t , thus3
E = K E n.........................................................(4.55)
The following relationship exists between the number of armature conductors N and the number of
commutator segments C:
N = 2CN c .........................................................(4.56)
Where NC is the number of turns per armature coil
4.10.3 ELECTROMAGNETIC (DEVELOPED) TORQUE
The electromagnetic torque developed by the D.C. commutator motor is
N p
Td = g I a = cT g I a ..............................................(4.57)
a 2
where
Np cE
cT = =
2a 2
is the torque constant. The electromagnetic torque is proportional to the armature current. PMs produce a
constant field flux g = const (neglecting the armature reaction). The developed torque is
Td = kT I a ..............................................( 4.58)
where
kT = cT g
Where Nph is the number of turns in series per phase. In this case N ph = 2N1
TORQUE EQUATION
Te = 4 N ph Bg lr1I [ Nm]
16. How PMSM differs from PMBLDC
The sine wave motor differs in all three respects. It has:
Sinusoidal or quasi-sinusoidal distribution of magnet flux in the air gap;
Sinusoidal or quasi-sinusoidal current waveforms;
Quasi-sinusoidal distribution of stator conductors; i.e. short-pitched and distributed or
concentric stator windings.
17. Write the EMF and Torque Equations of PMSM motors
EMF Equation Torque Equation
M Blr1 N s 3 r lB N s
E ph = = Vr.m.s T= I 2 1 sin
2 2 2 p 2 2
18. Draw the Speed torque Characteristics of PMSM motors