UNIT 10 DEWEY DECIMAL CLASSIFICATION (DDC)

Dewey Decimal Classification

(DDC)

Structure
10.0 Objectives
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Genesis of DDC
10.2.1 First Edition
10.2.2 Salient Features

10.3 Subsequent Editions

I0.3.1 Fifteenth Standard Edition
10.3.2 Sixteenth and Later Editions
10.3.3 Twentieth Edition
10.3.4 Abridged' DDC

1.0.4 Underlying Principles

10.4.1 Philosophical Basis
10.4.2 Classification by Discipline
10.4.3 Hierarchical Structure
10.4.4 Practicality

10.5 Revision Process

10.5.1 Phoenix Schedules
10.5.2 Organisational Set-up
10.5.3 Procedure of Revision
10.5.4 Use of DDC

10.6 DDC 19th Edition

10.6.1 Schedules
10.6.2 Notation
10.6.3 Tables
10.6.4 Relative Index
10.6.5 OtherFeatures
10.6.6 Synthetic Devices
10.6.7 Add to Device
10.6.8 Special Topics of General Applicability
10.6.9 Mnemonic Features
10.6.10 Optional Provisions

10.7 Evaluation
10.7.1 Order and Collocation of Classes
10.7.2 Improper Placement
10.7.3 Anglo-American Bias
10.7.4 Citation Order
10.7.5 Notation
10.7.6 Unevenness and Inconsistency
10.7.7 Reclassification due to Revision
10.7.8 Durability of DDC

10.8 Summary
10.9 Answers to Self Check Exercises
10.10 Key Words
10.11 References and Further Reading

10.1 OBJECTIVES
This Unit introduces you to the theory and practice of Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC).

Study of Selected Schemes of

Classification

After reading this Unit, you will be able to:

obtain an insight into the underlying principles and characteristic features of DDC;

assess the strengths and weaknesses of DDC; and

classify documents according to DDC 19th edition.

10.1 INTRODUCTION
You are now aware that library classification is indispensable tool for arranging
books and their entries by subject. Such an arrangement alone can ensure the
identification, and location of unknown items on a given subject in a collection.
Having studied the theoretical background presented in the previous Blocks, you are
now required to be familiar with three schemes of library classification one of which
is DDC. Dewey Decimal Classification is the most popular of schemes, at least in the
English-speaking world.
This Unit traces the origin, evolution and, growth of DDC over the past 120 years. It
specifically presents its outline in respect of subject classification, notation, other
devices and the mechanism of revision. The Unit also discusses its most lasting
contribution to library classification, viz., and the relative index. The Unit
particularly provides a detailed description of the 19th edition of DDC, which is
envisaged to serve as a study guide in practical work.
Lastly, the Unit evaluates DDC and points out both its strength and weaknesses.
In order to get the best out of this Unit, it is very necessary for you to- have access to
a set of DDC, 19th edition, for constant reference.

10.2

GENESIS OF DDC

Melvil Dewey was born in Adams Center, New York, on December 10th, 1851. He
was the son of a small storekeeper and, at the age of five, it is said that he rearranged
his mother's larder - which is the place where .provisions are stored - in a more
systematic manner. He came to librarianship through a process of self education, a
few years of teaching followed by higher studies at Oneida Seminary, Alfred
University, and finally at Amherst College. He obtained a post as student library
assistant in 1872 at the same college. In the following year, he put forward a plan for
rearranging the library in a more systematic way. He was promoted in 1874 to the
post of Assistant College Librarian. In 1876, he anonymously published his
classification scheme, which had far reaching effects. Apart from the classification
scheme, which bears his name, he also had many other contributions to his credit. He
became the first editor of the Library Journal in 1876,"a founder member of the
American Library Association in 1876 and later its first Secretary. He also founded
the first librarianship school in the United States (Columbia University) in 1887,
promoted the standard catalogue card (12.5 x 7.5 cm) and took an active interest in
all aspects of librarianship.

102.1 First Edition

The publication of a 42-piige pamphlet entitled A classification and subject index for
cataloguing and arranging the books and pamphlets of a library in 1876, heralded the
beginning of both DDC and library classification. This was the first edition, which
consisted of 12 pages of preparatory matter, 12 pages of tables and 18'pages of index,
a total of 42 pages. One thousand copies of this first edition were printed. It contained
nearly 1000 classes. It was, however, criticised as being too minute in its
subdivisions for a majority of libraries. Within a very short time it, nevertheless,
became extremely popular and was soon adopted by many libraries in the United
States and other countries. The original 42-page anonymous pamphlet culminated, in
the course of time, in a monumental work of over 3,000 pages. According to a recent
survey, over 85 per cent of all types of libraries in the USA and Canada use DDC. It
has been adopted in all five continents of the world.

10.2.2

Salient Features

Dewey Decimal Classification

(DDC)

Dewey was not the first to introduce subject arrangement of books in libraries.. He
was, however, the first to introduce the following innovative features in subject
arrangement:
1)
2)
3)
4)

The concept of relative location

Decimal notation
Detailed specification
Relative index

Relative location: It is difficult to think of relative location as an, innovation today,

as the principle is taken for granted now. Dewey introduced it when fixed location
was the practice. In those days, books were identified by their-location on the
shelves. A certain number of shelves and a block of accession numbers were
allocated to each subject in a library. Each book bearing only the accession number
would be placed on a particular shelf earmarked for it according to its subject. The
books were, thus, identified by their exact position, room, bay, tier, shelf and place
on the shelf. These shelf marks were given to books. Once allocated, the shelf mark
denoted the permanent home of a book in that library.
This arrangement was not satisfactory. With new acquisitions, it necessitated changes
in the shelves and their marking. This constant shifting and marking set Dewey in
search of a better alternative. Finally, Dewey found the answer to this problem in his
principle of relative location. Dewey ordered subjects in a sequence, assigned a
notation to them and marked books, and not shelves, with this notation. It was now
possible to interfile new accessions without disturbing the existing sequence. Each
book in a library secured a position in relation to other books in the same subject. I&
are aware that notation mechanises the arrangement of books on the shelves, that is, it
assigns a relative location to each book. This relative location could be easily
achieved because of another innovation introduced by Dewey, viz., decimal notation.
Decimal notation: The decimal notation used in DDC refers to the principle of
dividing each class into ten sub-divisions and each of these sub-divisions into another
ten sub-divisions and so on. This feature in DDC equipped it with a tremendous
capacity for expansion to accommodate minute sub-divisions without the necessity of
relocation. The first edition of DDC stopped with the division at the third place,
though it continued, as suggested by Dewey, to a fourth or fifth place, if necessary, in
the catalogue. The pure simplicity (f notation soon won popularity for the scheme.
Detailed specification: The relative location, combined with decimal notation, made
it easier to specify more detailed sub-divisions. Before Dewey introduced the idea of
relative location, the number of subject groups into which the books in a library could
be arranged was severely limited. Once the idea of moving books at any point to
accommodate additions was accepted, it became possible to specify more detailed
sub-divisions. Dewey listed nearly one thousand subjects in his first edition. The
DDC 19th edition, lists 21,504 classes (other than auxiliary tables) with provisions
for greater synthesis and is still considered not minute enough. By and large, the
development of DDC has been one of steady expansion with provision for increasing
the amount of detail.
Relative index: One of the objections to classified catalogue and systematic
arrangement had been the problem of knowing just where to look for a book. Dewey
provided the solution to this problem 'in the shape of the relative index. His relative
index showed exactly where to find a given topic. Another advantage of the relative
index was that it showed those aspects of a subject, 'Which the systematic order
scattered throughout the scheme. Yet another advantage of Dewey's relative index
was that it also listed the synonyms in many cases.
These innovations are now taken for granted in library classification. It is "very
important to remember, however, that it was not so when Dewey started his work.
Dewey's scheme was truby modern in many respects. He anticipated many of today's
developments including the principle of synthesis and facet structure, even though he
did not recognise them explicitly.

Study of Selected Schemes of

Classification

Self Check Exercise

1)

Having understood the genesis of the scheme, name the four innovative feature
of DDC.

Note: i) Write your answer in the space given below

ii) Check your answer with the answers given at the end of this Unit.

...

10.3 SUBSEQUENT EDITIONS

In 1885, the second edition of DDC appeared with the title Decimal Classification
and Relative Index under which title twelve more editions were published. The
second edition was much larger in size and more detailed than the first.
Twelve more editions appeared during the next 57 years at different intervals. The
intervals between editions ranged from two to 12 years. Development of DDC up to
the 14th edition was a progressive record of a clear policy pursued successfully by
Dewey throughout his life. These ' editions, the third through fourteenth, closely
followed the pattern set by the second edition. Progress was mainly in the direction of
ever increasing detail without much change in the basic structure of the scheme. The
later editions dutifully kept up the promise given that the numbers were settled.

10.3.1

Fifteenth Standard Edition

Special mention must be made of the fifteenth edition as it departed from the hitherto
followed policy of integrity of numbers. In 1951, the fifteenth edition appeared under
the editorship of Milton Ferguson, This was the first edition to be designated, on its
title page, as Dewey Decimal Classification and Relative Index. This edition halted
the process of extensive expansion without any true revision. Till the expansion had
not always been balanced and reflected a YN1=11 approach to revision. It was not
always based on literary warrant,
After publication of this edition it soon became clear that the changes, particularly
the relocations, proved too much for the practising librarians. Most of them did not
accept the new -15ditionand continued with the fourteenth. Criticism of the fifteenth
edition was fierce and vehement- Many critics even pronounced the scheme dead.

10.3.2

Sixteenth and Later Editions

The sixteenth edition appeared in 1958 edited by Benjamin Custer. This set, the
pattern of the seven-year revision cycle. This edition went back to the detailed
enumeration of the fourteenth edition and relocated some topics back to their original
places. But the better relocations of the fifteenth edition were retained. It continued
some of the innovative features of the fifteenth edition such as standard spelling,
current terminology and a pleasing typographical presentation The index was
published as a separate volume and was relatively more detailed than that of the
fourteenth edition. The sixteenth edition also contained the first of the Phoenix
schedules.
The seventeenth through nineteenth editions, also under the editorship of Custer,
were developed' along similar Tines. Each edition, while observing the policy of
integrity of numbers, shov,,3 concern to keep pace with knowledge within reasonable
bounds.

10.3.3

Twentieth Edition

The twentieth edition of DDC was published in 1989 and edited by J. P. Comaromi.
It is in four volumes: V-1 Introduction and Tables, V-2 Schedules (000-500), V-3
Schedules (600-90) and V-4 Relative Index and Manual. Each volume is separately
paginated. The four volumes together consist of 3a08 pages and as composed of the
following major parts.

Volume-1: This volume consists of the following three parts:

A.

Introduction: Introduces the user to DDC and provides instructions on how to use it.

B.

Tables; The seven auxiliary tables with notation that can be added to the class
,number in the schedules.

C.

Lists which compare Editions 19 and 20. Relocations, reductions, etc.

Dewey Decimal Classification

(DDC)

Volumes 2 and 3: These two volumes are the main body of the scheme.
V-2 (000-500), V-3 (600-900)
D.

Schedules - Knowledge organised from 001-999.

Volume 4: This volume consists of the following two parts:

E.

Relative Index: An alphabetical list of subjects found in the schedules and tables.

F.

Manual: It assists the classifier for classifying difficult areas.

In the development of DDC-20, the year 1988 witnessed two important events, which
had profound effect on the future of DDC. On July 29, 1988 a computer tape
containing substantially all the text of DDC-20 was delivered to a firm in
Massachusetts to begin production of this edition. The Forest Press and DDC became
part of Online Computer Library Centre (OCLC), the Ohio-based non-profit
organisation.
The twenty-first edition of DDC was published in 1996. The format is the same as
that of the 20th edition.

10.3.4

Abridged DDC

In order to meet the needs of small and slowly growing libraries, an abridged edition
of the scheme was issued in 1894. The abridgement was about two-fifths the size of
the fu edition. At present, the abridged version is in its eleventh edition. This eleventh
edition was published shortly after the nineteenth full edition. This parallel series of
abridged editions, intended for small libraries not requiring a high degree of
specificity, contains' notations rarely exceeding five digits. The abridged edition is
used by most of the school libraries and many small public libraries in the United
States of America. It is also widely used in other countries.

Self Check Exercise

2)

In which years were the 15th , 16th and 20th editions of DDC published?

Note: i) Write your answer in the space given below

ii) Check your answer with the answers given at the end of this Unit.

..

10.4

UNDERLYING PRINCIPLES

The introduction to the first edition of DDC contained no precise statement on

principles regarding the sequences of classes. Dewey acknowledged his indebtedness
to Natale Battezzati; Jacob Schwartz and W.T. Harris. From his reference to Harris,
the philosophical basis of DDC can be traced.

10.4.1

Philosophical Basis

The field of "library classification owes much to the contributions of logicians and
p
hilosophers: The roots of library classification are to be found in philosophy. This is
true of DDC also.

Study of Selected Schemes of

Classification

The division of the main classes was based on an earlier classification, developed by
Harris in 1870. This in turn is said to have been based on an inverted order of Francis
Bacon's chart of learning.

10.4.2 Classification by Discipline

It is commonly said that library classification groups together materials on the same
subject. It is an over simplification. Barring a few, most classification schemes are
based on the principle of classification by discipline. The distinctive feature of DDC,
from the beginning has been that the division of main classes and subclasses is based
on academic. disciplines or fields of study rather than the subjects. As a result, the
same subject may be classed in more than one place in the scheme. For example, the
subject copper may be classed in chemistry, metallurgy, mineralogy, chemical
technology and so on depending on the author's approach. This approach is known as
classification by discipline, which is different from one-place classifications. Dewey
Decimal Classification is an aspect classification, which distributes the subject
according to the context. For example, the chemical aspect of copper would be in
chemistry, the metallurgical aspect in metallurgy and so on. This approach of DDC
was probably correct, as subjects are approached from the discipline point of view by
most users in the majority of cases. This is -in contrast with the approach of Brown to
the problem of collocation in his Subject Classification.
In DDC, the Universe of Knowledge was divided into nine basic classes, viz.,
Philosophy, Religion, Sociology, Philology, Natural Science, Useful Arts, Fine Arts,
Literature and History. These classes were academic disciplines in Dewey's time.
Today, many of these main classes like Natural Science, Useful Arts, Sociology, etc.,
include several academic 'disciplines.

10.4.3

Hierarchical Structure

Dewey Decimal Classification is basically a hierarchical scheme, based on she

general principles of division. It begins with the Universe of Knowledge as a whole
and divides it into classes and subclasses at successive stages of division with a
certain characteristic as the basis at each stage. On the whole, the progression is from
the general to the specific, forming a hierarchical structure.
Due to the notation adopted, at each stage of division, only ten sub-divisions are
possible. Each class is subordinate to the level above it, superordinate to the level
below it and coordinate with classes at the same level, thus forming a hierarchical
structure.

10.4.4

Practicality

Dewey claimed that "everywhere, filosofic theory and accuracy have yielded to
practical usefulness". Thus, DDC has the heritage of pragmatism and commitment to
usefulness. Dewey and later the editors of DDC have been committed to meeting and
solving the problems of use. It is this quality which has contributed to the durability
of DDC.

Self Check Exercise

3)

What forms the basis of the outline of the main classes in DDC?

4)

Name the main principles adopted by DDC.

Note: i)

Write your answer in the space given below

ii)

10

Check your answer with the answers given at the end of this Unit.

...

10.5

REVISION PROCESS

Dewey Decimal Classification

(DDC)

One other factor which has contributed to the durability of DDC has been its
sustained programme of revision and updating. Revisions usually take the following
forms:

Expansion

Reduction

Relocation

Expansion is undertaken in order to accommodate new subjects as well as to provide

more minute and specific sub-divisions under the existing subjects. This is a
reasonable approach as most new subjects emerge as an outgrowth of an existing
field of knowledge. With increasing specialisation, library materials also tend to be
more specific and, thus, require more minute sub-divisions of the existing subjects.
Reduction consists discontinuing very rarely used existing sub-divisions. Such topics
are, then, classed with the more general topic.
Relocation of a number of existing subjects takes place in every new edition.

10.5.1

Phoenix Schedules

This is a piecemeal approach to bring DDC up-to-date. Certain schedules, which are
out of date and require drastic changes, are replaced with entirely new classifications.
The earlier schedules of some one or two major disciplines are destroyed and new
schedules are completely recast and their arrangement is remoulded in each of the
recent editions of DDC since the sixteenth edition. These new schedules rising out of
the ashes of the destroyed old schedules are called Phoenix schedules. The policy of
integrity of numbers is dispensed with and the entire schedule for a certain discipline
or topic is reconstituted without regard to the previous divisions. In recent editions,
the following schedules have been given the Phoenix treatment.
546 Inorganic chemistry and 547 Organic chemistry in the 16th edition.
130 Pseudapsychology, Parapsychology (occultism) and 150 Psychology in the 17th
edition.
340 Law and 510 Mathematics in the 18th edition.
301-307 Sociology, 324 Political process and -41 and -42 Area notations for Great
Britain.

10.5.2

Organisational Set-up

The responsibility for the maintenance of DDC rests with Forest Press, a wholly
owned subsidiary of the Lake Placid Education Foundation which Melvil Dewey set
up to carry on his work. Editorial work is carried out under contract at the Library of
Congress, though the Forest Press continues to market and publish DDC. In between
these two organisations is a group called DDC Editorial Policy Committee composed
of practising librarians and library educators who advise the Forest Press and the
editor on matters relating to revision.

10.5.3

Procedure of Revision

Each new edition is based on the previous edition. Taking into consideration the
response of the users to the immediately preceding as well as earlier editions, the
editors, in consultation with the DDC Editorial Policy Committee, determine which
schedules require what degree of revision and review. Major revisions are prepared
with the advice of subject experts. The main principle has been to, satisfy the needs
of diverse users who include practitioners in small and large public and research
libraries as well as teachers and students.
To keep users of DDC informed of developments regarding the scheme, DDC
Additions, Notes and Decisions is published at intervals. This bulletin is a useful
pointer to changes to be incorporated in due course in the DDC schedules.

11

Study of Selected Schemes of

Classification

10.5.4

Use of DDC

Though DDC was criticised often, it was adopted by libraries rapidly and widely both
at home and abroad. Surveys of the use of DDC prove this fact. Its use was so
substantial even by 1901 that in that year the American Library Association's Catalog
Section voted unanimously that DDC numbers should appear on the ensuing Library
of Congress printed catalog cards. Hence, due to mounting pressures from the
profession, an office was established in the Library of Congress in 1930 for assigning
DDC numbers to the titles catalogued by the Library. Following the LC example,
H.W. Wilson Company's catalog cards and standards catalogs, the ALA:S Book List,
R.R. Bowker's Publishers' Weekly and American Book Publishing Record, and,,,.,
later British National Bibliography's catalogue cards and bibliographies, started
providing DDC numbers to specific titles.
Self Check Exercise
5)

List the various forms of revision of DDC.

6)

What is a phoenix schedule?

Note: i) Write your answer in the space given below

ii) Check your answer with the answers given at the end of this Unit.

10.6

DDC 19TH EDITION

In pursuance of the seven-year revision cycle, the -nineftnth edition of DDC appeared
in 1979. The scheme continues the developments seen in the three previous editions.
It attempts to consolidate the generally accepted and well-received revisions and
additions included in the earlier two editions. In the words of the DDC Editorial
Policy Committee "It he been faithful to stability where stability is more useful than
change, and it has been changed where a new vision serves us better than the old".
There are more entries, provision for more topics and therefore more opportunities to
build numbers. The scheme now has greater potential for detailed classification,
much more than what the 21,504 entries in the schedules suggest.
DDC 19th edition appeared in three volumes: Volume 1 - Introduction: Tables;
Volume 2 - Schedules; and Volume 3 - Relative Index. This was the fourth and final
edition to appear under the editorship of Benjamin Custer who took over-the task
following the fiasco of the fifteenth edition. Even though Volume I (Tables) and
Volume 3 (Relative Index) are very important auxiliaries, Volume 2 (Schedules)
forms the core of the- scheme. We would do well to treat it at length.

10.6.1

Schedules

Schedules are, the main part of the scheme, consisting of 21,504 entries into which
the Universe of Knowledge is divided and sub-divided at successive stages of
division till the desired level of specificity is obtained.
Basic plan: In accordance with the scheme's basic principle of division by discipline, the
12

nineteenth edition also continues with the same ten divisions of the Universe of
Knowledge with tine main classes and one generalia class. Many of these main classes
like Pure Sciences, Technology, and Social Sciences include several academic
disciplines. , The modem grouping of disciplines is into areas of studies like the
Humanities, Social Sciences, Pure. Sciences and Applied Sciences. In DDC, disciplines
like Philosophy, Language, Literature, etc., which -come under the Humanities are
treated as coordinate subjects with Social Sciences, Pure Sciences and Applied
Sciences. The fact that six of the nine main classes in DDC belong to the field of
Humanities reflects the state of learning in the nineteenth century. Dewey gave each of
classification status equal to that of Social Sciences, Pure Sciences and Applied
Sciences.

Dewey Decimal Classification

(DDC)

In the first division of ten main classes, 0-9 which embraces the whole of human
knowledge, the class 0 is used for Generalities. The DDC Generalities includes general
newspapers and encyclopaedias and other works dealing with many subjects from many
points of view, and also certain specialised disciplines that deal with knowledge
generally, such as library and information science, museology and journalism. Each of
the main classes 1-9-consists of a major discipline (area of study). Following are the ten
main classes with their assigned meaning:
000 Generalities
100 Philosophy and related disciplines
200 Religion
300 Social Sciences
400 Languages
500 Pure Sciences
600 Technology (Applied Sciences)
700 The Arts
800 Literature (Belles-lettres)
900 General. Geography and History and their auxiliaries
Thus, the ten main classes are represented by the numbers 000 to 900. In these
numbers, the digit occupying the, first position, that is, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4...9 convey the
assigned meanings. These are the substantive digits of the main class numbers
000/900. The two terminal zeroes are added to fill out a number to three digits. This
is in accordance with the three digit minimum principle of DDC introduced in the
second edition. These terminal zeroes 'are given their normal arithmetical value.
Thus, the notation used to designate each class consists of a hundred three-digit
numbers, e.g., 500-599 for the Pure Sciences.
Divisions: Each main class consists of ten divisions,, numbers 0-9. These division
numbers occupy the second position in the notation. For example,

Division 0 within each main class is used for general works on the entire main class
and divisions 1-9 for subdivisions of the main class. For example, 50 is devoted to
general works on Pure Sciences. Each division can be further subdivided into ten
sections, and nine sections

13

Study of Selected Schemes of

Classification

in the case of general works division. Thus,

501 Philosophy.
502 Miscellany
503 Dictionaries and encyclopedias
504 Vacant
505 Serial publications
506 Organisations
507 Study and teaching
508 Travel and surveys
509 Historical and geographical treatment
Thus, digits 1-9 in the third position of the above set of numbers indicate the sections
of the division 0 (in the second position) of the main class 5. In other words, the third
position stands for the section.
Sections: Likewise, each division, say 51 Mathematics, 52 Astronomy, 53 Physics
and so on, is capable of having ten sections. Thus, the full span of section numbers
for each division in the above example is 510-519, 520-529, 530-539 and so on. In
the sections, the 0 in the third position in the number is applied to general works on
the entire divisions, and 1-9 are used for subdivisions. For example, 530 is assigned
to Physics in general and 531-539 to the sub-divisions of Physics. The scheme
permits further sub-division to any degree desired in the same manner of successive
division into ten classes in line with the decimal notation. A decimal point is placed
between the third and fourth digits. Thus, 536 heat is divided into
536.1

Theories

536.2

Transmission

536.3

Radiation

536.4

Effects of heat on matter

536.5

Temperature

536.3

Radiation is further divided as

536.31

Reflection

536.32

Refraction

536.33

Radiation

536.34

Absorption

Here, in this particular example, the division stops at the fifth order of division. But,
it need not always necessarily be so. A class number is divided till the desired
specificity is obtained. There is no limit to the number of digits following the decimal
point. To illustrate this, let us take another example.
390
394
394.2

Customs, etiquette, folklore

General customs
Special occasions

394.26
394.268
394.268 2
394.268 28
394.268 282

14

Holidays
Specific holidays
Religious
Christian
Christmas

You will notice that a space is left between the sixth and seventh digits. The space
between the sixth and seventh digits of the last three numbers in the above example is
not a basic part j of the notation. These spaces are left after every three digits beyond
the decimal point in all numbers for ease in reading and copying.
Even though, as a rule, the notation 0 is reserved for general works in the class in
which it appears, there are many instances of the use of this notation for special
purposes, for example, { 301-307 Sociology. There are several such instances at
further levels of divisions.

Dewey Decimal Classification

(DDC)

Self Check Exercise

7)

Briefly explain the use of the digit 0 in the DDC notation for the schedules.

8)

What do you understand by the three-digit minimum principle in DDC?

Note: i) Write your answer in the space given below

ii) Check your answer with the answers given at the end of this Unit.

...
010.6.2

Notation

The notation of DDC has been at once an asset and a bottleneck. Dewey adopted a
pure notation (almost pure with only occasional use of letters) based on the IndoArabic numerals. This choice of numerals made the scheme universally acceptable,
but restricted its capacity to derive only nine places at each stage of division, as the
zero is ordinarily used for general works.
Hierarchy in notation: Another major characteristic of the notation is its hierarchical
structure. Dewey decided that the notation should express the hierarchical order of
classes. Hierarchy in notation means that at each level there is an array of mutually
exclusive classes, which are coordinate to each other. The specificity of the class.
increases with each successive level of division, that is, the classes get progressively
more specific. The classes at any given level are subordinate to the class at the level
above it and super-ordinate to the classes below it. The following example illustrates
the hierarchical structure present in both the notation and the structure:
500
510
516
516.3
516.37
516.372

Pure Sciences
Mathematics
Geometry
Analytic Geometries
Metric Differential Geometries
Euclidean

As the classification progresses from the general to the specific, each level of
division is indicated by the addition of one new digit. There are a few exceptions to
the hierarchical structure. They are:
i)

Sometimes spans of numbers are used to express subjects. They are shown in
the schedule as centered entries, so called because they appear with numbers,
headings and notes centered on the page instead of with numbers in the usual
number column. For example, the span,. 541-547 represents Chemistry.

ii)

The sub-divisions of a discipline or topic are not always subordinated to the

notation for the discipline or topic. This is resorted to because of the
availability of spare notation and a desire to shorter notation. For example,
574 denote biology and its sub-divisions. Botanical sciences and Zoological
sciences are classed at 580 and 590 respectively 'ether than at 574.

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Study of Selected Schemes of

Classification

10.6.3

Tables

The DDC has been getting progressively less enumerative and more analyticosynthetic in recent editions. Many numbers exit which are no enumerated in the
schedules. These numbers can be obtained by synthesising different numbers. This is
possible because of the auxiliary tables. These tables are provided in Volume I -Introduction: Tables. Volume 1, in fact, consists of three parts:
i.

Introduction

ii.

Tables

iii. Summaries
In the introduction part , the editors introduction describes the basic characteristic of
DDC, the notable features added to the new edition , the basic plan of DDC and the
rules regarding the practical use of DDC. Up to the eighteenth editions, Melvil
eweys introduction to the twelfth was included at this place .The nineteenth edition
does not , however , include it as a separate feature , but as part of the editors
introduction. This is an important part of the scheme and must be studied carefully by
those wishing to use DDC 19th edition.

16

The nineteenth edition contains the sane seven tables of the eighteenth edition, with
some change and expansions. The seventeenth edition had only two tables: Area table
and standard subdivisions. Five more tables were added in the eighteenth edition. The
following seven tables appear in the new edition:
Table 1
:
Standard Subdivisions
Table 2
:
Areas
Table 3
:
Subdivisions of Individual Literatures
Table 4
:
Subdivisions of Individual Languages
Table 5
:
Racial, Ethnic, National Groups
Table 6
:
Languages
Table 7
:
Persons
Of these seven tables, the Areas table occupies most number of pages in this volume.
Currently, the four most commonly used tables are Standard subdivisions,
Geographical subdivisions, Individual literatures and Individual languages. The
notations from these tables are never used independently, but always in combination
with the main numbers.
Tables 1, 2, 5 and 7 can be used as required with any appropriate number from the
schedules. They are, applicable to the entire range of class numbers 000 to 999.
Notations from Table 1, Standard subdivisions, can be added directly to any number
from the schedules or with the introduction of additional zeroes, if the zero is not
reserved for general works and a notation beginning with a zero (or 00, or 000 as the
case may be) has been used for special purposes.
The notations from Tables 2, 5 and 7 maybe used as required either directly when so
instructed, ,or with the interposition of appropriate standard subdivisions such as 09
for areas, 089 for racial, ethnic and national groups and 088 for persons.
The notations for Table 6, languages, also have applicability throughout the
schedules, but their use is restricted to only those numbers from the schedules and
other tables wherein the classifier is specifically instructed.
The notations of Tables 3 and 4 are applicable only to their respective main classes,
literature, arid languages. The notations of Table 3 can be used as required with the
base numbers of individual literatures identified by an asterisk (*) under 810-890.
Similarly, notations of Table 4 may be used as required, with the base numbers for
individual languages identified by an asterisk (*) under 420-490.
These tables have greatly enhanced the potential for details in DDC.
Summaries: The three summaries provided at the end of Volume I give an outline of
the schedules in Volume 2. These summaries illustrate how the Universe of Knowledge
is divided

in DDC, the total number of main classes and their sub-divisions and the gaps left for
future use, etc. About a thousand divisions have been enumerated in the third
summary. These summaries act as a guide for understanding the specific divisions in
Volume 2 and are of help for the beginner.

Dewey Decimal Classification

(DDC)

Self Check Exercise

9)

Name the seven tables of DDC.

Note: i) Write your answer in the space given below

ii) Check your answer with the answers given at the end of this Unit.

...
10.6.4 Relative Index
The Relative Index forming a very important part of the whole work has been
considered as the heart of the scheme from the beginning. It supplements the
classification in the scheme by bringing together those related aspects of a subject,
which are scattered throughout the scheme due to classification by discipline
followed by DDC. While the schedules group subjects by discipline and scatter the
various aspects of one and the same subject according to the context, the Relative
Index collocates these aspects under the subject term at one place.
The index to the nineteenth edition retains the same pattern as in the eighteenth
edition. The editor claims that it has been. refined to make it a more efficient tool.
Many of the cross-references have been deleted and replaced by numbers. More
synonyms have been added. To a certain extent DDC has taken a step backwards by
making the index almost a substitute for the schedules.
The index is very detailed in giving, under each subject, the numbers in which it may
be classed according to the discipline or aspect or point of view treated in a given
document. See, for example, the following sample from the index of the nineteenth
edition. It has collected all aspects of the subject copper.

17

Study of Selected Schemes of

Classification

Self Check Exercise

10)

Briefly explain how the relative index supplements the classification in the schedules?

Note: i) Write your answer in the space given below

ii) Check your answer with the answers given at the end of this Unit.

....

10.6.5

18

Other Features

DDC 19th edition also contains other features. These are synthetic devices, add to
device, special topics for general applicability, mnemonics, optional provisions and,
above all, efforts

towards universality. These features are important because they have made DDC
more synthetic, mnemonic, versatile and universal. Without acquaintance with these
features, our study of DDC would certainly be incomplete. These are discussed in the
following subsections.

10.6.6

Dewey Decimal Classification

(DDC)

Synthetic Devices

The capability of DDC to provide for minute or detailed classification has been
greatly enhanced by its synthetic devices. Steadily and increasingly DDC has been
incorporating in it the principle of synthesis along with enumeration. The synthesis is
achieved through the use of the Seven Tables. In addition, there is another device
called add to instructions which facilitates detailed specification with economy of
presentation.

10.6.7

Add to Device

This add to device is a potential tool for synthesis and the measure of its use has
greatly increased in recent edition of DDC. The add to device is a note which
provides an opportunity to expand a given number or series of numbers whose subdivisions are not enumerated under that number or series in the schedule. The add to
device is of the following kinds:
1) Add from tables: Notations from Tables 2-7 may be added to certain numbers in
the schedules to make them more specific. These instructions under certain
numbers indicate exactly what may be added, from which table to what base.
For example, under 325.4-9 International migration by specific continents ... etc.,
there appears the instruction `Add "Areas" notation 4-9 from Table 2 to base
number 325'. This means that for a book on migration to/India, for example, the
number -54 for India from Table 2 is to be attached to 325 resulting in the
compound number 325.54.
2) Add-from schedules: Similarly, certain numbers in the schedules may be made
more specific by adding appropriate numbers from other places in the schedules.
For example, 632.6 Animal pests. The instruction here reads `Add to base
number 632.6 the numbers following 59 in 592/599, e.g., snails 632.643.'
Sometimes a complete class number is added to another class number, e.g.,
339.48 Consumption of specific commodities and groups of commodities. The
instruction reads `Add 001-999 to base number 339.48, e.g., consumption of
agricultural products 339.486 3.'
Sometimes one `add to' instruction leads to another, e.g., 581.21 Pathological
physiology. The instruction reads `Add to base number 581.21 the numbers
following 581.1 in 581.11-581.19: At 581.16 Reproduction there is another
instruction, which reads `Add to base number 581,16 the numbers following
574.16 in 574.162 to 574.166'. Thus, if a classifier wants to build a number for
Pathological physiology of sexual reproduction, he has to first pick the number
581.21 and add 6 Reproduction from 581.16 and, following the instruction at
581.16, add 6 taken from 574.166 Sexual reproduction resulting in the synthetic
number 581.216 6.
3) Add from both tables and schedules: Sometimes numbers are derived by
adding first from a table and then from a schedule, or in the reverse order.

10.6.8

Special Topics of General Applicability

The principle of special topics of general applicability refers to the sub-division of a

subject according to a characteristic having general applicability to its (subject's) subdivisions, which are based on different characteristics.
It is essentially a device for enabling a basically enumerative scheme to cope with more
compound subjects than might otherwise be possible. This device removes the rigidity
of a fixed hierarchy to a certain extent. For example, the subject Animal husbandry can
be divided into specific activities like selection and acquisition, breeding care and
maintenance, etc. The same subject of animal husbandry can also be divided by specific
animals like horses, cattle, etc. The specific activities like breeding, etc., are also
applicable to any of the-specific animals. Thus, we have 636 Animal husbandry, 636.08
Generalities, 636.1 to .9 various kinds of animals. The generalities like breeding, etc.,
are applicable to any of the divisions from 636.1 to 636.9. Thus, breeding horses would
be given the number 636.1082. This is achieved through an add to instruction.

19

Study of Selected Schemes of

Classification

These synthetic devices also enhance the mnemonic quality of the DDC notation. Let
us now see briefly the mnemonic features in DDC.
10.6.9

Mnemonic Features

The DDC achieves mnemonics in notation with the use of synthetic devices like
tables and add to instructions. Thus, we have an example of systematic mnemonics.
The DDC notation also achieves mnemonic power by similarity of numbering for
certain related classes. For example, in 800 Literature, the notation 1 Poetry, 2
Drama, 3 Fiction, 4 Essays, etc., is consistently used for literature in all languages.
Thus, we have 811 American poetry, 821 English poetry and so on.
Self Check Exercise
1l)

Briefly explain the add-to device in DDC

Note: i) Write your answer in the space given below

ii) Check your answer with the answers given at the end of this Unit.

....
10.6.10

Optional Provisions

Library classification, being a pre-coordinate system, has a fixed citation order for
the various facets in a number. Even though the order is fixed, taking into
consideration the circumstances and the interests of the majority of users, there may
arise occasions where this prescribed order of citation is not found satisfactory to
certain users and libraries. Hence, to overcome this problem, DDC provides for
optional provisions. Certain topics are given two (or more) placements. While one of
these is preferred by the editors, the other options are provided to meet the
requirements of some libraries. An instruction appears under both the preferred class
and the options. Some classic examples are biographies and subject bibliographies
where options are given to classify under either the specific subject or with the
general class biographies or bibliographies. Thus, bibliography of physics can be
classed either at 016 or with 530 physics. Besides biographies and bibliographies,
there are other instances in DDC which are a clear indication of the acceptance of
facet structure. For example, 340 Law where, the division is considered to consist of
three elements (or facets) apart from the base number 34: (i) the branch of law, (ii)
topics within the branch, and (iii) geographical area. DDC provides for arrangement
in any of three ways, viz.,
a)

branch of law, area, topic, or

b)

area, branch of law, topic, or

c)

branch of law, topic, area.

If we take a specific title like Law of divorce in India, it goes to 34 Law, which
would be the base number. Under law, it pertains to private law (branch of law) andthe topic is divorce, with India as the relevant geographical area. Following are the
three optional numbers for the title in question:
a)

20

branch of law, area, topic:

b)

area, branch of law, topic:

c)

branch of law, topic, area:

Dewey Decimal Classification

(DDC)

(preferred treatment for India without the notation for the country.) Note the
flexibility in the order of citation in the above example. Compare this with
intercalation in UDC (12.4.3 in Unit 12).

10.7

EVALUATION

Any attempt at an evaluation of classification schemes necessarily must cover the

purposes these schemes serve and the environment and the circumstances in which
they were developed.
Melvil Dewey developed his scheme mainly because a classification scheme was
needed when none existed. UDC was developed to arrange the entries of a universal
bibliography on cards, while Ranganathan developed his Colon Classification to
demonstrate his theory of classification. Dewey's specific purpose in developing his
scheme was to give to the libraries of his days an efficient mark and park tool and he
did give it.
Dewey's scheme was conceived in the 1870s and was almost wholly oriented to the
literature likely to be acquired by American academic libraries (Amherst, for
example) and public libraries. From such a localised origin, DDC has grown to be an
international scheme.
One of the major objectives of DDC has been practicality. Dewey developed actual
classifications and evolved the theory round the practical schemes. Despite its
drawbacks, this method has a great deal to commend it. Dewey was aware of the
theoretical shortcomings, but preferred practical usefulness to philosophic theory.
This background of the scheme has to be kept in mind while evaluating DDC, as it
provides a proper perspective and insight. The strengths and weaknesses of any
scheme are to some extent inversely related and this is also true of DDC.

10.7.1

Order and Collocation of Classes

DDC is criticised as still reflecting the ordering of knowledge that prevailed during
the period of its birth. The sequence of main classes and the collocation of other subdivisions are considered to be arbitrary and illogical.
Some of the notable and glaring examples of arbitrary order are: separation of
Languages (400) from Literature (800)i, and Social Sciences (300) from Geography
and History (900) at the broadest level; separation of Political Science (320) from
Public Administration (350); separation of Commerce (380) from Economics (330)
and Business Management (650); Sociology (301-307) from Customs (390) and
Social Problems and Services (360).

10.7.2

Improper Placement

Notable in this category. are the housing of Psychology (150) as a subdivision of

Philosophy (100); Sports and amusement in Fine arts (700); inclusion of Biography
(920) in General Geography and History (900) - since rectified by making it optional
-; and inclusion of Statistics (310) in Social Sciences (300).

21

Study of Selected Schemes of

Classification

10.7.3

Anglo-American Bias

The scheme reflects an overwhelming Anglo-American bias in culture, language,

literature, religion and elsewhere. This bias seems reasonable considering the origin.
Efforts have been made to internationalise the scheme by providing the necessary
options. These optional provisions in language, literature and religion are, however,
not always convenient and useful. For example,, if cue' chooses to give local
emphasis to Hindu religion and use notations 200-280 for it, the scheme has to be
worked out locally, as the present sub-divisions under these numbers are not suitable
for Hindu religion.

10.7.4

Citation Order

The citation order within a subject does not always result in useful collocation. For
example, in Literature (800), the citation order of language, form, period, author
scatters the works of the same author according to the literary form when most
scholars would prefer to have them grouped together. Similarly, in Social Science
(300), the failure to recognise the importance of the area facet which usually
represents the particularly society being described scatters materials. This has,
however, been recognised in Law (340). Because of the principle of enumeration,
elements belonging to different facets cannot be combined in a single number and, as
a result, only one of the several elements involved has to be chosen for building a
number.
One good point about the citation order in DDC is that the scheme has shown an
inclination to introduce flexibility in the order of facets, as seen above in optional
provisions. Hopefully, there will be more such provisions in the future editions.

10.7.5

Notation

The DDC notation has been at once an asset and a liability. On one hand, the
simplicity, ingenuity and adaptability of the notation of pure Arabic numerals gained
universal acceptance and popularity for DDC. On the other hand, it has also put
severe restrictions on its ability to keep pace with the changing structure of
knowledge. The decimal notation of DDC has the capacity to expand ad infinitum.
The notation is at most places expressive, capable of displaying the conceptual
hierarchy. But, it restricts the scheme to nine places at each stage of division. This
Decimal Procrustean Bed has received a great deal of criticism.
Being aware of the continuing dissatisfaction with the lengthy notation, the Forest
Press requested the Decimal Classification Division of Library of Congress to take
some action in this matter This resulted in the policy of segmenting the DDC
notation. Since 1967, the DDC numbers in LC catalogues and on MARC tapes
appear in the form of one to three segments. The segmentation, shown by prime
marks which are not part of notation itself, identified for the user the varying levels at
which the notation is meaningful.
The following examples display segmentation:
025.4'3
338.4'7'6555730'942
658.8'09'65573

117.6 Unevenness and Inconsistency

The different rates of growth for different disciplines have resulted in an uneven
structure in DDC with some classes like Social Sciences (300), Science (500) and
Technology (600) having become overcrowded.
The superimposition of the principle of synthesis on an otherwise enumerative
classification has resulted in inconsistent treatment and consequently unpredictability
of the structure. The scheme abounds in examples, of inconsistency. Thus,
312.2
312.22
312.23

Statistics on deaths (mortality)

Maternal deaths in childbirth
Infant deaths
Add "Areas" notation 1-9 from Table 2 to base number 312.23

22

This instruction is not there at 312.22

Consequently, Maternal death statistics pertaining to India would get the number
312.220 954, while Infant deaths in India would get 312.235 4.

10.7.7

Dewey Decimal Classification

(DDC)

Reclassification Due to Revision

Revision and relocation in DDC are rather conservative in comparison with UDC and
CC. Still there are users who complain about the alterations, which are made. The
editorial body is faced with difficult choices. Alterations invite the indignation of
users.
Without revision, DDC will deviate more and more from the current structure of
knowledge. DDC seems to steer fairly well the difficult course between change and
stability.

10.7.8

Durability of DDC

The main reasons for DDC's popularity and widespread use are its inherent qualities
and also historical and administrative factors. Apart from the inherent qualities
(which have been discussed at some length elsewhere in this Unit), the timing and
organisational support and its use in international bibliographic records including
MARC tapes are other factors contributing to DDC's popularity and durability.

10.8 SUMMARY
As we have seen in the evolution of DDC, innovative ideas like relative location,
decimal notation, relative index and detailed classification contributed to the success
of DDC. Even though the scheme is not based on any explicit theory, the principle of
aspect classification and hierarchical structure have been established. Despite its
enumerative structure, the scheme has incorporated synthetic devices wherever
possible. Practical usefulness overrides any philosophic principle. Besides, the
sustained programme of revision and efficient Organisational support has ensured the
continued widespread use of DDC. Its drawbacks apart, DDC has many secondary
and equally important features, which have made it very popular and successful.
DDC 19th ed., brought out in 1979, continued the development in the previous three
editions. DDC, being an enumerative classification, divides the Universe of
Knowledge into ten main ,classes, which are further divided into a hundred divisions,
each one being further divided resulting in about a thousand sections. The process of
division is continued till the desired level of specificity is reached. DDC schedules
form the core of the scheme containing subject 'classification. The seven tables list
repetitive and commonly applicable .concepts. The combination of numbers from the
schedules and the tables forms the synthesis in DDC. The notations from the seven
tables are not used independently. DDC also contains a number of other devices like
add to and optional provisions which make it versatile in practice. Its notation is
simple and often mnemonic. Until recently it showed ubiquitous Anglo-American
bias. Of late, however, attempts have been made to make the scheme more universal
through the optional provisions.
DDC's relative\ index helps the classifier find a given topic in the schedules. More
importantly, it brings at one place all the scattered aspects of a subject under the
subject term.
With many new synthetic devices incorporated, DDC 19th ed has consolidated the
position of DDC' in the field of classification.

10.9 ANSWERS TO SELF CHECK EXERCISES

1)

2)
3)

The extreme popularity and widespread use of DDC were due to many factors.
Among other factors, the four innovative features that Dewey introduced in his
scheme were chiefly responsible for DDC's phenomenal success. They are (i)
Relative location; (ii) Decimal notation; (iii) Detailed specification; and (iv)
Relative index.
1951, 1958 and 1989.
The basis of the outline of the main classes of DDC is said to be Bacon's Chart
of learning. Dewey acknowledged his debt to W.T. Harris for his classification
scheme with which DDC bears obvious resemblance. WT. Hams, in turn, is said
to have borrowed Bacon's outline and inverted the same for his classification
scheme.

23

Study of Selected Schemes of

Classification

4)

The main principles of Dewey's classification are (i) Classification by discipline;

(ii) Hierarchical structure; and (iii) Practicality. Dewey did not make any
explicit statement on the philosophical principles. However, he claimed that
"everywhere, filosofic theory and accuracy have yielded to practical usefulness".

5)

The sustained programme of revision based on user surveys has contributed

greatly to the durability of DDC. The forms and methods of revision are (i)
expansion; (ii) reduction; (iii) relocation; and (iv) bringing out entirely new
classifications for certain disciplines in the form of phoenix schedules.

6)

Phoenix schedules are a form of revision adopted by DDC since the publication
of the sixteenth edition to resolve the conflict between change and stability.
Certain schedules, which are out of date and require drastic changes, are
replaced with entirely new classifications. The earlier schedules are destroyed
and new schedules are fully recast with their arrangement remoulded. The new
schedules arising out of the ashes of the destroyed old schedules are called
Phoenix schedules.

7)

The digit 0 is normally used for general works on the main classes or their subdivisions. For example, in class 500, the digit 0 in the second position is used for
designating general works on 5 Pure sciences. Similarly, in class 530, 0 stands
for general works on class 53 Physics.

8)

Every DDC class number has at least three digits in pursuance of its principle of
three-digit minimum. For example, Pure Sciences 500, Technology 600, etc.,
have only one substantive digit in them, the initial digit. The two zeroes in these
numbers are just fillers to make them three-digit numbers.

9)

The seven tables in DDC are

Table 1 : Standard Subdivisions
Table 2 : Areas
Table 3 : Subdivisions of Individual Literatures
Table 4 : Subdivisions of Individual Languages
Table 5 : Racial, Ethnic, National Groups
Table 6 : Languages
Table 7 : Persons
10) As a result of classification by discipline, related materials are scattered
throughout the schedules. These scattered related materials are brought together
under one heading in the Relative Index. For example, Chemistry of copper,
Chemical technology of copper, Metallurgy of copper, etc., are all scattered in
the scheme, as these subjects are classed with Chemistry (540), Chemical
technology (660) and Metallurgy (669) respectively. DDC's relative index,
however, brings these various aspects of copper at one place under the class
term Copper. Thus, the Relative Index is said to supplement the classification in
the schedules.
11) Add to is one of the synthetic devices in DDC. This device has the potential to
enhance the capability of DDC to provide for detailed classification. This add to
instruction under a class number provides an opportunity to expand a given
number or series of numbers according to the subdivisions of another number.
This device also adds to the mnemonic quality of the DDC notation.

10.10

24

KEY WORDS

Aspect Classification

: A classification that classes a subject according to its

aspects, e.g., the mining of coal under mining and the
chemistry of coal under chemistry.

Discipline
Enumerative
Classification

: An area of study, a branch of instruction.

: A classification, which,attempts systematic listing or enumeration
of all subjects in a gigantic classificatory map.

Hierarchical Structure

A classificatory structure that displays a hierarchy of classes in

which at any level a class is subordinate to the class above it and

super ordinate to the class below it. At any level in the

hierarchy, the classes derived on the basis of a common
characteristic are mutually exclusive..
Integrity of Numbers

Interfile
Open Access
Phoenix Schedule

Pre-coordinate System

Practicality
Procrustean Bed
Relative Index

Dewey Decimal Classification

(DDC)

: The principle of fixing the number in a scheme of

classification once for all, taking them as permanently
representing the concepts to which they were originally
assigned.
:Filing an item at a point in a sequence where it belongs
according to the classification.
:Open shelves to which users have direct access for
browsing
:A schedule newly constructed at a place where one existed
earlier and was destroyed. Phoenix was the mythological
bird that burnt itself and then rose from its own ashes.
:A system that coordinates or combines terms to form a
subject heading or facets to form a number before hand in
anticipation of demand. 'All classification schemes are,
therefore, pre coordinate systems.
:Usefulness. Utility as against logicality.
:(From Greek mythology) Tendency to foster uniformity.
:An index that brings all related terms (aspects) at one place
under a class or generic term.

Shelf Mark

:A mark borne by a book that denoted its exact or fixed

position on a shelf.
Specification/Specificity :Exact representation in classification and indexing of the
contents of a book/document usually through synthesis or
coordination.

10.11

REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

Clan Luis Mai (1985). Cataloguing and Classification: An Introduction. New York:
McGraw-Hill.
Custer, Benjamin A. (1972). Dewey Decimal Classification. In: "Kent, Allen [et al.]
(eds). Encyclopedia of ,Library and Information Science. Vol. 7. New York: Marcel
Dekker.
Custer, Benjamin A. (1979). Dewey Decimal Classification and Relative Index. 19th
ed. 3 Vol. New York: Forest Press.
Foskett, A.C. (1977). The Subject Approach to Information. 3rd ed. London: Clive
Bingley.
Maltby, Arthur (1975). Sayers'Manual of Classification for Librarians. 5th ed.
London: Andre Deutsch.
Raju, A.A.N. (1984). Decimal, Universal Decimal and Colon Classification: A Study
in Comparison. Delhi: Ajanta Publications.

25