Unit 1

MARKETING OF SERVICES
Service is the action of doing something for someone or something. It is largely
intangible (i.e. not material). A product is tangible (i.e. material) since you can touch it
and own it. A service tends to be an experience that is consumed at the point where it is
purchased, and cannot be owned since is quickly perishes. A person could go to a caf
one day and have excellent service, and then return the next day and have a poor
experience.

In this Unit we will be understand the following about service:Key Economic Indicators about India
What is Services?
Introduction - Growth of the Service Sector
The Concept of Service - Characteristics of Services
Classification of Services
Designing the Service

Introduction
Key Economic Indicators about India

GDP: $691 billion

Growth: Estimated 7-8 percent or higher in 2005-06; 7 percent in 2004-05

Breakdown: Services equal 50 percent of the GDP; industry and agriculture

equal 50 percent

Ranking: 10th largest economy in the world and one of its fastest growing; fourth
largest in purchasing-power parity terms

Per capita income: $640 in 2004-05, (almost double the figure of two decades
ago). Of the 1.1 billion people, 39 percent live on less than $1 per day

Purchasing power: In 2005, approximately 170-300 million people had growing

purchasing power, thus creating a growing middle-class consumer population

Youth Power: Over 58 percent of the Indian population is under the age of 20.
That is over 564 million people, nearly twice the total population of the United
States

India At A Glance

Population: 1.1 billion (Urban population - 28.4 percent)

Retail Mkt. Size: $286 billion (only 3.9 percent is organized retail). Retail trade
is booming in the country due to increasing disposable incomes of middle and
upper middle class

Growth of Malls: 375 shopping malls by 2007 from 25 in 2003; Estimated space:
90 million sq.ft.

Growing Middle-class: 300 million and estimated to be growing at 5 percent

annually

Did you know that India.....

- is the world's second largest small car market
- is one of only three countries that makes its own supercomputers
- is one of six countries that launches its own satellites; one hundred of the

Fortune 500 have R & D facilities in India

- has the second largest group of software developers after the U.S.
- lists 5,000 companies on the Bombay Stock Exchange; only the NYSE has more
- is the world's largest producer of milk, and second largest producer of food,
including fruits and vegetables
Services marketing
Services marketing is marketing based on relationship and value. It may be used to
market a service or a product.
Marketing a service-base business is different from marketing a product-base business.
There are several major differences, including:
1. The buyer purchases are intangible
2. The service may be based on the reputation of a single person
3. It's more difficult to compare the quality of similar services
4. The buyer cannot return the service
5. Service Marketing mix adds 3 more p's, i.e. people, physical environment, process
service and follow-through are keys to a successful venture.
When one markets a service business, one must keep in mind that reputation, value,
delivery of
"Managing the evidence" refers to the act of informing customers that the service
encounter has been performed successfully. It is best done in subtle ways like providing
examples or descriptions of good and poor service that can be used as a basis of
comparison. The underlying rationale is that a customer might not appreciate the full
worth of the service if they do not have a good benchmark for comparisons.
However, it is worth remembering that many of the concepts, as well as many of the
specific techniques, will work equally well whether they are directed at products or
services. In particular, developing a marketing strategy is much the same for products and

services, in that it involves selecting target markets and formulating a marketing mix.
Thus, Theodore Levitt suggested that "instead of talking of 'goods' and of 'services', it is
better to talk of 'tangibles' and 'intangibles'". Levitt also went on to suggest that marketing
a physical product is often more concerned with intangible aspects (frequently the
`product service' elements of the total package) than with its physical properties. Charles
Revson made a famous comment regarding the business of Revlon Inc.: `In the factory
we make cosmetics. In the store we sell hope.' Arguably, service industry marketing
merely approaches the problems from the opposite end of the same spectrum.
In economics and marketing, a service is the non-material equivalent of a good. Service
provision has been defined as an economic activity that does not result in ownership, and
this is what differentiates it from providing physical goods. It is claimed to be a process
that creates benefits by facilitating either a change in customers, a change in their
physical possessions, or a change in their intangible assets.
By supplying some level of skill, ingenuity, and experience, providers of a service
participate in an economy without the restrictions of carrying stock (inventory) or the
need to concern themselves with bulky raw materials. On the other hand, their investment
in expertise does require marketing and upgrading in the face of competition which has
equally few physical restrictions.
Providers of services make up the Tertiary sector of industry.
Definition:
A service is an intangible product involving a deed, performance, or an effort that cannot
be physically possessed. Dominant component is intangible.
Includes rental of goods, alteration and repair of goods owned by customers, and personal
services. Major differences between goods and services are:

Intangibility

Inventory--over/under booking restaurant capacity

Inseparability--of production and consumption

Inconsistency/Consistency

The use of marketing by service firms

Has been limited to:

Many service firms stress technical expertise, therefore have lagged in their use of
marketing.

Many service firms are small, marketing expertise cannot be hired.

Strict licensing/legal restrictions limit competition and need for marketing.

Service associations have prohibited marketing.......Lawyers until 1977; when the

US Supreme court struck down such prohibitions as against freedom of
speech...Jacoby & Meyers et al.

High esteem of professionals, do not need marketing. A number of professionals

have a dislike for marketing and a lack of understanding.

Use of marketing is likely to increase rapidly in the near future....due to competition etc.

Characteristics of Services
Intangibility
They cannot be seen, handled, smelled, etc. There is no need for storage. Because
services are difficult to conceptualize, marketing them requires creative visualization to
effectively evoke a concrete image in the customer's mind. From the customer's point of
view, this attribute makes it difficult to evaluate or compare services prior to
experiencing the service
Prior to purchase, much service promotion must rely on performance attributes which can
only be measured after a purchase experience (tangible goods have search qualities). Also
professional services have credence qualities. Need to use promotion to help customers
perceive a service as highly tangibility.

develop tangible representation of the service, ie credit card serves as the physical
product with own image and benefits. Make advertising easier. Airlines use an
aircraft. Travellers umbrella.

develop a brand image--seek out U Haul as opposed to a truck service

word of mouth very important due to intangibility.

offer discounts and free samples/service to customers who encourage friends to

come.

offer tangible benefits in sales promotions, must be consistent with customers

needs/wants

establish a clear product position, ie 24 hour outside service for repair of

industrial equipment.

Intangibility also presents pricing problems. How should an auto mechanic charge for
his/her services?

Visibility of the service may be a problem. Although a problem may have been fixed, you
don't understand why? . Need to explain the time needed for repair, and functions that
were performed if you want the repair to be more tangible.

Psychological role of price is magnified since customers must rely on price as the sole
indicator of service quality when other quality indicators are absent.

Perishability
Unsold service time is "lost", that is, it cannot be regained. It is a lost economic
opportunity. For example a doctor that is booked for only two hours a day cannot later
work those hours she has lost her economic opportunity. Other service examples are
airplane seats (once the plane departs, those empty seats cannot be sold), and theatre seats
(sales end at a certain point).

Inventory
Services cannot be stockpiled. Need to avoid excess unsatisfied demand and excess
capacity leading to unproductive use of resources.

To resolve inventory issues:

market services to segments with different demand patterns

market new services having counter cyclical demand patterns from existing
services

market new services to compliment existing services

market service extras at non-peak times

market new services not affected by existing capacity constraints

train personnel to do multiple tasks

hire PT employees during peak hours

educate consumers to use service at non peak hours

offer incentive, ie. reduce price at non peak times, this will not work in all
instances, ie, travel at non peak hours.

Lack of transportability
Services tend to be consumed at the point of "production" (although this doesn't apply to
outsourced business services).

Lack of homogeneity
Services are typically modified for each client or each new situation (customised). Mass
production of services is very difficult. This can be seen as a problem of inconsistent
quality. Both inputs and outputs to the processes involved providing services are highly

variable, as are the relationships between these processes, making it difficult to maintain
consistent quality.

Labour intensity
Services usually involve considerable human activity, rather than precisely determined
process. Human resource management is important. The human factor is often the key
success factor in service industries. It is difficult to achieve economies of scale or gain
dominant market share.
Demand fluctuations
It can be difficult to forecast demand (which is also true of many goods). Demand can
vary by season, time of day, business cycle, etc.

Buyer involvement
Most service provision requires a high degree of interaction between client and service
provider.

Inconsistency
Lawn care service cannot mow a lawn precisely the same way each time, but need to
make the service as efficient and consistent as possible.
Remedy--use technology to help make the service provider more consistent...or replace
workers with technology :)
Inseparability

Leads to direct (short) channels of distribution. In some cases it is possible to use

intermediaries, travel agents, ATMs etc.
Close provider-customer relationship--employee interpersonal skills very important.
"relationship managers", quality of relationships determines the probability of continued
interchange with those parties in the future.
Customers may become loyal to a particular employee as opposed to the company,
prevalent in the advertising industry. Therefore must make sure that multiple employees
are capable of performing the same tasks.
Classification of services
Service ontology for service

Economic service classifications

bundling
Function

Combine services into groups

Divide whole spectrum of existing

services into smaller groups

Grouping

Company- and domain-specific

Global rules (hold for the whole

rules

business

service industry)

rules

Nature of

Any type of dependency

Classification criteria that

grouping

between services

differentiate

rules

(e.g. difference, similarity)

one service from another

Abstraction

Instances of services (e.g., ABN- Abstract classes of services (e.g.,

level

Amro

of reasoning

private unemployment
insurance)

insurance services)

The extent of services in the economy

US is the worlds first service economy. More than 75% of the workforce in the private
sector is employed in the service industry.
Accounts for more than $3bn in output and contribute 60% of GNP.
60% of services are consumed by the final consumer.
The increase in the service sector is a result of LT growth in the US economy deriving
demand for additional services

Travel

Financial services

Entertainment

Personal care etc.

Dual income families need for convenience.

Increase in health awareness.
Illustration of Service Marketing
Marriot Hotels: Offer different services for different segments of their target market.
Great attention paid to product positioning. Rely on research, publicity, TV advertising,
use of well conceived slogans and greater personal attention to consumers. Quick
resolution to customer problems--overbooking, long customer lines, unresponsiveness,
discourteous staff. Hotels now offer alternative accommodations for over booking,
computerized check out systems, express check outs, serving free drinks, provide
baggage handling etc.

Service delivery
The delivery of a service typically involves five factors:

The service providers (e.g. the people)

Equipment used to provide the service (e.g. vehicles, cash registers)

The physical facilities (e.g. buildings, parking, waiting rooms)

The client

Other customers at the service delivery location

The service encounter is defined as all activities involved in the service delivery process.
Some service managers use the term "moment of truth" to indicate that defining point in a
specific service encounter where interactions are most intense.
Many business theorists view service provision as a performance or act (sometimes
humorously referred to as dramalurgy, perhaps in reference to dramaturgy). The location
of the service delivery is referred to as the stage and the objects that facilitate the service
process are called props. A script is a sequence of behaviours followed by all those
involved, including the client(s). Some service dramas are tightly scripted, others are
more ad lib. Role congruence occurs when each actor follows a script that harmonizes
with the roles played by the other actors.
In some service industries, especially health care, dispute resolution, and social services,
a popular concept is the idea of the caseload, which refers to the total number of patients,
clients, litigants, or claimants that a given employee is presently responsible for. On a
daily basis, in all those fields, employees must balance the needs of any individual case
against the needs of all other current cases as well as their own personal needs.
Under English law, if a service provider is induced to deliver services to a dishonest
client by a deception, this is an offence under the Theft Act 1978.

Service-Goods continuum
The service-goods continuum
The dichotomy between physical goods and intangible services should not be given too
much credence. These are not discrete categories. Most business theorists see a
continuum with pure service on one terminal point and pure commodity good on the
other terminal point. Most products fall between these two extremes. For example, a
restaurant provides a physical good (the food), but also provides services in the form of
ambience, the setting and clearing of the table, etc. And although some utilities actually
deliver physical goods like water utilities which actually deliver water utilities are
usually treated as services.
In a narrower sense, service refers to quality of customer service: the measured
appropriateness of assistance and support provided to a customer. This particular usage
occurs frequently in retailing.
List of economic services

The following is an incomplete list of service industries, grouped into rough sectors.
Parenthetical notations indicate how specific occupations and organizations can be
regarded as service industries to the extent they provide an intangible service, as opposed
to a tangible good.

business functions (that apply to all organizations in general)

o

consulting

customer service

human resources administrators (providing services like ensuring that

employees are paid accurately)

child care

cleaning, repair and maintenance services

janitors (who provide cleaning services)

gardeners

mechanics

construction
o

carpentry

electricians (offering the service of making wiring work properly)

plumbing

death care
o

coroners (who provide the service of identifying corpses and determining

time and cause of death)

funeral homes (who prepare corpses for public display, cremation or

burial)

dispute resolution and prevention services

o

arbitration

courts of law (who perform the service of dispute resolution backed by the
power of the state)

diplomacy

incarceration (provides the service of keeping criminals out of society)

law enforcement (provides the service of identifying and apprehending

criminals)

lawyers (who perform the services of advocacy and decisionmaking in

many dispute resolution and prevention processes)

mediation

military (performs the service of protecting states in disputes with other

states)

negotiation (not really a service unless someone is negotiating on behalf of

another)

education (institutions offering the services of teaching and access to information)

o

library

museum

school

entertainment (when provided live or within a highly specialized facility)

o

gambling

movie theatres (providing the service of showing a movie on a big screen)

performing arts productions

sexual services (where legal)

sports

television

fabric care
o

dry cleaning

laundromat (offering the service of automated fabric cleaning)

financial services
o

accounting

banks and building societies (offering lending services and safekeeping of

money and valuables)

real estate

stock brokerages

tax return preparation

foodservice industry

hairdressing

health care (all health care professions provide services)

information services

data processing

database services

language interpretation

language translation

risk management
o

insurance

security

social services
o

transport
o

social work

Service Car Rental

utilities
o

electric power

natural gas

telecommunications

waste management

water industry

The services marketing mix

Cowell states that what is significant about services are the relative dominance of
intangible attributes in the make-up of the service product. Services are a special kind
of product. They may require special understanding and special marketing efforts.

The provision of the continuing education contains the element of the tangible and
intangible. It usually provides a learning materials (physical good) and also numbers of
the service activities (teaching processes, contact with customers, organisation of the
courses, etc.). The distinction between physical and service offering can, therefore, be
best understood as a matter of degree rather that in absolute terms. The continuing

education is service based since the value of this product is dependent on the design and
delivery of the CE courses rather than the cost of the physical product (teaching
materials, CDs, etc.).

The services marketing mix is an extension of the 4-Ps framework. The essential
elements of product, promotion, price and place remain but three additional variables
people, physical evidence and process are included to 7Ps mix. The need for the
extension is due to the high degree of direct contact between the CE providers and the
customers, the highly visible nature of the service process, and the simultaneity of the
production and consumption. While it is possible to discuss people, physical evidence
and process within the original-Ps framework (for example people can be considered part
of the product offering) the extension allows a more thorough analysis of the marketing
ingredients necessary for successful services marketing.
People because of the simultaneity of production and consumption in services the CE
staff occupy the key position in influencing customers perceptions of product quality. In
fact the service quality is inseparable from the quality of service provider. An important
marketing task is to set standards to improve quality of services provided by employees
and monitor their performance. Without training and control employees tend to be
variable in their performance leading to variable service quality. Training is crucial so
that employees understand the appropriate forms of behaviour and trainees adopt the best
practises of the andragogy.
Physical evidence this is the environment in which the service is delivered and any
tangible goods that facilitate the performance and communication of the service.
Customers look for clues to the likely quality of a service also by inspecting the tangible
evidence. For example, prospective customers may look to the design of learning
materials, the appearance of facilities, staff, etc.

Process this means procedures, mechanism and flow of activities by which a service is
acquired. Process decisions radically affect how a service is delivered to customers. The
service in CE includes several processes e.g. first contact with customers, administrative
procedure regarding course delivery, preparation, delivery and evaluation of the
courses. The following guideline can be useful for successful CE management:

ensure that marketing happens at all levels from the marketing department to
where the service is provided

consider introducing flexibility in providing the service; when feasible customize

the service to the needs of customers

recruit high quality staff treat them well and communicate clearly to them: their
attitudes and behavior are the key to service quality and differentiations

attempt to market to existing customers to increase their use of the service, or to

take up new service products

sep up a quick response facility to customer problems and complaints

employ new technology to provide better services at lower costs

use branding to clearly differentiate service offering from the competition in the
minds of target customers

The differential advantage and branding

Only few products are unique. Often the challenge lays in finding a way to differentiate
your products from a rivals near-identical offerings. The basic question says: How can I
get an advantage over the competition?
When your products are better than those of your competitors, and when customers
recognize this superiority, you have a real advantage. Few organisations are in this
position. Most find that there is a little or nothing to distinguish their own products from
competitors. To gain competitive advantage, uncover not just differences but also
attributes that customers value. Make sure the differences are meaningful to customers,
so that your product is preferable to the others available.

Often it is the little things that count. Customers may choose your product over a
competitors identical product because they prefer your lecturers or because you give
them coffee while delivery of the courses. Pay attention to details that could make a
difference. A genuine customer-centric approach will differentiate you from competitors.
Show your commitment to customers and ensure that staffs are emphatic. Review
company systems and processes to make them more customers focused.

Team Assignment differentiate your product

Answering the following questions, try to identify the differential advantage of your CE
centre
1. Why should customers buy from us rather than from our competitors?
2. What makes us different from our competitors?
3. How are we better than our rivals?
4. What strengths do we have that we can effectively capitalize on?

Strong, well-known products provide companies with a real competitive advantage. Use
the power of branding to imbue your products with personality and meaning, ensuring
they achieve a prominent position in the marketplace.

The right name helps to sell products and service. It bestows individuality and
personality, enabling customers to identify with your offerings and to get to know them.
It makes products and services tangible and real. Choose name that enhance your
company image and that are appropriate for the products and its positioning in the
marketplace.

Establish trust in your brand and customers will remain loyal.

Branding means developing unique attributes so that your products are instantly
recognisable, memorable, and evoke positive association. Some brands have a solid and
reliable personality, others are youthful and fun. Choose your company and product

name, corporate colours, logo, design and promotional activity to help convey a
personality and build a brand. Customers should be able to look at one of your products
and assimilate all that you stand for in a second by recalling the brand values. But
remember: A strong brand is not a substitute for quality but an enhancement to it.

The service attributes are e.g. friendless, creativity, courtesy, helpfulness and
knowledgeability.

The creation of a corporate identity is a vital element of branding. Present an integrated,

strong, instantly recognisable, individual image that is regarded in a positive way by your
customers, and seize every opportunity to strengthen your corporate identity. It is
important to maintain corporate identity consistently by issuing written guidelines for
staff.

Marketing strategy
A strategy gives business a defined route to follow and a clear destination. Build a
marketing strategy and you will ensure that marketing is a long-term way of working, not
a one-off activity.

A marketing strategy provides organisation with shared vision of the future. All too often,
an organisation will perform a marketing task, such a direct mail shot, then sit back and
see what happens. A strategic approach will ensure that you maximise returns on your
marketing spending and boost the profits of your organisation.

Strategic marketing manager

has a clear picture of the future

anticipates changes in the market

works towards clear long/term goals

Non-strategic marketing manager

lives day to day without planning

reacts to changes in the market

has only short-term objectives

During the creating of the marketing strategy the marketing manager should proceed as
follows:
1. create the team
2. review current situation
3. set objectives
4. plan action
5. implement strategy
6. review strategy

Create your team

The first steps during preparation of the marketing strategy are the hardest part. It is
important to bring together a strong team to help to prepare the marketing plan. The
strategic elements must be understood by every member of team in order to assure the
marketing success.
It is important to involve the people whose function touches on marketing, and those
whose job involves considerable customer contact. Before embarking on your marketing
strategy, establish common ground by agreeing definitions and purpose. Build the team
unity; perhaps by organizing an away day at a pleasant venue to discuss shared marketing
issues and concerns. Show that you recognise the contribution each team member can
offer.

Review current situation - perform a SWOT analysis

SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats)

Analysis of these four factors provides information on how to shape your marketing
strategy. Devise objectives aimed at strengthening weak areas, exploiting strengths,
seizing opportunities, and anticipating threats.
Team Assignment Marketing SWOT analysis
Identify your 4 strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats answering the questions
below:
1. Do you sue your strengths to full advantage? Could you do more to capitalise on
them?
2. Are there current or future opportunities you could exploit? Are new markets
emerging or are there existing, untapped customer groups?
3. What threats do your competitors pose? What threats exist in wider marketplace?
4. What lets you down? What are you not good at? What do your competitors do
better?

Setting objectives
Draw up your objectives carefully, because your entire marketing strategy will be
structured around them, and ensure that they are measurable so that you can evaluate
their success.
Short-term objective can be staging posts on the way towards fulfilling long-term goals.
Analyse your situation and then ask: What if we do nothing? Will products become out
of date? Will your competitors grow more powerful? Spend time asking what if? to
help you realize the effects of not keeping up with customer needs and competitor
activities. It can serve to spur action.
If you have devised a set of objectives around which to build your marketing strategy,
seek agreement for them across the organisation. Marketing is a discipline that cuts
through many departmental boundaries. Marketing activity will have a knock-on effect in
various parts of the operation so, for it to be effective, you will need the support of
colleagues. Ensure they understand the need for these objectives and the impact they may
have on their work.

Plan action - investigate constraints, such as time and money, and then create a timetable
of activity to give you a working marketing plan.
The activities on your marketing timetable should be manageable and workable. The
costs of not undertaking certain marketing activities, both in missed opportunities and the
effect on your reputation, should be taken into consideration.
Look at your marketing ideas and work out the costs of each. Remember that marketing
involves meeting customer need at a profit. To be justified, marketing activity should
have a positive impact on the balance sheet. Examine not only the costs but also the
benefit. An advertising company may cost a lot of money, but if it reaps profit amounting
to several times its costs, is it cheap.
The example of marketing plan:
Activity

Priority

Organise lunch for

Medium

Start date

by the end of

top ten customers

Produce new

Completion Date

February
High

Mid-January

end March

brochure
Update mailing list

High

end March

ready for new

brochure
Mail new brochure

High

Early April

Implementing strategy
Some organisations invest considerable effort in developing a strategy but enthusiasm
and energy wane when it comes to implementation. Ensure that your marketing strategy
is put into the action, not let to gather dust on a shelf. Assign each task or activity due for
implementation within the next 12 months to a named person.
Review strategy
The world is not static. Things within your organisation or within your market are likely
to change over the time. If they do, you might need to redefine your objectives. Review
your objectives six-monthly or annually to check that you are till on track.

Answering the following questions will help you evaluate the success of your marketing
strategy:
1. Have profits increased since the strategy was implemented?
2. Have we seen an increase in our customer base?
3. Have we attracted a greater number of orders, or larger individual orders?
4. Has the number of product/service enquiries risen?
5. Has awareness of our organisation and its products or services increased?

Marketing in non-profit organizations

Non-profit organization attempt to achieve some other objectives than profit. This does
not mean that they are uninterested in income as they have to generate cash to survive.
However their primary goal is non economic, e.g. to provide education.

Marketing is of growing importance to many non-profit organizations because of the

need to generate funds in an increasingly competitive arena. Even organization who rely
on government - sponsored grants need to show how their work is of benefit to society:
they must meet the needs of their customers. Many non-profit organizations rely on
membership fees or donations, which means that communication to individuals and
organization is required, and they must be persuaded to join or make a donation. This
require marketing skills , which are being increasingly applied.

Characteristics of non-profit marketing :

Education versus meeting current needs

Some non-profit organizations see their role as not only meeting current needs of their
customers but also educating tem in new ideas and issues, cultural development and
social awareness. It can be done in harmony with providing CE as an additional value of
CE course.

Multiple publics

Most non-profit organization serve several groups or publics. The two broad groups are
donors , who may be individuals, trust , companies and governmental bodies, and clients,
who include audiences and beneficiaries. The need is to satisfy both donors and clients,
complicating marketing task. For example a community association providing also the
CE courses may be partly funded by the local authority and partly by other donors
(individuals or companies) and partly by clients. To succeed all the groups must be
satisfied.

Measurement of success and conflicting objectives

For profit oriented organizations success is measured ultimately on profitability. For nonprofit organizations measuring success is not so easy. In universities , for example, is
success measured in research terms, number of students taught, the range of
qualifications or the quality of teaching? The answer is that it is a combination of these
factors, which can lead to conflict: more students and larger of courses may reduce the
time needed for research. Decision making is therefore complex in non-profit oriented
organization.

Public scrutiny

While all organization are subject to public scrutiny, public sector non-profit organization
are never far from publics attention. The reason is that they are publicity funded from
taxes. This gives them extra newsworthiness as all tax-payers are interested in how their
money is being spent. They have to be particularly careful that they do not become
involved in controversy, which can result in bed publicity.

Marketing procedures for non-profit organizations

Despite these differences the marketing procedures relevant to profit oriented companies
can also be applied to non-profit organizations. Target marketing, differentiations and
marketing mix decision need to be made. These issues will be discussed with reference to
the special characteristics of non-profit organizations.

Target marketing and differentiation

Non-profit organization can usefully segment their target publics into donors and clients
(customers). Within each group, sub segments of individuals and organization need to be
identified. These will be the target for persuasive communications, and the development
of services. The need of each group must be understood. For example the donors can
judge which non-profit CE centre to give the support n the basis of awareness and
reputation, the confidence that funds will not be wasted on excessive administration, and
the perceive worthiness of the cause. That is why the CE center needs not only to
promote itself but also to gain publicity for its cause. Its level of donor funding will
depend upon both of these factors. The brand name of CE centre is also important (it has
been discussed n previous parts).

Developing the marketing mix

Many non-profit organizations are skilled at event marketing . Events are organized to
raise the funds, including dinners, dances, coffee mornings, book ales, sponsored walks
and others.

The pricing god the services provided by non-profit organizations may not follow the
guidelines applicable to profit oriented pricing. For example the price of CE curse
organized by non-profit CE center for Gypsies may be held low to encourage poor
families to take advantage of this opportunity. Some non-profit organization even provide
free access to services.

Like most services, distribution systems for many non-profit organizations are short, with
production and consumption simultaneous. This is the case also of education. Such
organization have to think carefully about how to deliver their services with the
convenience that customers require. For example, although the CE center is based in big

city, over half of the courses for ethnic minorities may be delivered in small villages
around the city.

Many non-profit organizations are adept at using promotion to further their needs. The
print media are popular with organization seeking donations for cases that are in common
interest of whole society (education for gypsies, raising awareness in the area of abused
children or women, courses to support and educate the political refugees ).
Direct mail is also used to raise the funds. Mailing lists of past donors are useful here,
and some organization use lifestyle geodemographic analysis to identify the type of
person who is more likely to respond to direct mailing. Non-profit organization must be
also aware of public opportunities which may arise because of their activities.

Pubic relations has an important role to play to generate positive word-of-mouth

communications and to establish the identity of the non-profit organization. A key
objective of communications effort should be to produce a positive assessment of the
fund-raising transaction and to reduce the perceived risk of the donation so that donors
develop trust and confidence in the organization and become committed to the cause.

Team assignment marketing of non-profit organization

Consider that your CE center is non-profit organization. How does marketing in nonprofit organization differ from that in profit oriented organizations? Discuses the extend
to which marketing principles can be applied and try to identify 2 marketing procedures
which fit mostly for non-profit organizations.

DESIGN AND DELIVERY OF SERVICES

Strategy and Segmentation

Segmentation = Classification. Necessary to do Science

Segmentation: Demographic data are not sufficient when dealing with services
that are consumed with high frequency. In these cases data from transactions can play a
major role in identifying segments.

Competitive Analysis
Delta Model and Porters Five Forces are the basis for a good strategic analysis

Delta Model

The Delta Model contains the following elements:1.

Strategic triangle: used for defining strategic positions that reflect

fundamentally new sources of profitability (3 strategic options: best
product, customer solutions and system lock in)

2.

Aligning these strategic options with a firms activities and provides

congruency between strategic direction and execution ( 3 fundamental
processes are always present and are the repository of key strategic
tasks: operational effectiveness, customer targeting and innovation),
and

3.

Adaptive process: - core processes of the company must be aligned to

the chosen strategy in order to make progress against the strategic
agenda and avoid a commodity-like outcome. The delta model
identifies the core processes of the business and provides a guide for
how they need to function differently to achieve different strategic
positions capable of continually responding to an uncertain
environment

4.

Metric

Porters Five Forces

Four forces -- bargaining power of customers, the bargaining power of

suppliers, the threat of new entrants, and the threat of substitute products -combine with other variables to influence a fifth force, the level of
competition in an industry. Each of these forces has several determinants:

A graphical representation of Porters Five Forces

The bargaining power of customers

o

buyer concentration to firm concentration ratio

bargaining leverage

buyer volume

buyer switching costs relative to firm switching costs

buyer information availability

ability to backward integrate

availability of existing substitute products

buyer price sensitivity

price of total purchase

The bargaining power of suppliers

o

supplier switching costs relative to firm switching costs

degree of differentiation of inputs

presence of substitute inputs

supplier concentration to firm concentration ratio

threat of forward integration by suppliers relative to the

threat of backward integration by firms

cost of inputs relative to selling price of the product

importance of volume to supplier

The threat of new entrants

o

the existence of barriers to entry

economies of product differences

brand equity

switching costs

capital requirements

access to distribution

absolute cost advantages

learning curve advantages

expected retaliation

government policies

The threat of substitute products

o

buyer propensity to substitute

relative price performance of substitutes

buyer switching costs

perceived level of product differentiation

The intensity of competitive rivalry

o

power of buyers

power of suppliers

threat of new entrants

threat of substitute products

number of competitors

rate of industry growth

intermittent industry overcapacity

exit barriers

diversity of competitors

informational complexity and asymmetry

brand equity

fixed cost allocation per value added

level of advertising expense

Some argue that a 6th force should be added to Porter's list to include a
variety of stakeholder groups from the task environment. This force is
referred to as "Relative Power of Other Stakeholders". Some examples of
these stakeholders are governments, local communities, creditors, and
shareholders.
This 5 forces analysis is just one part of the complete Porter strategic
models. The other elements are the value chain and the generic strategies.

Differentiation
In services, Our Imagination is the Limit to our Success
There Are No Mature Businesses But Only Mature Ways Of Doing Business

Enlargement of Product/Service
Core Services versus Facilitating Services. Recall the dish washer example
The bubble keeps expanding as customers expectations increase (a dynamic
process)
A key decision is how much to offer beyond the core service while we still remain
competitive.
Customer Satisfaction and Productivity are two sides of the same coin.

Framework to Analyze Service Operations

External Environment: where customers and competitors are, where marketing

and strategy are critical
Internal Environment: by definition is the place where customers are not present,
where operations and manufacturing techniques are critical.

Interface: where customers and company get in touch, it is often referred as the
moment of truth. It is the point in time where customers for their perception of the service
received and compare it with their expectations. Remember that the secretaries could care
less about all the assets deployed by FedEx.

An important feature of the Framework is the connection between the Internal

Environment and the Interface. The service contact personnel are highly dependent on
this link.

This framework is useful, as a first step, to analyze service operations and also it
is quite a tool to create new services.

A modern tendency is to give the customer a window into the internal

environment, the question is how much information to share, recall Yossi Sheffis talk
and the Dell example.

My opinion is that this tendency will evolve over time and Internal Environments
will become progressively more transparent! If this turns out to be true, there will be
many opportunities to change the ways of doing business and to start new ones.

Characteristics that are More Prevalent in Services

Intangibility: Services are intangible; as a consequence, it is often the
case that customers do not note them, or perceive them differently than the
company desires. Hence, it is necessary to Make Them More Visible. This
can be done by shaping perceptions and expectations, which require a good
knowledge of Psychology.

A good example of shaping perceptions and expectations is the management

of waiting time. (Other consequences of Intangibility are :)

The importance of all the Physical Aspects associated with the service, like
the appearance of service contact personnel (drivers of FedEx) as well as
brochures, facilities etc

The Lack of Patents, which requires industry leaders to be creative on a

steady basis, and to have a very flexible IT infrastructure and a Culture
suitable to continuous change.

The need to Materialize the Service, recall the examples of the maintenance
company, the car wash The two 747 aircraft that FedEx flies empty every
night and the snow equipment in Memphis are two missed opportunities.
Think about what your company does for its customer that they are not
aware of and they may pay for it.
Perishability: The fact that services are perishable eliminates the

possibility of using inventory management to match supply and demand.

There are several strategies that can be used to match supply and demand in
Services (broadly recognized as the most difficult problem faced by
operations managers in Services). We will have several classes on this topic.
Heterogeneity: Services are very often delivered by humans. An
important attribute of customer satisfaction is Consistency, which humans are

not known for. Companies tend to minimize this problem with training.
However they often forget that recruiting is more critical because it may be very
costly to train individuals who do not have a natural fit with the job (recall the
example of the waitress and the salad bar)
Simultaneity: Services are produced and consumed simultaneously.
As a consequence customer purchase the service and part of the delivery system
(in a restaurant, customers purchase an experience and not just food). Because of
this property it is difficult to separate marketing, customer service, and
operations in a service organization.

The simultaneity property complicates the management of quality in

service operations. The reason is the lack of consistency and the fact that
supervisor cannot be present in all encounters.

Keep in mind that in services, what the company does is not

necessarily what the customer perceives. Sometimes this difference between
customer perception and what the company does, occurs by design (examples
are Benihana and Disney).

Whenever possible keep the design of the system simple. Often,

simplicity is a sign of understanding of the essence of the business while
complexity is the opposite. The pursuit of a simple design leads to
understanding and elegance. Of course, sometimes there is no alternative to
designing a complex system, however, to attempt to simplify it is a
beneficial exercise. Always ask why do I need this feature? Can I get rid of
it?

Interaction among customers and suppliers, in a Supply Chain, creates

the opportunity of adding value to the final product through services. The
synchronization of the Supply Chain, which is the center of a publicity
campaign by UPS, stresses exactly this value. This notion of synchronization
just scratches the surface of the potential of services in a Supply Chain

Simple Blue prints to marketing of services

How to get customers. What ever business you are in, you'll

discover examples of how to get more prospects and how to convert

them into paying customers

How to keep customers to sell more services and increase life

time value

How to get your customers freely selling your services for

you!

Discover how to get into the readership of what your customers

are reading on a daily basis

Find the most effective ways to spread the word of your

business to customers about new products and services you are

offering

How to find more prospects for your business and where to go to

get them

How to position your business as the industry spokesperson

and have editors phoning YOU for your stories

Find out how writing your sales pitches in a slightly different way

is going to boost your response by up to 300%!

How focusing on just one of your customer groups is going to

both save you valuable time and maximise your sales

How one little piece of work is going to remind wavering

prospects time and time again

Will you give away your product for free? You ought to - but

who to? I'll show you how and why

How offering up-sells is going to get 40% of your customers to

give you more money

Write short comprehensive notes on the following. Each question is for 1.5
marks.
1. Contrast between goods and service marketing.
A. Intangibility
B. Heterogeneity
C. Simultaneous Production and Consumption
D. Perishability
2. tangible factors of Air travel
Ticket, Seat, The food and Beverages served in the air craft, the flight
aids
3. 7 Ps of services marketing mix.
Product, price, Place, Promotion, Physical evidence, People and Process
4. As consumers, what are we buying?
A. Elements
B. What are we really buying?
C. What are Services?
5. The Services Marketing Mix
A. Traditional Marketing Mix
B. Expanded Mix for Services

Team Assignment people, physical evidence and process

Identify six most important marketing mix elements (people, psychical evidence
and process) for your selected market segments.

Case study 1
Impacts of key trends in Indian telecom industry
Indian telecom industry is going through a phenomenal growth in the past five
years. Many trends that shaped the direction of this industry have emerged
during this period. This article discusses the key trends in the Indian telecom
industry, its driver and the major impact of such trends affecting the operators,
vendors and customers.

1. People go wireless: Indian customers are embracing the mobile technology in

a big way (average four million subscribers are being added every month over
the past six months). They prefer wireless service compared to wireline service,
which is evident from the fact that while wireless subscriber base has increased
75 percent CAGR from 2001 to 2006, the wireline subscriber base growth rate
has been negligible during the same period. In fact, many customers are
returning their wireline phones to their service providers. The main drivers for
this trend are quick service delivery for mobile connections, affordable pricing
plans in the form of pre-paid cards and increased purchasing power among 18 to
40 years age group, prime market for this service. Some of the positive impacts
of this trend are as follows: According to a study, 18 percent mobile users are
willing to change their handsets every year to newer models with more features,
which is a good news for the handset vendors. The other impact is that while the
operators have only limited options to generate additional revenues through
value-added services from wireline service, the mobile operators have numerous

options to generate non-voice revenues from their customers. Some examples of

value-added services are ring tone download, ring back tone, talking SMS,
mobisodes etc. Moreover, there exists great opportunity for content developers
to develop applications suitable for mobile users like mobile gaming, location
based services etc. On the negative side, there
is increased threat of virus, spread through mobile data connections and
Bluetooth
technology, in the mobile phones making it unusable sometimes. This is good
news for anti-virus solution providers who will gain from this trend. Moreover,
according to the study conducted by international organization, prolonged
mobile usage could lead to more health related issues, which is a bad news for
heavy mobile users.
2. Telecom equipment manufacturing: The telecom equipment deployed in the
Indian telecom network is primarily manufactured in other countries and
exported to India. However, there is growing trend of telecom equipment
manufacturing in India. Many equipment and handset vendors have either setup
their manufacturing facilities or in process of setting up such facilities in India.
The main drivers for this trend are availability of low cost & high quality human
resources, favorable government policies encouraging investment in telecom
manufacturing, and tender norms of telecom operators requiring the vendors to
have local manufacturing facilities. Some of the positive impacts of this trend
are as follows: Availability of local telecom hardware manufacturing will enable
Indian companies to transform into new product innovators from being mere
software solution developers. Moreover, with manufacturing factories and their
supply chain in place in India, telecom equipment will become cheaper
compared to being imported from other countries. Also, the operators could
enjoy the benefits of quick turn around time for their telecom equipment repairs
because EXIM procedure takes approximately 60 days to get the telecom

equipment repaired abroad. Finally, the new telecom manufacturing facilities

could lead to more economic development in those cities.

3. Managed Services: Usually, telecom service providers operate their network

taking care of all activities like managing outside plant wiring and all the way up
to total network management, on their own. However, there is a growing trend
among the new operators, especially mobile operators, to outsource majority of
their network operations to third party service providers. Typically, the complex
network management work is outsourced to telecom equipment vendors. The
main drivers for this trend are as follows: Since the new operators lack
experience to manage their network efficiently, they need experts help to
manage their network. This will help them to focus on their core competencies
like marketing the telecom services to their customers. Moreover, in the
competitive job environment, the employers find it difficult to manage the
churning of their high-skilled manpower that is needed to manage the complex
network. The major impacts of this trend are as follows: The outsourcing model
will work efficiently when the network is simple or consists of network
components from the same vendor. However, when the operator has complex
network with the network elements from multiple vendors, end-to-end network
management will be very difficult without active participation of operator,
which means that the operators have to invest in developing inhouse skills. The
other impact of this trend is although the operator gets predicted operating
expenses by outsourcing network operations, sometimes, that may not be the
better deal for them compared to doing on their own. This is because when there
are limited vendors for the outsourced activity like complex network
management, the
operators do not have flexibility to get better price from their vendors.

4. More revenues from copper base: Another major trend in the telecom industry
is that the wire line operators want to extract more revenues out of their huge
installed copper base (aproximately 45 million homes are connected by wire) by
introducing new services. The operators have deployed ADSL gear to offer
broadband connections to the customers. Moreover, many telecom operators
have signed deals with major enterprises to interconnect their offices creating
VPN through their wireline network. Also, some telecom operators have started
offering IPTV service in selected regions through ADSL lines. The major
drivers for this trend are eroding revenues from wireline business due to
competition from wireless and cable TV operators, technological advances like
ADSL2+ and MPEG4-AVC enabling transmission of commercial quality video
content at bandwidths supported by ADSL and increased demand of broadband
connections with availability of low cost PCs. The major impact of this trend is
the telecom operators have to increase their capex investments on their
backbone network in the near future because the current backbone bandwidth is
not enough for new services like video content
distribution for their IPTV service. Moreover, the increased competition
between telecom operators, cable TV operators in broadband access, and video
content distribution will drive down the cost of various services benefiting
Indian customers. The other positive impact is that the enterprises do not have
build and maintain the VPN connecting their office networks through dedicated
T1/E1 lines.
The trends in telecom industry have positive impacts on the operators, vendors
and the end customers so far. However, with more technological changes and
aggressive
competition from other industries like cable TV, new trends having the potential
to

change the direction of telecom industry in either way could emerge in the
future.

Questions
1. Give a detailed analysis of the above trends and their impact on various
stakeholders involved.
2. How far the projected trends would be conducive to the new entrants in the
sector?

Case study 2
SAHARAS LOSS IS PASSENGERS GAIN

In the dynamic world of Indian aviation, failure of the $500-million plan to

merge Jet Airways with Air Sahara has introduced a series of new twists and
turns. While there are several winners and losers, passengers are emerging as
immediate beneficiaries. Air Sahara operating independently means one more
player competing for market share while Jets muscle to influence the market is
weaker. Consolidation, in any case, is not known to benefit customers and
moves in the other direction should produce better options for passengers. Since
lean season is setting in with the monsoon, cheaper fares are flooding the market
and the failed deal is acting as a catalyst to benefit passengers. The confusion
arising out of the failed deal has also enthused a number of players like
Kingfisher, Air Deccan, Indian and SpiceJet in marketing their products.

Air Sahara has also added to the mood by introducing attractive fares on key
trunk routes. In any case, the Sahara Group airline had always played a key role
in the price-sensitive market by pushing competitive tariffs and incentives. Air
Deccan, Kingfisher and SpiceJet are also gaining market share giving Jet a run
for its money. Another key factor is the advantage that new airlines are gaining
in terms of poaching of pilots and engineers from Jet as well as Sahara. This
would help them ramp up operations faster and enhance competition. Some
players like IndiGo looking at launch of operations this year also stand to
gain since it has become far more easier to hire pilots and engineers from the
two warring airlines. The situation could change if one of the existing players,
say Kingfisher, takes over Sahara to gain instant market share. That would lead
to limited competition in the full-service segment which now controls 72%

market share. While the low-cost segment would remain unaffected, it will be
left to Jet, Indian, Kingfisher and
Sahara to fight for market share. That will bring in the consolidation factor
which may not be great news for customers while the industry stands to gain.
At this juncture, however, all the key players are losing money and the Centre
for Asia Pacific Aviation (CAPA) feels that profits are at least a year away.
The industry will lose money till the middle of 2007 and airlines which
withstand the turbulence will stand to gain, said Kapil Kaul, chief executive for
CAPA in the Indian sub-continent and West Asia. Industry leaders like Vijay
Mallya acknowledge that the going would be tough if oil prices remain high and
infrastructure is not beefed up in double quick time. While Capt G R Gopinath
of Air Deccan has been following rapid expansion strategy, other players like
SpiceJet have been following a strategy of steady growth to keep losses in
check.
The consensus among all players, including Jeh Wadia of GoAir, is that deep
pocket is the name of the game and no airline can make profits right from
inception.
Increase in capacity deployment in the coming months would also play a key
role in
pushing fares down, says Ankur Bhatia of Amadeus India. There will be more
pressure on fares, he added. Industry veterans feel rapid growth in the industry
was helping most players to carry on despite high input costs and increasing
competition. Most of the growth in the sector was due to easy availability of
cheaper tickets, they feel. Bottomline pressure will continue in the short run,
concedes Mr Gopinath. He feels that mergers help the industry as long as it does
not create monopolies, leading to better utilization of available resources. Most
low-cost players feel that there would not be any direct fallout on their business
due to the Jet-Sahara tussle. As Air Sahara gets aggressive to retain market share

and build up customer confidence, there will be price pressure on most players.
According to an official of airlines We are targeting a different customer
segment and will continue to do so.

Questions
1. Elaborate on the impact of merger failure on the working of the airlines
industry
as such.
2. Do you really feel that this merger failure would really be in the benefit of the
air
travelers?

Team assignment - Assess your marketing ability

Answer the questions below. If your answer is never: , mark Option 1, and so
on. Use the Analysis at the end of the questionnaire to identify your potential
weaknesses in the area of marketing.

OPTIONS:
1

Never

Occasionally

Frequently

Always

I.

We research customer needs before developing new products and

services
1
2
3
4

II.

Our CE centre considers customer buying points when promoting

products.
1
2
3
4

III.

Our CE centre ensures that orders are processed swiftly as well as

accurately.
1
2
3
4
Our CE center obtains customer information and use it to influence
decisions.
1
2
3
4
Our CE Centre set standards to ensure effective customer care.
1
2
3
4
Our CE centre take action to make sure that every customer is a
satisfied customer.
1
2
3
4
Our CE centre measure performance against the standards of
customer care.
1
2
3
4
Our CE center take the complains of customers very seriously.

IV.

V.
VI.

VII.

VIII.

1
2
3
4
Our CE centre monitor the number of customer complaints that we
receive.
1
2
3
4
X.
Our CE center tries to see if there is anything we can learn from a
customers complaints.
1
2
3
4
XI.
Our CE center finds reasons to keep in touch with customers.
1
2
3
4
XII. Our CE center tries to turn one-off customers into regular ones.
1
2
3
4
XIII. Our CE center keeps a record of key customer contact.
1
2
3
4
XIV. Our CE centre asks customers whether they will recommend us
1
2
3
4
XV. Our CE centre shows customers that their business is value.
1
2
3
4
XVI. Our CE centre tries to find out why we have a lost a customer.
1
2
3
4
XVII. Our CE centre attempts to win back lost customers.
1
2
3
4
XVIII. Our CE centre is already looking for the new customers.
1
2
3
4
XIX. Our CE centre tries to nurture customers loyalty.
1
2
3
4
XX. Our CE centre seeks customer comment and feedback.
1
2
3
4
XXI. Our CE centre listens what customer say.
1
2
3
4
XXII. Our CE centre pay attention to the little details that make all the
difference.
1
2
3
4
XXIII. Our CE centre tries to add value to our services.
1
2
3
4
XXIV. Our CE center emphasizes benefits, not features.
1
2
3
4
XXV. Our CE centre use public relations techniques to boost marketing
effectiveness
1
2
3
4
XXVI. Our CE centre draws up a pricing strategy for every new product
marketed.
IX.

1
2
3
4
XXVII. Our CE centre set objectives for publicity campaigns.
1
2
3
4
XXVIII. Our CE centre carefully target mail shots.
1
2
3
4
XXIX. Our CE centre takes care to select the right envelope for direct mail
campaign.
1
2
3
4
XXX. Our CE centre tests mail shots to find the most successful
combination.
1
2
3
4
XXXI. Our CE centre measures the overall effectiveness of a publicity
campaign.
1
2
3
4
XXXII. Our CE centre keeps non-marketing colleagues informed of key
marketing activity.
1
2
3
4

ANALYSIS
32-64: try to take a more organised, planned, methodical, and measured
approach to improve your effectiveness
65-95: some of your marketing activity is a success, but you need to develop
your skills to become wholly effective
96-128: you have adopted a thoroughly professional strategic approach to
marketing and are running successful marketing campaigns. Keep up the
good work to stay ahead of the competition
LITERATURE:

Heller R.: Managing for Excellence, Dorling Kindersley Limited, 2001,

London

Jobber D.: Principles & Practices of Marketing, Mcraw Hill, Engladn,

2001

Lovelock CH., Wright L.: Principles of Service Marketing and

Management, Prentice Hall, 2002-05-02

Kotler P., Armstrong G., Saunders J., Wong V.: Principles of Marketing,
Prentice Hall Europe, 1999

UNIT - II
MARKETING MIX IN SERVICES MARKETING

Objectives
In this unit, you will be introduced to the activities that comprise a firms
marketing program. In the services marketing context, these activities are
popularly referred to as the 7 Ps product, price, place, promotion, people,
physical evidence and process. After you work out this lesson, you should be
able to:

Understand the role of marketing mix in the marketing program of a

service firm

Know the sub-elements that comprise each of the marketing mix

elements

Learn how the 7 Ps combine to create effective marketing programs

In this lesson, the following will be discussed:

Product management decisions

Channel management

Marketing communications

Pricing basis, objectives and approaches

Peoples role in service firms

Servicescapes and their roles

Service blueprinting

1. Introduction

Marketing strategy involves segmenting the market, targeting one or

more segments and positioning the product/service towards the targeted
segment(s). After marketers select a target market, they direct their activities
towards profitably satisfying that segment. Although they must manipulate
many variables to reach this goal, marketing decision making can be divided
into four areas: product, price, place (distribution) and promotion (marketing
communication). The total package forms the marketing mix the blending of
the four elements to fit the needs and preferences of a specific target market.
These are the four variables that a marketer can use in different combinations to
create value for customers. Several of the sub-elements in each of the four Ps
that constitute the marketing mix are listed in Table 1. However the strategies of
the four Ps require some modifications when applied to services.
Modification to the traditional marketing mix is necessitated by the
characteristics

(namely

intangibility,

perishability,

heterogeneity

and

simultaneous production and consumption) of services. For example, since

services are produced and consumed simultaneously, service delivery people
(front desk personnel, guides, phone personnel and so on) are involved in realtime promotion of the service even if their jobs are typically defined in terms of
the operational function they perform. As services are usually produced and
consumed simultaneously, customers are often present in the firms factory,
interact directly with the firms personnel and are actually part of the service
production process.. Such considerations have led services marketers to adopt
the concept of an expanded marketing mix for services in the form of three
additional Ps (namely people, physical evidence and process) which are also
shown in Table 1. The expanded marketing mix was popularized by Booms and
Bitner.
Table 1. Marketing mix: elements and sub-elements
Elements of the Marketing Mix
Product

Sub-elements
Product design

Price

Promotion (marketing
communications)

Place (distribution channels)

People

Product positioning
Product name and branding
Packaging and labeling
Breadth and depth of product
line
Level and type of customer
service
Product warranty
New product development
process
Product life cycle strategies
Manufacturer, wholesaler and
retailer selling prices
Terms and conditions
Bidding tactics
Discount policies
New product pricing (Skim
Vs. Penetrating pricing)
Advertising
Sales force policies
Direct marketing (mail,
catalog)
Public relations
Price promotions for the
consumers and the channel
Trade shows and special
events
Direct Vs. Indirect channels
Channel length
Channel breadth (exclusive,
selective or intensive)
Franchising policies
Policies to ensure channel
coordination and control
Employees
- Recruiting
- Training
- Motivation
- Rewards
- Teamwork
Customers
- Education

Physical evidence

Process

- Training
Facility design
Service ambience
Equipment
Signage
Employee dress
Point-of-sale displays
Other tangibles (e.g. business
cards)
Flow of activities
Service script (number of
steps)
Customer involvement

2. Marketing programs
A marketing program is made up of the various elements of the
marketing mix and the relationships among them. The concept of the marketing
mix emphasizes the fit of the various pieces and the quality and size of their
interactions. There are three degrees of interaction consistency, integration and
leverage. Consistency is the lack of a poor fit between two or more elements of
the marketing mix. For example, to sell a high quality service through a low
quality servicescape (ambience or the physical surrounding) would seem
inconsistent. While consistency is the lack of a poor fit, integration is the
presence of a positive, harmonious interaction among the elements of the mix.
For example, heavy advertising can sometimes be harmonious with a high price,
because the added margin from the high price pays for the advertising and the
high advertising creates the brand differentiation that justifies the high price.
Leverage is the situation in which each individual element of the mix is used to
the best advantage in support of the total mix.
Once the elements of the marketing mix have met the internal tests of
consistency, integration and leverage, the next step is to check that the proposed
program fits the needs of the target customers, the core competencies of the
company and the likely responses of key competitors.

The concept of program/customer fit encompasses development of a

marketing program that fits the needs of the target-market segments. For that,
the market must first be carefully and explicitly delineated. If the target has not
been defined, it cannot be reached! The program must not only fit the market,
but also fit the company. A marketing program must match the core
competencies of the company that is implementing it. For example, an
organization with extensive mass advertising experience and expertise is more
likely to be able to carry out a program that leans heavily on advertising than an
organization less strong in that particular area. An effective marketing program
must not only fit the companys own core competencies, it must also take
account of competitors programs. Competitive/program fit can be defined as
the characteristic of a marketing program that, while building on a companys
strengths and shielding its weaknesses, protects it from competitors by
capitalizing on their weaknesses, in the process creating a unique market
personality and position.
Like most concepts, the marketing mix is an abstraction and real
marketing programs do not always fit perfectly the product, price, place,
promotion, people, physical evidence and process paradigm. In fact, several
parts of the mix fall at the interface of two elements. For example, brand, which
is often views as an aspect of product, is clearly also part of marketing
communications and can serve to help coordinate product/service policy and
communication.

3. Product management decisions

The marketing literature defines a product as anything that can be
offered to a market for attention, acquisition, use or consumption that might
satisfy a want or need. It includes physical objects, services, places,
organizations and ideas. Such a definition refers to the planned component of

the product that a firm offers. But in many service firms, the product also
includes an unplanned component. For example, it may be a broken chair in a
restaurant or a delayed departure of a flight or simply, a long wait on the
customer support helpline.
3.1 Product levels
The challenge for the service managers is to minimize (if not eliminate)
these unplanned components and make sure that the customers get what they
expected. To facilitate this, a multi-level view of the product helps. It may
view the product as comprising of the core product, the facilitating product, the
supporting product and the augmented product.

Core product This is the most basic level of the product and it answer
the question What is the buyer really buying?

Facilitating product It is the service/good that must be present for the

customer to use the core product.

Supporting product It is the extra product offered to add value to the

core product and help to differentiate it from the competition.

Augmented product It includes accessibility, atmosphere, customer

interaction with the service organization, customer participation and
customers interaction with each other. All these elements combine with
the core, facilitating and supporting products to provide the augmented
product.
For

mobile

phone

service

provider,

the

core

product

is

telephony/communication service. The facilitating product refers to its

infrastructure, mobile handsets, retail outlets, re-charge options and so on. The
supporting product refers to the value-added services like zero-balance call or
one-touch services. The augmented product refers to its customer support or
helpline, retail reach, atmospherics and so on.

From a managerial standpoint, the core product provides a focus for the
business; it is the reason for being. Facilitating products are those that are
essential for providing the core product to the target market. Supporting
products can help position a product. According to Gronroos, the core,
facilitating and supporting products determine what the customer receives but
not how they receive it. The augmented service offering combines what is
offered with how it is delivered.
3.2 Branding
A brand is a name, term, sign, symbol, design or a combination of these
elements that is intended to identify the goods or services of a seller and
differentiate them from those of competitors. Scott Davis, author of Brand asset
management, states:
Brands are among a companys most valuable assets and smart
companies today realize that capitalizing on their brands is important These
companies know that brands are more than just products and services. They
know that the brands are also what the company does and more importantly,
what the company is A brand is a critical component of what a company
stands for. It implies trust, consistency and a defined set of expectations. The
strongest brands in the world own a place in the customers mind and when they
are mentioned almost everyone thinks of the same things.
Figure 1 illustrates a classification of branding decisions right from the
decision to brand, who is the brand sponsor, the decision concerning the brand
name, the brand strategy decision (to leverage on the brand name) and the brand
reposition decision (to give a new lease of life to an ageing product in its life
cycle).
Figure 1. A classification of branding decisions

3.3 Product life cycle (PLC) concept

Products and services, like people, pass through stages as they age.
Humans progress from infancy to childhood to adulthood to retirement to death,
and successful products progress through four basic stages, namely,

Introduction a period of slow sales growth as the product is being

introduced into the market. Profits are non-existent at this stage because
of the heavy expenses of product introduction. Also, the introduction
takes time, and sales growth is apt to be slow. Some product may linger
in the introduction stage for many years before they enter a stage of rapid
growth. For instance, the small and independent beauty parlours have
been around quite sometime. But with so many rapid changes in the
social climate, even big names like HLL and Marico industries have
entered this market in a big way. In the introductory stage, there are only
a few competitors who produce basic versions of the product, because
the market is not ready for product refinements. The firms focus on
selling to buyers who are ready to buy, usually the higher-income
groups. Prices tend to be on the high side because of low output,
production problems and high promotion and other expenses.

Growth a period of rapid market acceptance and increasing profits.

Competitors will enter the market, attracted by the opportunity for profit.
It happened in the Indian domestic aviation industry with Air Deccan
entering the market as a low-cost carrier (LCC). Soon there was a rush of
LCCs like SpiceJet, GoAir, IndiGo and others. Prices remain where they
are or fall only slightly. Firms keep their promotion spending at the same
or at a slightly higher level to meet competition and continue educating
the market. The firm users several strategies to sustain rapid market
growth as long as possible:

Improve product quality and add new product features and

models

Enter new market segments

Enter new distribution channels

Shift some advertising from building product awareness to

building product conviction and purchase

Lower prices at the right time to attract more buyers

Maturity a period of slow down in sales growth because the product

has achieved acceptance by most of its potential buyers. This slow down
causes supply to exceed demand. The resulting overcapacity in the
market leads to greater competition. Profits level off or decline because
of increased marketing outlays to defend the product against
competition. The only to increase sales significantly is to steal customers
from the competition. Thus, price wars and heavy advertising are often
the means used to do this, both of which add to the marketing cost.
Weaker competitors start dropping out. The industry eventually contains
only well-established competitors in the main market segments with
smaller competitors pursuing the niche markets. Instead of just defending
the product, a firm should consider modifying target markets and the
marketing mix elements.

Decline a period when sales decline quickly and profits drop. It may be
because of reasons like technological advances, shifts in consumer tastes
and increased competition. As sales and profits decline, some firms may
withdraw from the market. Those remaining may reduce the number of
their product offerings. They may drop smaller market segments and
marginal trade channels. They may cut the promotion budget and reduce
their prices further. Carrying a weak product can be very costly to the
firm, and not just in terms of reduced profit. Keep weak products delays

the search for replacements, creates a lopsided product mix, hurts current
profits and weakens the companys foothold on the future. For these
reasons, firms must pay attention to their ageing products. Regularly
reviewing sales, market shares, costs and profit trends for each of its
products will help to identify products in the decline stage.
The progression from introduction stage to decline stage, known as the product
life cycle, is depicted in Figure 2. Notice that the product life cycle concept
applies to products/categories within an industry, not to individual brands. Also
some products may move rapidly through the product life cycle while others
pass through those stages over long time periods. In a global context, a product
may be seen in different stages of its life cycle in different markets. As an
illustration, in the current Indian market, digital handycams may be said to be in
the introduction stage, mobile phones in the growth stage, televisions in the
maturity stage and radio in the decline stage.

Figure 2. Product Life Cycle

Sales and
Profits (Rs)

Sales

Profits
Time
Product
Development
Losses/
Investments (Rs)

Introduction

Growth

Maturity

Decline

Table 2 indicates the changes in the marketing strategy and marketing mix
elements across the PLC stages. It is because the product faces unique market
and competitive forces at each stage. At the introductory stage, a firms
marketing efforts should emphasize the goal of stimulating demand. The focus
then shifts to cultivating selective demand in the growth period. Extensive
market segmentation helps to maintain momentum in the maturity period.
During the decline stage, the emphasis returns to increasing primary demand.
PLC provides useful guidance for marketing strategy decisions. Marketers can
anticipate that sales and profits will assume a predictable pattern throughout the
life cycle stages, so they can shift promotional emphasis from product
information in the early stages to brand promotion in the latter ones. This kind
of insight helps marketers to focus on maximizing sales and profits at each stage
through appropriate promotional efforts.

Table 2 Product Life Cycle stages and corresponding marketing responses

Development
Phase

Introduction
Phase

Growth Phase

Maturity
Phase

Decline
Phase

Strategic
Goal

Make your
product
known and
establish a
test
period

Acquire a
strong market
position

Maintain your
market
position and
build on it

Defend
market
position from
competitors
and improve
your product

Milk all
remaining
profits from
product

Competition

Almost not
there

Early entry of
aggressive
competitors
into the
market

Price and
distribution
channel
pressure

Establishment
of
competitive
environment

Some
competitors
are already
withdrawing
from market

Product

Limited
number of
variations

Introduction
of product
variations and
models

Improvement
upgrade of
product

Price
decrease

Variations
and
models that
are not
profitable
are
withdrawn

Price goal

High sales to
middle men

Aggressive
price policy
(decrease) for
sales increase

Re-estimation
of price policy

Defensive
price policy

Maintain
price
level for
small
profit

Promotion
Goal

Creation of
public
market
product
awareness

Reinforcement
of product
awareness and
preference

Reinforcement
of middle men

Maintain
loyal
to middle
men

Gradual
decrease

Distribution
Goal

Exclusive
and
selective
distribution
through
certain
distribution
channels and
creation of
high profit
margins for
middle men

General and
reinforced
distribution
through all
distribution
channels
available

General and
reinforced
distribution
with good
supply to the
middle men
but with low
margins of
profit for them

General and
reinforced
distribution
with good
supply to the
middle men
but with low
margins of
profit for
them

Withdrawal
from most
channels of
distribution
except those
used in the
development
phase

3.4 New product development

A company has to be good at developing new products. It also has to be
good at managing them in the face of changing tastes, technologies and
competition. As discussed in the previous section, every product seems to go
through a life cycle: it is born, passes through several stages, and eventually dies
as younger products come along that better serve consumer needs. Because all
products eventually decline, a firm must find new products to replace ageing
ones. Also, in order to cater to a wider audience whose tastes and preferences
differ, a firm must develop new and different products for its portfolio. One
estimate suggests that half of the profits of all U.S. companies come from
products that did not exist ten years ago.
A company can obtain new products in two ways. One is through
acquisition. It can also obtain new products through new product development

(NPD) by setting up its own research and development (R&D) department.

Some examples of NPD among service firms are: AIR INDIA EXPRESS, a
low-cost, no-frills service from AIR INDIA; Diabetes health insurance
introduced by ICICI; the foray of Reliance industries into fresh food retail
business.
Effective management of the new product development process increases
the likelihood of a new products success. As essential contribution to new
product success comes from a six-step development process:
1. Idea generation NPD starts with idea generation, the systematic search
for new ideas. A company typically has to generate many ideas to find a
few good ones. The search for new product ideas should be systematic
rather than haphazard. Otherwise, the company risks finding new ideas
that will not be compatible with its type of business. New product ideas
are gained from internal sources (say, employees), customers,
competitors, distributors and suppliers
2. Idea screening Its purpose is to spot good ideas and drop poor ones as
soon as possible. Several organizations maintain checklists of
development standards to determine whether to abandon an idea or
consider it further. These checklists typically include such factors as
product uniqueness, availability of raw materials and the proposed
products compatibility with current product offerings, existing facilities
and present capabilities. The screening stage may also allow for open
discussions of new-product ideas among representatives of different
functional areas in the organization.
3. Business analysis A product idea that survives the initial screening
must then pass a thorough business analysis. The analysis at this stage
assesses the new products potential market, growth rate and likely

competitive strengths. It involves a review of the sales, costs and profits

projections to determine whether they satisfy the companys objectives.
4. Development It turns the concept into a prototype of the product. This
conversion process is a joint responsibility of the firms development
engineers/designers, who turn the original concept into a product, and its
marketers, who provide feedback on consumer reactions to the product
design, package, colour and other features. Prototypes may go through
numerous changes before the original mock-up reaches the stage of a
final product.
5. Test marketing To gauge consumer reactions to a product under
normal conditions, many firms test market their new product offerings.
Up to this point, a product development team has obtained consumer
information by submitting free products to consumers, who then give
their reactions. Other information may come from shoppers evaluations
of competing products. Test marketing is the first stage at which the
product must perform in a real-life business environment. It allows the
marketers to gain experience in marketing the product, to find potential
problems and to learn where more information is needed before the
company goes to the great expense of full introduction. Test marketing
evaluates the product and the entire marketing program in real market
situations.
6. Commercialization The few product ideas that survive all the steps in
the development process emerge ready for full-scale marketing.
Commercialization of a major new product can expose the firm to
substantial expenses. It must establish marketing programs, fund outlays
for production facilities, and acquaint the sales force, marketing
intermediaries and potential customers with the new product. In

launching a new product, the firm must make four decisions, viz., when,
where, to whom and how.

Figure 3. Stages in the new product development process

IDEA GENERATION

IDEA SCREENING

BUSINESS ANALYSIS

DEVELOPMENT

TEST MARKETING

COMMERCIALIZATION

4. Pricing basis, objectives and approaches

Price is the only marketing mix element that produces revenue. All
others represent cost. A pricing mistake can lead to business failure, even when
all other elements of the business are sound. A price is an expression of value.
The value rests in the usefulness and quality of the product itself, in the image
that is conveyed through advertising and promotion, in the availability of the
product through wholesale and retail distribution systems, and in the service that
goes with it. A price is the sellers estimate of what all of this is worth to
potential buyers, recognizing the other options buyers will have for filling the

need the product is intended to satisfy. To the extent that the product or service
finds markets and is profitable at given price levels, it provides a viable
economic base for building and maintaining a business.
In the competitive marketplace, pricing is a game. The struggle for
market share focuses critically on price. Pricing strategies of competing firms,
therefore, are highly interdependent. The price one competitor sets is a function
not only of what the market will pay but also of what other firms charge. Prices
set by individual firms respond to those of competitors; they also are intended
often to influence competitors pricing behaviour. All of marketing comes to
focus in the pricing decision.
A way to think about making a pricing decision is that price should be
set somewhere between what the product costs to make and sell and its value to
the customer. If price exceeds the perceived value of the product to potential
purchasers, it has no market. If the price is below what the product costs to
produce, the business cannot survive for very long. Where a price should be set
between cost and customer value is a strategic decision. This decision is more
difficult in the case of services than products. It is because of the key differences
between customer evaluation of pricing for services and goods. For instance,
customers often have inaccurate or limited reference prices for services. Monroe
(1989) describes reference price as a price point in memory for a good or a
service, and can consist of the price last paid, the price most frequently paid, or
the average of all prices customers have paid for similar offerings. But many
consumers are quite uncertain about their knowledge of the prices of services
and the reference prices they hold in memory for services are not as accurate as
what they hold in memory for products. This difference can be explained by the
following factors:

Service heterogeneity limits knowledge. The intangible nature of the

services gives the service firms great flexibility in the configurations of

services they offer. It leads to complex and complicated pricing

structures. For example, consider a health insurance plan.

Service providers are unwilling to estimate prices. The fundamental

reason in many cases is that they do not know themselves what the
services will involve until the process of service delivery. So a prior
estimation is very difficult. For example, consider medical diagnosis and
treatment.

Individual customer needs vary. As a result, uniform pricing may not be

feasible. For example, consider the legal services.

Price information is overwhelming in services. In most cases, there are

not list prices because of the reasons mentioned above. As a result, price
comparison becomes difficult.

Prices are not visible and they may be hidden or implicit. For example,
consider the financial services. In few cases, many customers do not see
the price at all until after they receive certain services.
Another unique characteristic of services is the role of non-monetary

costs (like time costs, search costs and psychological costs) in the evaluation of
whether to buy a service. Most services require direct participation of the
consumer and thus consume real time. Time becomes a sacrifice made to receive
service in multiple ways. Also, waiting time for a service is usually longer and
less predictable than waiting time to buy goods. Search costs (i.e. the effort
invested to identify and select among desired services) are also higher for
services than for physical goods. The most difficult non-monetary costs are the
psychological costs incurred in receiving some services. Fear of not
understanding (say, in the case of an insurance claim), fear of rejection (say, in
the case of a bank loan) and fear of uncertainty (say, the fear of being charged
more than other consumers) constitute psychological costs that customers
experience as sacrifices when purchasing and using services. When quality is

hard to detect or when quality or price varies a great deal within a class of
services, consumers may believe that price is the best indicator of quality.
Unlike goods (products) that are dominated by search properties, services are
dominated by experience and credence properties. Therefore price is not used to
judge quality in goods as often as it is in services. Since customers depend on
price as a cue to quality and because price sets expectations of quality, service
prices must be determined carefully.
There are a number of factors which influence the pricing decisions of
marketers. While some of these are external or environmental factors (such as
competition, demand conditions and so on), others are internal factors (like
marketing objectives, cost conditions and so on). Figure 4 represents these
factors.
Figure 4. Factors affecting a firms pricing decision
Internal factors:
Marketing
objectives
Marketing mix
strategy
Costs
Pricing
organization

Pricing
decisions

External factors:
Nature of the market
and demand
Competition
Other environmental
factors (e.g.
economy, resellers
and the Govt.)

4.1 General service pricing approaches

The price the company charges will be somewhere between one that is
too low to produce a profit and one that is too high to produce any demand.
Product costs set a floor for the price and consumer perceptions of its value set
the ceiling. The firm must consider competitors prices and other external and
internal factors to find the best price between these two extremes. Firms set

prices by selecting a general pricing approach that includes one or more of these
sets of factors. The following approaches are used:
4.1.1 Cost-based approach
The simplest pricing method is cost-plus or markup pricing - adding a standard
markup to the cost of the product. Markups vary greatly among different goods.
Cost as a percentage of selling price is a commonly used pricing technique is the
restaurant industry. For example, a soft drink may cost Rs.10 is sold for Rs.20 in
a upscale restaurant at a 100 percent markup on cost. Markups are generally
higher on seasonal items (to cover the risk of not selling) and on specialty items,
slower moving items, items with inelastic demand. It must be noted that any
pricing method that ignores current demand and competition is not likely to lead
to the best price. Hence markup pricing only works if that price actually brings
in the expected level of sales.
Advantages:
(1) It covers all the costs
(2) It is designed to provide the target rate of margin
(3) It is generally a rational and widely accepted method
(4) It is an easy to comprehend and simple method
Disadvantages:
(1) The cost calculations are based on a predetermined level of activity. If
the actual level of activity varies from this estimated level, the costs may
vary, rendering this method unrealistic.
(2) If the costs of the firm are higher than its competitors, this method would
render the firm passive in relation to price.
(3) Another drawback is that sometimes the opportunity to charge a high
price is foregone.
(4) It ignores the price elasticity of demand.

(5) The cost-based pricing would not be helpful for some of the objectives or
tasks like market penetration, fighting competition and so on.
(6) It imparts an in-built inflexibility to pricing decisions.
4.1.2 Value-based approach
This approach uses the buyers perceptions of value, not the sellers cost,
as the key to pricing. The non-price variables in the marketing mix are used to
build perceived value in the buyers minds and set price to match the perceived
value. Any firm using perceived-value pricing must learn the value in the
buyers minds for different competitive offers. Using a technique called tradeoff analysis (to identify those service features that add more value than they
cost), the customers willingness to pay for a service can be determined. If the
seller charges more than the buyers perceived value, its sales will suffer. Many
firms overprice their products, resulting in poor sales. Other firms underprice.
Underpriced products sell well, but they produce less revenue than they would if
the firm raised its price to the perceived-value level.
When consumers discuss value, they may use the term in different ways.
What constitutes value may be highly personal and hence vary from one
customer to another. Zeithaml and Bitner (1996) categorize value as follows and
describe the pricing approaches that are suited to these value definitions:
1. Value is low price When monetary price is the most important
determinant of value to a customer, the firm focuses mainly on price.
The appropriate pricing approaches are:
a. Discounting To communicate to price-sensitive
buyers that they are receiving value, service firms offer
discounts or price cuts.
b. Odd pricing To make buyers perceive that they are
getting a lower price, the services are priced just below
the exact/round amount (i.e. Rs.99 instead of Rs.100)

c. Synchro-pricing It is the use of price to manage

demand for a service by using customer sensitivity to
prices. (For example, Internet service providers charge
for the connection time during day when the demand is
peak and offer it free during the night when the demand
is less).
d. Penetration pricing New services are introduced at
low prices to stimulate trial and widespread use. For
example, a mobile phone service provider may offer a
new feature such as Voice sms at a low introductory
price for quick penetration.
2. Value is whatever I want in a product or service When the
customer is concerned principally with the get components of a
service, monetary price is not of primary concern. The service is
valued by the desirable intrinsic attributes it possesses and priced
accordingly. The appropriate pricing approaches are:
a. Prestige pricing It is used by service firms who offer
high quality or status services. Customers of these firms
actually value the high price because it represents
prestige or a quality image. For example, consider a
Golf club membership.
b. Skimming pricing This is a strategy in which new
services are introduced at high prices with large
promotional expenditures. Many customers are more
concerned about obtaining the service than about the
cost of the service.
3. Value is the quality I get for the price I pay When the customer
primarily considers quality and monetary price, the task of the

marketer is to understand what quality means to the customer and

then to match quality level with price level. The appropriate pricing
approaches are:
a. Value pricing In the current usage, it involves
assembling a bundle of services that are desirable to a
wide group of customers and then pricing them lower
than they would cost alone. For example, many fast
food restaurants offer a value meal consisting of many
items in the menu. It represents giving more for less.
b. Market segmentation pricing A service marketer
charges different prices to groups of customers for what
are perceived to be different quality levels of service,
even though there may not be corresponding differences
in the costs of providing the services to each of these
groups. For example, there may a differential pricing for
members and non-members in a health club.
4. Value is what I get for what I give When the customer considers all
that he/she gets for a given price, including the accompanying
products, the consumption context and the consumption result, the
service marketer may consider the following approaches to arrive at
the final price:
a. Price framing Because many customers do not possess
accurate reference prices for services, service marketers
are more likely than product marketers to organize the
price information for customers so they know how to
view it. Marketers provide a price anchor. If the
customers accept the anchor, they view the price and
service package favorably.

b. Price bundling Some services are consumed more

effectively in conjunction with other services. When
customers find value in a package of services that are
inter-related, price bundling (that is, pricing and selling
services as a group rather than individually) is an
appropriate strategy.
c. Complementary pricing Services that are highly interrelated can be leveraged by using complementary
pricing tactics such as captive pricing, two-part pricing
and loss leadership. In captive pricing, the firm offers a
base service or product and then provides the supplies
or peripheral services needed to continue using the
service. In two-part pricing, the service price is broken
into a fixed fee plus variable usage fees. In loss
leadership, a familiar service is priced low to attract
customers and then other services available at higher
prices are revealed.
d. Results-based pricing In service industries (such as
legal consulting) in which outcome is very important
but uncertainty is high, the most relevant aspect of value
is the result or the outcome of the service. Pay-forperformance models are gaining popularity in pricing
the services of an ad agency. Money-back guarantees
are another example for this pricing tactic.
4.1.3 Competition-based approach
Competition-based pricing approach may take the form of going-rate
pricing or sealed-bid pricing. In going-rate pricing, the firm bases its price
largely on competitors prices, with less attention paid to its own cost or to

demand. In oligopolistic industries (where there are a few large service

providers), firms normally charge the same price. It is a popular pricing method.
When demand elasticity is hard to measure, firms feel the going price represents
the collective wisdom of the industry concerning the price that will yield a fair
return. Competition-based pricing is also used when firms bid for jobs. Using
sealed-bid pricing, a firm bases its price on how it thinks competitors will price
rather than on its own costs or on the demand. The firm wants to win a contract
and winning the contract requires pricing lower than other firms. Yet, the firm
cannot set its price below a certain level. It cannot price below cost without
hurting its position. In contrast, the higher the firm sets its price above its costs,
the less its chance of getting the contract.
Many firms follow the dominant competitors, particularly the price leader, in
setting the price. The main advantages of this method are:
(1) It is a very simple method
(2) It follows the main market trend
(3) It has relevance to the competitive standing of the firm
(4) Holding to the going price will prevent harmful price wars
The major disadvantages and limitations of following competitors are:
(1) If the competitors price decisions are unrealistic, the follower will also
be going wrong on the price
(2) The cost factors of the follower may not be similar to that of the
competitors
(3) The pricing objective of the firm could be different from that of the
competitors
(4) Sometimes the competitor may initiate price change for wrong reasons

4.2 Initiating price changes

After developing their price structures and strategies, service firms may
face occasions when they want to cut or raise prices. The following situations
may arise:

Initiating price cuts Reasons for a firm to cut price are excess capacity,
unable to increase business through promotional efforts, service
efficiency improvement, follow-the-leader pricing and to dominate the
market

Initiating price increases Reasons for a company to increase price are

cost inflation or excess demand

Buyer reactions to price changes Buyers will associate price with

quality when evaluating services they have not experienced directly.
They use it as a simple heuristic to judge.

Competitor reactions to price changes Competitors are most likely to

react when the number of firms involved is small, when the service is
similar and when buyers are well informed.

Responding to price changes While reacting to competitors price

changes, the issues to consider are: Why did the competitor change the
price? Is it going to be temporary or permanent? Are other competitors
going to respond and what are their likely responses? Of course, the firm
must consider its own position and the possible customer reactions to
price changes.

5. Channel management (Place)

Firms must carefully choose how and where their goods reach consumers
by managing their distribution channels. A distribution channel can be defined
as an organization system of marketing institutions and their inter-relationships
that promote the physical and title flow of goods and services from producers to

consumers. It overcomes the major time, place and possession gaps that separate
goods and services from those who would use them. It provides ultimate users
with convenient ways to obtain the goods and services they desire. The choice of
distribution channels should support the firms overall marketing strategy.
Figure 5 shows the various members and flows in marketing channels.
Consider for example, the distribution channel of Air Deccan, Indias
leading low-cost airliner. Apart from directly selling a ticket (e-ticket) from the
airlines website, www.airdeccan.net, it also sells through an arrangement with
Reliance WebWorld (a chain of Internet cafs) and Indian Oil retail outlets
(petrol bunks). There is a limited, if not, full scale distribution, through the
travel agents also. As a result, Air Deccan uses multiple channels.
4.1 Channel functions
The marketing literature identifies the following as the functions
performed by the members of the marketing channel:
1. Information: gathering and distributing marketing research and
intelligence information about the marketing environment
2. Promotion: developing and spreading persuasive communications about
an offer
3. Contact: finding and communicating with prospective buyers
4. Matching: shaping and fitting the offer to the buyers needs, including
such activities such as manufacturing, assembling and packaging
5. Negotiation: agreeing on price and other terms of the offer so that
ownership or possession can be transferred

Figure 5. Members and flows in marketing channels

Product Flow Negotiation Flow

Promotion Flow

Manufacturer

Manufacturer

Manufacturer

Transportati

Ownership Flow Information Flow

Manufacturer

Manufacturer

Transportation
Company

Advt agency

on
Wholesaler

Wholesaler

Wholesaler

Wholesaler

Wholesaler

Retailers

Retailers

Retailers

Retailers

Retailers

Consumers

Consumers

Consumers

Consumers

Consumers

Company

(Note: The orgin and concept of flows in marketing channels is generally attributed to Ronald S. Valie,
E.T Grether and Reavis Cox)

6. Physical distribution: transporting and storing goods

7. Financing: acquiring and using funds to cover the costs of channel work
8. Risk taking: assuming financial risks such as the inability to sell
inventory at full margin.
The first five functions help to complete transactions. The last three help to
fulfill the completed transactions. All these functions have three things in
common:

They use scarce resources

They can often be performed better through specialization

They can be shifted among channel members

Shifting functions to the channel members may keep producer costs and prices
low, but channel members must add a charge to cover the cost of their work. To
keep costs low, functions should be assigned to channel members who can
perform them most efficiently.
4.2 Service intermediaries
In a typical service marketing context, two service marketers are
involved in delivering service through intermediaries: the service principal
(originator) and the service deliverer (intermediary). For example, in the fast
food industry, Pizza Hut is the service principal and the outlet in Pondicherry
run by a franchisee is the service deliverer. Service intermediaries perform
important functions for the service principal. They often coproduce the service,
fulfilling service principals promises to customers. In contrast to channels for
products, channels for services are almost always direct, if not to the customer
then to the intermediary that sells to the customer. Because services cannot be
owned, there are no titles or rights to most services that can be passed along a
delivery channel. Because services are intangible and perishable, inventories
cannot exist, making warehousing a dispensable function. In general, because
services can not be produced, stored and then retailed as goods can, many

channels available to product firms are not feasible for service firms. Many of
the primary functions of channel members have no meaning in services. The
focus in service distribution is on identifying ways to bring the customer and
principal or its representative together.
4.3 Service channel options
The options for service distribution are limited to franchisees, agents, brokers
and electronic channels.

Franchisees are service outlets licensed by a principal to deliver a unique

service concept it has created or popularized (Example: fast-food chains
like McDonalds)

Agents and brokers are representatives who distribute and sell the
services of one or more service suppliers (Example: Insurance agents)

Electronic channels include all forms of service provision through

television, telephone, interactive media and the Internet. (Example: a
hotel website facilitating online reservation)

The following table highlights the benefits and challenges in the service channel
options.
Table 3. Benefits and challenges in service channel options
Benefits

Challenges

Through franchising:For franchisers:

Leveraged business format for

greater expansion and revenues

Difficulty in maintaining and

motivating franchisees

Consistency in outlets

Knowledge of local markets

Shared financial risk and more

Inconsistent quality

working capital

Control of customer

Highly publicized disputes and

conflict

relationship by intermediary

For franchisees:

An established business format

Encroachment

National or regional brand

Disappointing profits and

marketing

Minimized risk of starting a

revenues

business

Lack of perceived control over

operations

High fees

Loss of control over pricing

Through agents and brokers:

Reduced selling and

distribution costs

Intermediarys possession of

and other aspects of marketing

special skills and knowledge

Wide representation

Knowledge of local markets

Customer choice

Representation of multiple
service principals

Through electronic channels:

Consistent delivery for

standardized services

Customers are active, not

passive

Low cost

Customer convenience

Wide distribution

Price competition

Customer choice and ability to

Inability to customize with

electronic environment

customize

Quick customer feedback

Lack of control of the

highly standardized services

Lack of consistency due to

customer involvement

Requires changes in consumer

behaviour

Security concerns

Competition from widening

geographies

4.4 Channel levels

Marketing channels can be described by the number of channel levels.
(Refer to Figure 4). Each layer that performs some work in bringing the product
and its ownership/consumption closer to the final buyer is a channel level.
Because the producers and the final consumer both perform some work, they are
part of every channel. The number of intermediary levels (channel members) is
used to indicate the length of a channel. As a result, one can have a short or long
marketing channel depending on the number of intermediary levels that exist
between the producer and the consumer. The following table describes the
factors that affect distribution channel strategy.
Table 4. Factors that affect distribution channel strategy
Characteristics of short

Characteristics of long

channels

channels

Market

Business users (B2B)

Consumers (B2C)

factors

Geographically

Geographically

concentrated
Extensive technical

diverse
Little technical

knowledge and regular

knowledge and regular

servicing required

servicing not required

Product

Large orders

Small orders

factors

Perishable

Durable

Complex

Standardized

Expensive

Inexpensive

Manufacturer has

Manufacturer lacks

Producer
factors

adequate resources to

adequate resources to

perform channel

perform channel

functions

functions

Broad product line

Limited product line

Channel control

Channel control not

important
Competitive
factors

Manufacturer feels

important
Manufacturer feels

satisfied with

dissatisfied with

marketing

marketing

intermediaries

intermediaries

performance in

performance in

promoting products

promoting products

4.5 Channel issues

Channel managers often must work to resolve channel conflicts.
Distribution channels work smoothly only when members cooperate in wellorganized efforts to achieve maximum operating efficiencies, yet channel
members often perform as separate, independent and even competing forces.
Too often marketing institutions see only one step forward or backward along a
channel. They think about their own supplies and customers rather than about
vital links throughout the channel. Key problems with intermediaries include
channel conflicts over objectives and performance, conflict over costs and
rewards, difficulty controlling quality and consistency across outlets, tension
between empowerment and control and channel ambiguity.

The parties involved in delivering services do not always agree about

how the channel should operate. The conflict most often centres on the
parties having different goals, competing roles and rights and conflicting
views of the way the channel is performing.

The monetary arrangement between those who create the service and
those who deliver it is a pivotal issue of contention.

One of the biggest difficulties for both principals (producers) and their
intermediaries (channel members) involves the inconsistency and lack of
uniform quality that result when multiple outlets deliver services. When
a poor performance occurs in a single outlet, the service principal (who
probably has franchised out the service) suffers because the entire brand
and reputation are affected and other intermediaries endure negative
attributions to their outlets.

In many service situations, the principal and the intermediaries attained

profits and longevity by the principals controlling virtually every aspect
of the intermediaries businesses. Such control can have negative
influences within intermediaries. They think their freedom and creativity
is curbed.

When the channel is highly empowered, doubt exists about the roles of
the service firm and its intermediaries about many marketing activities. It
may lead to confusion and cause conflict.

6. Marketing communications (Promotion)

Modern marketing calls for more than developing a good product,
pricing it attractively and making it available to target customers. The whole
marketing mix must be integrated to deliver a consistent image and strategic
positioning. Firms must communicate continuously with their present and
potential customers. Every firm is inevitably cast into the role of communicator
and promoter.
Promotion is the function of informing, persuading and influencing the
consumers purchase decision. Consumers receive marketing communications
messages that deal with buyer-seller relationships from a variety of media,

including television, magazines and the Internet. Marketers can broadcast an ad

on television network to mass markets or design a customized direct-mail appeal
targeted to a small market segment (even a segment of one customer!). Each
message the consumer receives from any source represents the brand or firm.
Unless a firm coordinates all these messages, the consumer can become
confused and may entirely tune out the message. To prevent this loss of
attention, marketers are turning to integrated marketing communications (IMC)
which coordinate all promotional activities to produce a unified, customerfocused promotional message.
6.1 Promotion mix
A firms total marketing communications program, called its promotion
mix, consists of a specific blend of advertising, sales promotion, public relations
and personal selling to achieve advertising and marketing objectives. The five
major promotional tools are:

Advertising Any paid form of non-personal presentation and

promotion of ideas, goods or services by an identified sponsor

Sales promotion Short-term incentives to encourage the purchase or

sales of a product or service

Public relations Building good relations with the firms various

publics by obtaining favourable publicity, developing a good corporate
image, and handling or heading off unfavourable rumours, stories and
events.

Personal selling Oral presentation in a conversation with one or more

prospective buyers for the purpose of making sales.

Direct marketing The use of direct communication to a consumer

designed to generate a response in the form of an order (direct order); a
request for further information (lead generation); or a visit to a place of
business to purchase specific goods/services (traffic generation).

Table 5. Comparison of the five promotional mix elements

Advantages

Personal selling
Permits
measurement of
effectiveness
Elicits an
immediate
response

Disadvantages

Advertising
Reaches a large
group of potential
consumers for a
relatively low
price per exposure
Allows strict
control over the
final message

Tailors the
message to fit the
customer

Can be adapted
to either mass
audiences or
specific audience
segments

Relies almost
exclusively upon
the ability of the
salesperson
Involves high
cost per contact

Does not permit

totally accurate
measurement of
results
Usually cannot
close sales

Sales promotion
Produces an
immediate
consumer
response

Direct marketing
Generates an
immediate
response

Public relations
Creates a
positive attitude
toward a brand or
firm

Attracts
attention and
creates product
awareness
Allows easy
measurement of
results
Provides shortterm sales
increases
Is non-personal
in nature
Is difficult to
differentiate from
competitors
efforts

Covers a wide
audience with
targeted
advertising
Allows
complete,
customized,
personal message
Produces
measurable results
Suffers from
image problem
Involves a high
cost per reader
Depends on
quality and
accuracy of
mailing lists
May annoy
consumers

Enhances
credibility of a
brand or firm

May not permit

accurate
measurement of
effect on sales
Involves much
effort directed
toward nonmarketing
oriented goals

Table 5 presents a comparison of the five promotional mix elements. As

indicated, each type of promotion has both advantages and disadvantages. The
marketer must determine the appropriate blend of these promotional mix
elements to effectively market the firms goods/services.
6.2 Steps in developing effective communication
The following are the steps in developing effective communication.
1. Select the target audience, including potential buyers, current
users and possibly others who influence the buying decision.
2. Determine the communication objectives, typically involving
such goals as awareness, knowledge, liking, preference,
conviction and purchase.
3. Decide on a budget, including how much to spend on the total
campaign as well as what to allocate to various promotion types.
4. Create a message, capturing what to say, how to say it and who
will deliver the message.
5. Choose media, among them personal communication channels
such as personal selling or non-personal communication channels
such as television and newspapers. Media can also be
distinguished as mass media (such as television) and targeted
media (such as specialized magazines and direct mail).
6. Collect feedback, which includes researching how effective the
communications were in meeting the objectives.
6.3 Services marketing communication
Service firms must add to the traditional communications or promotion
mix, a concern about the ways that customers receive information about services
through interactive marketing or marketing between employees and customers.
Refer to the services marketing triangle show in Figure 5. It demonstrates that
the customer of services is the target of two types of marketing communication.

First, external marketing communication extends from the firm to the customer
and includes such traditional communication channels as advertising, sales
promotion and public relations. Second, interactive marketing communication
involves the messages that employees give to customers through such channels
as personal selling, customer service interactions, service encounter interactions
and servicescapes (described in section 8).

Figure 5. Services marketing triangle

6.4 Integrated services marketing communication

To match service delivery with service promises, the following strategies
are recommended: manage service promises, manage customer expectations,
improve customer education and manage internal marketing communications.
6.4.1 Manage service promises
In manufacturing physical goods, the departments that make promises
and those that deliver them can operate independently. In services, however, the

sales and marketing departments make promises about what other employees in
the organizations will fulfill. Because what employees do cannot be
standardized like physical goods produced mechanically, greater coordination
and management of promises are required. Successful services advertising and
personal selling becomes the responsibility of both marketing and operations.
Intangibility makes services advertising different from product advertising and
difficult for marketers. The intangible nature of services creates problems for
consumers both before and after purchase. Mittal (1999) has suggested services
advertising strategies to overcome the challenges posed by the intangible nature
of services. Refer to Table 6.
Service marketers have developed the following guidelines for service
advertising effectiveness:

Use narratives to demonstrate the service experience

Present vivid information

Use interactive imagery

Focus on the tangibles

Feature service employees in communication

Promise what is possible

Encourage word-of-mouth (WOM) communication

Feature service customers

Use transformational advertising

6.4.2 Manage customer expectations

Many service firms find themselves in the position of having to tell
customers that services previously provided will be discontinued or available
only at a higher price. Here are four strategies for a service firm to gracefully
give the customer news about what to expect.

Table 6. Services advertising strategies matched with properties of intangibility

Property of intangibility
Incorporeal existence

Generality

Advertising strategy
Physical representation

Make the message claim specific by

system documentation
performance documentation
service performance episode

Description
Show physical components of service that are unique,
indicate high quality and create the right association

Objectively document physical system capacity by

showing facts and figures
Document and cite past positive performance
statistics
Present a vivid story of an actual service delivery
incident that relates to the important service attribute

Abstractness

Service consumption episode

Capture and display typical customer benefiting from

the service, evoking particular incidents

Non-searchability

Performance documentation
Consumption documentation

Cite independently audited performance

Obtain and present customer testimonials

Service process episode

Present a vivid documentary on the step-by-step

service process
Present an actual case history of what the firm did for
a specific client

Impalpability

Case history episode

One way to reset expectations is to give the customer options for any
aspects of service that are meaningful, such as time and cost. With the
choice, clients can select that aspect of the trade-off (time or money) that
is most meaningful to them. Making the choice solidifies the clients
expectations of service.

Product companies are accustomed to offering different versions of their

products with prices commensurate with the value customers perceive.
This type of formal bundling and pricing can be accomplished in
services, with the extra benefit of managing expectations.

A service provider can educate the customer the criteria by which to

evaluate the service. The provider who does this in a credible manner
will have an advantage in shaping the evaluation process.

Service providers must learn to present their offerings in terms of value

and not on price alone. Such a value-centred negotiation can lead to
more realistic expectation in the customer.

6.4.3 Improve customer education

The nature of services demand that customers perform their roles
properly for many services to be effective. If the customer forgets to perform
this role, or performs it improperly, disappointment may result. For this reason,
communication to customers can take the form of customer education. The
following customer education approaches can help match promises with
delivery:

Prepare customers for the service process

Confirm performance to standards and expectations

Clarify expectations after the sale

Teach customers to avoid peak demand periods and seek slow demand
periods

6.4.4 Manage internal marketing communication

Internal marketing communications can be both vertical and horizontal.

Vertical communications are either downward (from management to employees)
or upward (from employees to management). Horizontal communications are
those across functional boundaries in an organization. Firms must give customer
contact employees the information, tools and skills to perform successful
interactive

marketing

through

downward

communication.

Upward

communication is also necessary in closing the gap between service promises

and service delivery. Having an open upward communication can prevent
service problems before they occur and minimize them when they do occur.
Horizontal communication must be facilitated to coordinate efforts for service
delivery. It is important to open channels of communication between marketing
and operations personnel for the potential for conflict between these two is high.
The back-office and support personnel typically do not interact directly with
external customers. Still they can be aligned with external customers through
mechanisms like interaction and also by creating cross-functional teams.
7. Peoples role in service firms
The people element in the service marketing mix refers to all of the
human actors who play a part in service delivery and thus influence the buyers
perceptions. Two groups of people play important roles in the delivery of quality
services the employees and customers. Service employees create satisfied
customers and build customer relationships. The front-line service providers are
enormously important to the success of the firm. They are responsible for
understanding customer needs and for interpreting customer requirements in real
time. Customer participation at some level is inevitable in service delivery. As a
result, the customers also play unique roles in service delivery situations.
Because customers are present during service production, they can contribute to
or detract from the successful delivery of the service and to their own

satisfaction. In many situations, employees, customers and even others in the

service environment interact to produce the ultimate service outcome.
7.1 Critical importance of service employees
Front-line employees and those supporting them from behind the scenes
are critical to the success of any service organization because they are the
service, they are the organization in the customers eyes, they are the brand and
they are marketers. Customers perceptions of service quality will be impacted
by the customer-centric behaviours of employees. In fact, all of the five
dimensions of service quality (reliability, responsiveness, assurance, empathy
and tangibles) can be influenced directly by service employees. Satisfied
employees make for satisfied customers. The front-line service employees are
referred to as boundary spanners because they operate at the organizations
boundary. They serve a critical function in understanding, filtering and
interpreting information and resources to and from the organization and its
external constituencies. They also exert emotional labour that goes beyond the
physical or mental skills needed to deliver quality service. Friendliness,
courtesy, empathy and responsiveness directed toward customers require huge
amounts of emotional labour from the front-line employees who should this
responsibility for the organization. To build a customer-oriented, service-minded
workforce, a service firm must

Hire the right people

Compete for the best people in the talent market

Hire for service competencies and service inclination

Be the preferred employer

Develop people to deliver service quality

Train for technical and interactive skills

Empower employees

Promote teamwork

Provide the needed support systems and

Develop service-oriented internal processes

Provide supportive technology and equipment

Measure internal service quality

Retain the best people

Include employees in the firms vision

Treat employees as customers

Measure and reward strong service performers

7.2 The importance of customers in service delivery

Recognition of the role of customers in service delivery is reflected in
the definition of the people element of the services marketing mix. The service
audience (comprising of the customer receiving the service and other customers
in the service environment) contribute to the service outcome through
appropriate or inappropriate, effective or ineffective, productive or unproductive
behaviours. Table 7 summarizes the levels of customer participation across
different services.
In many service contexts, customers receive the service simultaneously
with other customers or must wait for their turn while others are being
serviced. Either way, the presence of other customers in the service
environment can affect the service delivery process or its outcome. When other
customers exhibit disruptive behaviours, cause delays, overuse, crowd and
complain on incompatible needs, it negatively affects the service experience.

Table 7. Levels of customer participation across different services

Low: Consumer presence required

Moderate: Consumer inputs

High: Customer co-creates the

during service delivery

required for service creation

service product

Products are standardized

Client inputs customize a standard

Active client participation guides the

service

customized service

Service is provided regardless of any

Provision of service requires customer

Service cannot be created apart from

individual purchase

purchase

the customers purchase and active

participation

Payment may be the only required

Customer inputs (information,

Customer inputs are mandatory and

customer input

materials) are necessary for an

they co-create the outcome

adequate outcome, but the service firm

provides the service
B2C example: Airline travel

B2C example: Full-service restaurant

B2C example: Personal training

B2B example: Pest control

B2B example: Freight transportation

B2B example: Management consulting

Advances in technology have allowed the proliferation of a wide range of selfservice technologies (SSTs) that manage the customer participation in service
delivery. They bring in a great degree of standardization and consistency to the
service experience, at the same time saving others resources (including employees)
for the service firm. Popular examples of SSTs include ATMs, Internet banking,
Package tracking, e-learning, airline e-ticket, online shopping and auctions.
The level and nature of customer participation in the service process are
strategic decisions that can impact a firms productivity, its competitive positioning,
service quality and customer satisfaction. The goal of a customer participation
strategy are to increase productivity and customer satisfaction while simultaneously
decreasing uncertainty due to unpredictable customer actions. A customer
participation strategy may be outlined as follows:

Define customers jobs

Helping oneself

Helping others

Promoting the brand/firm

Recruit, educate and reward customers

Recruit the right customers

Educate and train customers to perform effectively

Reward customers for their contributions

Avoid negative outcomes of inappropriate customer participation

Manage the customer mix

Appropriate market segmentation

Compatibility management

8. Servicescapes (Physical evidence) and their roles

Physical evidence is the environment in which the service is delivered and
where the firm and the customer interact, and any tangible commodities that
facilitate performance or communication of the service. Physical evidence is
important for communicating about credence services. Think of the impressions a
theme part may leave on its customers using brightly coloured displays, the music,
the fantastic rides and the constumed characters they all reinforce the feelings of
excitement and fun.
Physical evidence is important because the services are intangible. They
help to tangibilize the intangible service as customers go by tangible cues, to
evaluate the service before its purchase and to assess their satisfaction with the
service during and after consumption. Table 8 represents the elements and examples
of physical evidence.

Table 8. Elements of physical evidence

Servicescape
Facility exterior:
Exterior design
Signage
Parking
Landscape
Surrounding environment
Facility interior:
Interior design
Equipment
Signage
Layout
Air quality/temperature

Other tangibles
Business cards
Stationery
Billing statements
Reports
Employee dress
Uniforms
Brochures
Web pages
Virtual servicescape

Airline:
Airline gate area
Airplane exterior
Airplane interior (decor)

Airline:
Tickets
Food
Uniforms
Website
Music concert:
Signs
Tickets
Program

Music concert:
Seating
Stadium exterior
Ticketing area
Audience zones
A classification of service firms can be arrived based on variations in form
(elaborate/lean) and use (self-service, interpersonal service, remote service) of the
servicescape. Some service environments are very simple, with few elements, few
spaces and few pieces of equipment. Such environments are termed lean. Examples
include ATM and information kiosks. Other servicescapes are very complicated,
with many elements and many forms. They are termed elaborate environments.
Examples include hospitals and insurance companies.
8.1 Roles of the servicescape
The servicescape plays many roles which help the service firms overcome
some of the limitations brought in by the characteristics of services themselves. For
example, similar to a tangible products package, the servicescape (along with other
elements of physical evidence) wrap the service to create an image for what is
inside. The servicescape is the outward appearance of a service firm and thus can
be critical in forming initial impressions or setting up customer expectations. For
example, a coffee shops exteriors, signage and frontage can covey a up-scale image
to the customers.
A well-designed, functional facility can make the service a pleasure to
experience from the customers point of view and a pleasure to perform from the
employees. On the other hand, poor and inefficient design may frustrate both

customers and employees. For example, a coffee shop with a spacious layout,
prominent and well lit interior signages will make the customers feel comfortable.
The design of the servicescape aids in the socialization of both employees
and customers in the sense that it helps to convey expected role, behaviours and
relationships. For example, more and more coffee shops are adopting a living room
style of seating with comfortable lounge chairs and tables set to encourage
interaction and staying longer.
The design of the physical facility can differentiate a firm from its
competitors and appeal to the market segment the service is intended for. For
examples, in coffee shops, the signage, colours used in dcor and displays and type
of music played appeal to the intended market segment.
Thus the servicescape plays the role of package, facilitator, socializer and
differentiator.
8.2 Servicescape effect on consumer behaviour
A basic model of consumer behaviour follows the basic stimulus-organismresponse theory. Servicescape as a stimulus evokes certain responses from the
people (employees and customers) in its vicinity. For example, it may cause an
approach (say, desire to stay) or avoidance (say, a desire not to stay) behaviour in
an individual. Apart from influencing individual behaviour, the servicescape
influences the nature and quality of customer and employee interactions, most
directly in interpersonal services. Servicescape as a stimulus, may not only cause a
particular behaviour, but also produce internal responses. Employees and customers
respond to dimensions of their physical surroundings cognitively (e.g. perceptions),
emotionally

(e.g.

excitement)

and

physiologically

(e.g.

physical

comfort/discomfort). A servicescape can be thought of as a form of non-verbal

communication imparting meaning through the physical elements in the

servicescape. Environmental dimensions of the physical surroundings can include

all of the objective physical factors that can be controlled by the firm to enhance (or
constrain) employee and customer actions. These factors can be categorized into
three dimensions, namely, ambient conditions (such as temperature, lighting, noise,
scent and colour), spatial layout (arrangement of machinery, equipment and
furnishings) and functionality (ability of the items in spatial layout to facilitate the
accomplishment of customer and employee goals) and signs (as labels, for
directional purposes and to communicate rules of behaviour), symbols and artifacts.
Signs, symbols and artifacts are particularly important in forming first impressions
and for communicating new service concepts. When customers are unfamiliar with
a service firm, they will rely on the above discussed environmental cues to help
them judge the place and form their expectations.
8.3 Guidelines for physical evidence strategy
Some general guidelines provided by Bitner (1993) for an effective physical
evidence strategy are listed below:

Recognize the strategic impact of physical evidence For an evidence

strategy to be effective, it must be linked clearly to the firms overall goals
and vision.

Map the physical evidence of service Everyone should be able to see the
service process and the existing elements of physical evidence.

Clarify role of the servicescape To identify opportunities and decide just

who needs to be consulted in making facility design decisions.

Assess and identify physical evidence opportunities One question to ask is,
are there missed opportunities to provide service evidence?

Be prepared to update and modernize the evidence Some aspects of the

evidence require frequent if not periodic updating and modernizing.

Work cross-functionally Evidence decisions are made over time and by

various functions within the organization.

9. Service blueprinting (Process)

The 7th P of service marketing mix is process. It refers to the actual
procedures, mechanisms and flow of activities by which the service is delivered
the service delivery and operating systems. The service process is designed and
specified using the service blueprinting tool.
To march service specifications to customer expectations, the characteristics
of the critical service process must be described objectively and depicted for the
employees, customers and managers alike to know what the service is, what their
role in its delivery is and understand all of the steps and flows involved in the
service process. Shostack (1984) describes service blueprinting as a tool that
addresses the challenges of designing and specifying intangible service processes.
A service blueprint is a picture or map that accurately portrays the service
system so that the different people involved in providing it can understand and deal
with it objectively regardless of their roles or their individual points of view. It is a
tool for simultaneously depicting the service process, the points of customer contact
and the evidence of service from the customers point of view. It provides a way to
break a service down into its logical components and to depict the steps or tasks in
the process, the means by which the tasks are executed and the evidence of service
as the customer experiences it.
The key components of service blueprints are customer actions, front-end
contact employee actions, back-end contact employee actions and support

processes. The customer actions encompass the steps, choices, activities and
interactions that the customer performs in the process of purchasing, consuming and
evaluating the service. The front-end contact employee actions are visible to the
customer whereas the back-end contact employee actions are invisible. The support
processes cover the internal services, steps and interactions that take place to
support the contact employees in delivering the service. A line of interaction is
drawn to represent direct interactions between the customer and the organization. A
line of visibility separates all service activities that are visible to the customer from
those that are not visible. A line of internal interaction separates contact employee
activities from those of other service support activities and people.
One of the most significant differences in service blueprints compared with
other types of process flow diagrams is the inclusion of customers and their views
of the service process.
9.1 Building a blueprint
Through the process of developing the blueprint, many intermediate goals
can be achieved: clarification of the concept, development of a shared service
vision, recognition of complexities and intricacies of the service that are not initially
apparent and delineation of roles and responsibilities. The following are the steps in
building a service blueprint:
1. Identify the process to be blueprinted
2. Identify the customer or customer segment
3. Map the process from the customers point of view
4. Map contact employee actions, front-end and back-end and/or technology
actions
5. Link contact activities to needed support functions
6. Add evidence of service at each customer action step

When people begin to develop a blueprint, it quickly becomes apparent what

is actually known about the service. Sometimes the shared knowledge is very little.
Biases and prejudices are made explicit, and agreements and compromises must be
reached. The process itself promotes cross-functional integration and understanding.

Discussion questions:
1. Use a product from the hospitality services industry to explain the following
terms:
-

Facilitating product

Supporting product

Augmented product

2. As an executive healthcare manager, how would you gain new product

ideas?
3. Apply the concept of the product life cycle to a bank. How does a bank keep
its products/services from going into the decline stage.
4. Go to the www.priceline.com website. Familiarize yourself with the way it
works. Comment on the pricing mechanism at Priceline.com.
5. Consider that you are the Director of the Directorate of Distance Education,
Pondicherry University. Prepare a value price package that is appealing to
students. Describe your approach. How does it differ from existing
offerings?
6. One way of increasing revenue is through up-selling. Give examples from
the services industry of when up-selling can result in a more satisfied
customer.
7. List five services that could be distributed on the Internet. Why are these
particular services appropriate for electronic distribution?

8. In what specific ways does the distribution of service differ from the
distribution of goods?
9. Develop a brief franchising plan for a service concept or idea that you
believe could be successful.
10. Which form of internal marketing communication vertical or horizontal
would you invest in if you had to select between them as an organizations
CEO? Why?
11. Apply the five major tools in the marketing communication mix to a
hospitality firm by showing how a company can use all these tools.
12. Compare the different media options for a service marketer.
13. Discuss the general importance of customers in the successful delivery of
service using your own personal examples.
14. Think of a service establishment where customers can influence each other
(say, airline). What are the potential cases of positive and negative customer
influence? Discuss how you would manage the situation to increase overall
customer satisfaction.
15. Why is everyone not affected in exactly the same way by the servicescape?
16. Using your own experiences, give examples of situations when you have
been affected cognitively, emotionally and physiologically by elements of
the servicescape.
17. Visit the website of ICICI bank. Does the physical evidence of the website
portray an image consistent with other forms of evidence provided by the
bank?
18. Compare two services on the Internet. Discuss the design of each in terms of
whether it meets your expectations. How could the design or the service

process be changed? Which of these two services is most effective and

what?
19. Think of a new and interesting service in your local area. Document the
service process using a service blueprint.
20. Choose a service you are familiar with and document the customer action
steps through a blueprint. What is the evidence of service from your point
of view as a customer?

References for additional reading:

1. P. D. Bennett, Dictionary of marketing terms, (Chicago: American
Marketing Association, 1988).
2. L. Berry, Discovering the soul of service, (New York: The Free press,
1999).
3. M. J. Bitner, Managing the evidence of service, in The Service Quality
Handbook, ed. E. E. Scheuing and W. F. Christopher (New York:
AMACOM, 1993), pp. 358-70.
4. M. J. Bitner, Building service relationships: Its all about promises,
Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 23, 4 (1995)
5. B. H. Booms and M. J. Bitner, Marketing strategies and organizational
structures for Service firms, in Marketing of Services, ed. J. H. Donnelly and
W. R. George (Chicago: American Marketing Association, 1981), pp.47-51.
6. S. Davis, Brand asset management, (xxxxx, xxx: cccc, 19xx).
7. C. Gronroos, Service management and marketing, (Lexington, MA:
Lexington books, 1990).

8. A. R. Hubbert, Customer co-creation of service outcomes: Effects of locus

of causality attributions, doctoral dissertation, Arizona State University,
Tempe, Arizona, 1995.
9. J. Kingman-Brundage, The ABCs of service system blueprinting, in
Designing a winning service stratgey, ed. M. J. Bitner and L. A. Crosby
(Chicago: American Marketing Association, 1989).
10. P. Kotler, Marketing management: Analysis, Planning, Implementation and
Control, (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1994).
11. E. J. McCarthy and W. D. Perrault, Basic Marketing: A global managerial
approach, (Burr Ridge, IL: Richard D. Irwin, 1993).
12. K. Monroe, The pricing of services, Handbook of Services Marketing, ed.
C. A. Congram and M. L. Friedman (New York: AMACOM, 1989), pp.2031.
13. G. L. Shostack, Designing services that deliver, Harvard Business Review,
January-February, 1984.
14. V. A. Zeithaml and M. J. Bitner, Services Marketing: Integrating customer
focus across the firm, (New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill, 1996).

SERVICES MARKETING
UNIT III

INTRODUCTION

The basic process of designing marketing strategies for services is same as

for goods.

While developing marketing strategies for services, services

marketers develop a special focus for the marketing mix to account for
special problems from the four special characteristics of services
The following table summarizes special characteristics of services, the
potential problem likely to be created by them thereby effecting service
quality and appropriate strategies for dealing with such problems.

SPECIAL SERVICE CHARACTERISTICS AND STRATEGIES

TABLE
Characteristics

Potential problems

Appropriate

strategies

for

marketing

services
Intangibility

Inventory

Inconsistency

Inseparability

Difficult to evaluate in

Build brand-benefit linkages

advance.

Associate with tangible cues

Inadequate availability at

Use of peak pricing

desired times

Offer flexible delivery

Hard to assume consistent

Substitute equipment for people

quality

Establish set rules and routines

Perception of services is

Build membership relationship.

based on perception of

Personalize the service

provider

Provide sensitivity training

The marketers must take into consideration the following criteria

while developing the marketing strategies so that potential problems caused
due to services characteristics are minimized.
1. Develop the right service for right people at the right price, in right
place, with right positioning and image.

2. Communicate

with

consumers-continuously-continuously-

continuously so that they are aware that need satisfying services

are available to them.
The important strategies for marketing of services include
1. Strategies to stay practice by differentiation.
2. Strategies for dealing with intangibility.
3. Strategies for dealing with inventory (Perishability).
4. Strategies for dealing with inconsistency (Hetro geniety).
5. Strategies for dealing with Inseparability.

PRO-ACTIVITY-A

STRATEGIC

TOOL

TO

OUTSERVICE

COMPETITION
We need to understand what drives customer satisfaction. Service providers
must understand the distinction between ones CORE PRODUCT/SERVIVE
OFFERING and SUPPLIMENTAL SERVICES. The supplemental services
may be called VALUE ADDED SERVICES. Sometimes they are termed as
peripheral or surround services.

Core product/service offering

Safe Transport forms one city to another via aeroplane.
Doctors proper diagnosis and treatment.
Lawyers sound legal advice.
Hotel room with comfortable bed and clean bath.

Supplemental services
Movie or meal on boards the aeroplane.
Doctors friendly bedside manner
Trustworthiness of lawyer.
Bath room amenities and mini bar in the hotel room.

While studying customers satisfaction across the range of service

offerings,
the marketers often find customers evaluating the service delivery on the
basis supplemental/peripherals. These little things how much they from the

pay for complete offerings are to be understood in terms their significance

and criticality with respect to competitors offering.

Why customers evaluate services on supplemental?

Customer always assume that service providers core offering
shall be of high quality. Undoubtly a poor core offering will
cause customer dissatisfaction, but a good core extension alone
is not sufficient for customer satisfaction.
Within and across competitors, the core product offerings
hardly have variations, e.g., the core offerings of the competing
airlines are same, and the planes do arrive safely. Hotel rooms
of the same classifications do have decent beddings and baths
etc.
For many customers/consumers it is very difficult to judge the
core offering e.g., What variations you can find in legal advice
given by lawyers,

medical advice

given by medical

practitioners, seat provided by the airlines or rooms provided

by the hotels of same classifications.

CREATE A DIFFERENTIAL ADVANTAGE

For any service achieving and sustaining a differential advantage is a
challenging task.
What is relevant for differentiating the services are supplemental.
Based on which the marketers are outsmarting the competition. This new
approach is being implemented beneficially by service marketers and is being
termed as proactive servicing: World proactive is being used in all fields
including politics but marketers have been able to use it effectively by
analyzing the organisations position by three simple situations.
Situation 1. What is the need of the customers?
Situation 2: What best our organisation does?
Situation 3: What the competitor is offering?

Let us analyse the following equations.

S2 = S1

eq. (1)

S3 = S1

eq. (2)

(S2 = S1) > (S3 = S1)

eq. (3)

(S2 = S1) < (S3 = S1)

eq. (4)

Equation 2 and equation 1 show that both our and the competitors
organisation is offering the similar service and it is entirely up to the
customer to choose the supplier.
Equation 3 shows that our organisation is offering better service than
the competitor where as the situation in equation 4 is reversed.
This process is not unknown to organizations but those who have
conducted analytical studies deeply in each of the three areas have reaped the
rewards of staying at the top. How?
As already discussed that core product is surrounded by supplementals
and these supplementals expand outwards as shown in the following
Proactive

service

model

(refer Fig )

Core Product

Fig. : Proactive Service model

The above model can be illustrated by an example of airline industry.

The core product offered by Indian Airlines is a seat from one
destination to another.

The most primary level of service might be

considered as a seat, a seat belt, an oxygen mask, a flotation device or a

parachute.
Reactive services are those items that develop due to competition from
other airlines say for Jet Airways or Sahara Airlines the reactive services may
include discount fare, choice of refreshments, frequent flier programmes etc.

The proactive service model relationship illustrates that each reactive

service was once a proactive service. For example whenever an airline tries
something new to attract customers-the most successful ideas are quickly
copied.
Practically now every airlines offer frequent flier programmes.
Longer a, service firm stays proactive more economic benefits it gets. In
todays competitive world only a few competitive moves last long. The news
of moves adopted by a company travel very fast and the customers expect
same reaction from all players in the field. In fact, many moves get copied
overnight.
When the competitor copies your move, you dont remain proactive
and you revert back into reactive circle. At this level, it becomes a service
that all customers expect at no additional charge.

This is a major

disadvantage rather than a competitive edge.

To innovate the best proactive service you should imagine a service
that your customer wants and that competition either cannot match
technology or elects not to match due to management constraints, lack of
market knowledge or other reason. This approach is likely to provide a

competitive advantage for the period till your competitor copies it and brings
your service in the reactive circle.
The service firms should possess a dynamic nature of designing
proactive strategies to outsmart competition and differentiate it for the
competitors.
The service organisation should be doing market research continually
talk to the customer regularly take front line and sales peoples view to
understand what does your customer want. The answer to this question will
help you to stay proactive.

STRATEGIC ASPECTS OF SERVICES MARKETING

We will now take up the strategic part of the services
marketing area, through a discussion centered on the classic
STP (segmentation, target marketing and positioning) aspects
of services.

The marketing of products also involves these

steps, as you would be aware if you had a marketing

management course before this one. Our emphasis will be on

finding out the reasons for the services tending to be different

at times, and we will focus on Indian service examples most of
the time.

Segmenting the Service Market

Imagine that you were an entrepreneur with assured funding from a bank, and
wanted to start a new service business.

The reason for starting a service

business could be your belief that services are more profitable in the long run.
How do you go about this task of identifying a new business?
Most likely, you would have to begin by deciding whom you want to
market your service to.

It is possible that some well-defined groups or

segments already exist in the business area that you have identified. For
example, if you want to start a hotel in Goa, there are two broad segments
one can readily imagine-tourists and business travelers.

However, these

broad units could also be segmented based on other variables. For example,
the domestic versus foreign clients, male or female customers, or young and
middle-aged and old customers are all valid ways of segmenting your
potential clientele.

Some of the commonly used segmentation variables are:

Type: Institutional or corporate customers/Individuals
Age: Kinds/Teenagers/Young adults/Middle-aged/Old
Sex: Male/Female
Language Spoken
Income Level:

Rupees per month (less than 5000, 5001-10000,

1000120000, more than 20000, etc)

Preferences: Indoor activities, Outdoor activities
Personality Types: Introvert, Extrovert or other classifications
Ethnic background/state/region: Konkani, Bengali, South Indian,
Marwari, etc.
Profession: Salaried, Businessperson, Artist, Lawyer, Doctor, etc.
Attitude towards Risk: Risk taker, risk averse, etc.
Rural/Urban
Several other variables could also be used to segment the customers or
potential customers. But they should be relevant to the service, which we are

going to market. The segmentation variables can broadly be classified into

three types:
1. Demographic
2. Psycho graphic
3. Behavioural
SEC Grid for Segmenting Customers
There is an alternative segmentation method called the socio-economic
classification (SEC), popular with marketers of both goods and services.
This is a matrix or grid, which combines information about a customers
occupation and education level, and is called the SEC level of the individual.
This is sometimes used as a substitute for income-based segmentation by
marketing research companies, while collecting the data. The advantage of
the SEC according to marketing researchers is that it is easier to get accurate
data on occupation and education level than on income. Besides, it could
reflect reality better as the persons aspirations for certain products or
services could be linked to his SEC rather than income alone. The following
section gives an idea of what the categories look like. The SEC grid itself is
shown in the following Fig. This grid applies to the Indian urban households,

and has been formulated by the Indian Market Research Society. It is based
on a similar SEC Grid developed in other countries, but has been adapted to
the Indian context.

Illiterate School School SSC/ College, Grad/Pos Grad/Post

up to 4 5-9
HSC
not
t grad:
grad:
Years Years
graduate General Professional
1

Unskilled worker

E2

E2

E1

Skilled worker

E2

E1

B2

B2

Petty trader

E2

B2

B2

Shop owner

B2

B1

A2

A2

Businessman/Industrialist
with No employees

B2

B1

A2

A2

A1

1-9 employees

B2

B2

B1

A2

A1

A1

10+ employees

B1

B1

A2

A2

A1

A1

A1

Self employed professional

B2

B1

A2

A1

Clerical Salesman

B2

B1

B1

Ssupervisory level

10

B2

B1

A2

Junior Executives/Officers

11

B2

B1

A2

A2

Middle/Senior
Executives/Officers

12

B1

B1

B1

B1

A2

A1

A1

Fig. The SEC Grid (Occupation on Vertical Axis versus Education Level on
Horizontal Axis)

Features of the SEC Classification

Its a classification of urban households, and there are eight
categories involved in it. A1, A2, B1, B2, C, D, E1, E2.

 The education and occupation indicators are those of the chief

wage earner.

If he is retired, then the occupation before

retirement is considered for the classification.

A subset within A1 is the class A1+, comprising households
which belong to SEC A1, where the monthly household income
is above Rs 10000.

Estimated Size of the different SEC Groups the estimated sizes of the various
SEC categories, according to the National Readership Survey (NRS) 2000
have been given in

TABLE

All Urban

Top 8 Metros

Total Households ('OOOs)

52783

14148

SEC A1 +

1167

2.2

631

4.5

A1

2383

4.5

1018

7.2

A1/A2

6032

11.4

2083

14.7

B1/B2

10110

19.2

2767

19.6

11789

22.3

3433

24.3

11664

22.1

30005

21.2

E1/E2

13188

25

2861

20.2

Segmenting Institutional Customers

Many services are sold to institutional customers.

The institutional

customers can further be segmented using typologies like

1. Volume of purchase (big buyer versus small buyer based on order
size in rupees for a given period)
2. Amount of paperwork involved (for example, government orders
involve a lot of paperwork)
3. Decision-making type (centralized versus decentralized, one
person versus committees)
4. Price sensitive versus Quality sensitive

5. Technically aware versus unaware (for example, some companies

have a large maintenance staff on their payroll, who are
knowledgeable about the service you provide)
6. Final user versus intermediate buyer (example, contractors who
subcontract)

SEGMENT SELECTION OR TARGETING A FEW SEGMENTS

A service marketer may be tempted to target all available segments, all
at once. But usually, this is not a good way to begin. For example, consider
an entrepreneur from Udipi, Karnataka, who decides to set up a restaurant
serving south Indian food. He has a host of choices of food types that he can
serve, but he may settle on south Indian food, because that is a product he
knows. Similarly, the geographical segment that he may start with is one
location, say Bangalore. He may choose Bangalore because that is where he
thinks that a market exists. After doing a survey formally or informally, he
may decide on the area close to the railway station as being suitable for his
kind of business. Therefore, he stars with a subset of all the possible market
and product segments that he could have served.

Just to take the opposite view and see what may be required if he were
to serve all possible segments in all possible geographical areas (even if we
limit ourselves to just the city of Bangalore), he may have to open 30
restaurants of different kinds in different areas of the city, catering to
different types of customers and tastes.

This would probably test his

resources, hampering many aspects of his control over the business such as
hiring, training, quality of service, and so on. It might also require him to
take a massive amount of loan, and increase his chances of failure.
The point of this example is that it is usually prudent for a service
provider to choose one or a few of all possible target segments. He may,
after gaining confidence in serving that segment, expand into serving the
same type of customers elsewhere, or even try entering different segments by
say, adding north Indian food items to his restaurants existing south Indian
menu.
To provide a parallel from the consumer goods field as an illustration,
Procter and Gamble, the multinational producer of consumer goods, decided
to cut back on its product and market segments in India in the early part of
this decade, after an attempt to beat Hindustan Lever in product range and

distribution failed. As a general principle, if a marketer of services tries to be

everything to everyone, he runs the risk of being a nobody, or rather,
nobodys preferred provider. This is not to say that the ambition should be
absent, but only that it isles risky to proceed a step at a time. This is because
a firms resources are usually limited, whatever be its size. Another example
from the software industry may be useful. Tata Consultancy Services (TCS),
Indias top IT exporter, took several decades to grow steadily to the position
it enjoys today, in the difficult market for specialized services in an
internationally competitive situation. It expanded its reach slowly and grew
steadily in line with its corporate objectives and philosophy, choosing to
remain a privately held company even though many companies after it used
the stock market route for a quicker growth rate. TCS felt comfortable
growing the way it did, unlike many others who rose rapidly and fell into
oblivion as quickly, partly because they tried too many things at once.

POSITIONING FOR THE SELECTED SEGMENTS

Once that target segment or market is clear, the service marketer has to
position himself appropriately for that segment. Positioning, as is now well

understood in marketing, is an integral part of strategy for a new service

provider. Even in the case of a mature business, a service marketer needs to
reaffirm its positioning in the minds of target customers. At times, a subtle
shift in positioning may also be necessary to keep up with the changing
consumer preferences or to cope with the challenges from competitors.
Briefly, the positioning is a mental image or picture that a service
provider would like to have about it in the consumers mind. It is a deliberate
attempt at building an identity of a certain kind for the service. For example,
McDonalds in India has a slightly up market image than in the US, where it
is viewed as cheap American fast food. Since a hamburger is an everyday
item of American food, it made sense for McDonalds to develop that
positioning. In India, that slot is already occupied by a variety of Indian
alternatives. For example, the idli-dosa corner food joints in the south, the
paratha serving stalls in the north, or the tea and samosa corners of Kolkata.
Therefore, the mind space that McDonalds has tried to occupy is of two
types. One, the affluent, westernized teenager. Second, the modern upscale
family possibly driven by children who enjoy the feeling of eating at a
McDonalds. Positioning has a lot to do with the target segment to which we

choose to market, and it has elements like price, packaging, communication

and ambience, which reinforce the positioning, attempted by the company.
Banks, for example, used to position themselves as austere, dull but
safe place, you could trust until recently. Some public sector banks in India
have still not changed. However, consumer tastes have changed, competitors
in the field have brought in modern views from the advanced countries.
Presently, every bank is trying to offer an ambience, which is friendly with
smiling young tellers and receptionists, and customer service representatives,
not to mention the call centres and free photographs to open bank accounts
with. Thus, positioning can also be a function of a time, and a place or a
function of what the consumers expect. There are several surveys which
show that Indias public sector banks are now perceived by consumers to be
slow, bureaucratic, technologically backward, but still, safe, whereas
the new private sector banks (like ICICI Bank, UTI Bank, HDFC Bank) are
perceived as aggressive, technologically advanced, and customer-friendly.
Thus, the older banks in the public sector will have to learn image
management in order to position themselves appropriately towards the

younger generation, in addition to giving them the functional benefits that

they desire.
A news item* states that Barista, the coffee shop chain that is now
controlled by the Tatas, wants an image (or positioning) change to attract a
wider range of customers, by, among other things, making coffee more
affordable at its outlets. It found that the upscale image it had built up
limited the scope expansion, and found that its assets (chairs, real estate)
were underutilized for a large part of the day.
POSITION A SERVICE BUSINESS
There are a variety of ways in which positioning can be arrived at.
Some major ways of doing this are discussed below.
1. Positioning by features: For example, the largest roller coaster in
town: an amusement park. One new ride added every month, for a
similar theme park.

Live music along with a dinner, for the

restaurant.
2. Positioning by comparison: For example, the highest occupancy
rates in town for a hotel, the highest percentage of satisfied

The Economic Times, June 2003

customers for an airline, or the highest percentage of successful

candidates, for a coaching class or educational institution.
Business schools frequently use rankings in independent surveys to
claim they are in the top 10 or 15 in the country. One business
school, Indian Institute of Planning and Management (IIPM), even
positions itself against the Indian Institutes of Management (IIMs),
with the line Dare to Think Beyond the IIMs.
3. Positioning by benefit to consumer: As in You have a dream of
becoming an expert programmer, working for a multinational,
going abroad, etc., and we help you to fulfill it, could be the
slogans of a computer training institute such as NIIT or SSI. Or, a
caterer could position himself as taking the hassles out of cooking
and cleaning for a party, or a resort could position itself as a get
away from the year round hectic pace of life. Airlines such as
Indian Airlines offer the largest connections to most Indian towns
and cities, and try to use it to position themselves.
4. Positioning as an expert: For example, we understand air travel,
for an airline, or, the expert on budget tours for a tour operator.

5. Positioning through guarantees: Full satisfaction, or your money

back, or returns with no questions asked, in case of retail stores.
6. Positioning as a leader:

Number 1 in the furniture retailing

business, or leadership with responsiveness, in the banking

industry.
7. Positioning through smart tag lines, which may implicitly convey
some benefit, like the famous line used by Met Life Insurance,
USA, which says Get Met. It Pays. (In India, they are currently
using the tag line Have you met life today?). This may indicate
that it settles claims with less of fuss than competitors. It may also
imply other value, though not explicitly specified.
8. Positioning through emotions such as fear, love, kinship, concern
for the environment, etc. A hotel chain in India calls its properties
Ecotels, to indicate the environmental consciousness at various
levels. Sahara Airlines, a late entrant into the airline business,
positioned itself as Emotionally Yours.

CAPACITY PLANNING

It is not sufficient that we are interested only in managing our present.

It is much more significant that we keep our eyes open, minds active to know
about the future and continue to enrich our potentials to manage the future.
Of late, we find a good number of organizations that concentrate their energy
on current development plans but undermine the developments to take place
in future. This makes ways for the emergence of numerous complications.
The organisations not managing the future fail in managing the demand and
supply position, make it difficult to optimize the development of marketing
resources to cope with the changing requirements, make possible a
contraction in their resistance power and both on quantitative and qualitative
fronts, we find them moving backward. It is against this background that we
need to assign due weightage to capacity planning. By capacity planning, our
emphasis is on the management of strength. It is, of course, due to deficient
management that we improve the supply position but the process of demand
generation is energized non-optimally. We invest on resources but fail in
getting the return and thus a vicious circle is formed which questions the
soundness of our strength. If we assign due weightage to the management of
strength and continue to activate the process of enriching the potentials, we

find ourselves in a sound position to make an attack on the multi-dimensional

threats and challenges in the business environment. The capacity planning
focuses on the management of strength in the face of changing scenario is
vital.
The service generating organisations not aware of the future find it
difficult to increase their strength. This makes it essential that they have
indepth knowledge of future. They make possible a micro-scope evaluation
of their strength in tune with the world class developments; they know about
the strength of their competitors they perceive an idea of the emerging trends
in demand and they are sound enough to improve the supply position which
caters to the changing needs and requirements of prospects/users. Thus we
find emphasis on strength both in quantitative and qualitative terms. To be
more specific in the Indian perspective, we find a majority of the service
generating organisations not efficacious in managing the future, which often
creates an imbalance in the demand, and supply position. This makes it
essential that we assign a transcendental priority to capacity planning.
Capacity planning is known as planning the capacity in the face of
future. This throws light on both the aspects-first, the organisations are

supposed to know the demand position so that the potentials are enriched to
increase the quantity or capacity of generating the services and second, the
organisations are also required to know about the likes and dislikes,
preferences, expectations, attitudes which make an advocacy in favour of
quality generation.

In simple words you know about the taste and

expectations of prospects/users and improve your capacity to offer the same.

Thus the professionals need excellence to study the market conditions and
further to rate their potentials so that lapses are identified and the corrective
measures are taken.

If the users expect sophistication in service, the

organisations need to use sophisticated technologies to fulfill their

expectations and this is not possible unless we think in favour of capacity
planning.
The capacity planning thus focuses our attention on the strategic
planning, which makes an advocacy in favour of the formulation of an action
plan to enrich strength. It is natural that in the years to come, the intensity of
competition would go up which would make it essential that the service
generating organisations keep on moving the process of qualitative
transformation.

On the one hand, they need to improve the quality of

services and on the other hand also to inject additional attractions to their
service mix by innovating the peripheral services. On the whole, they need
to offer world-class services found competitive both at national and
international levels. It is high time that they think in favour of making things
happen and intensify research activities to innovate the marketing resources.
The strategic plan would make the ways for the mobilization of
financial resources to cater to their increasing requirements. We cant deny
the fact that if an organisation succeeds in maintaining the process of profit
generation, the financial health of that organisation becomes so sound that the
task of satisfying the employees and investors is simplified considerably.
This makes it pertinent that like the goods manufacturing organisations even
the service generating organisations also carry forward the task of making
health sound. If you are physically sound, the task of countering the diseases
is found much more easier. If an organisation is strong, the task of facing the
challenges and threats in the markets is simplified considerably. It is against
this background that strategic planning assumes a place of outstanding
significance. When we talk about capacity planning, our prime focus is on
strategic planning since the process of enriching strength cant be made

possible within a couple of days,. The foreign leading commercial banks, the
airways, the consultants, the tourist organisations, the hotels, the educational
institutions, the hospitals and many other service generating organisations
assign an overriding priority to the capacity planning which make them
efficacious enough in facing the multi-dimensional threats and challenges in
the markets.
The aforesaid facts make it clear that the formulation of an action plan
is essential to march ahead in the right direction Of late, the leading service
generating organisations have been found making concerted efforts to
manage information with the help of sophisticated information technologies
which make possible more sensitivity in their decisions. They forecast the
problems, the needs and requirements, the intensity of competition and
formulate such a service mix which is of world class, of course, strong
enough in excelling competition, in creasing the market share, establishing
the leadership and dominating the business world. In the Indian perspective,
it is much more impact generating that the service generating organisations
promotes the use of sophisticated information technologies for improving the
quality of their decisions. A decision related to the supply side is found

based on the demand side. There are a number of factors to supply side is
found based on the demand side. There are a number of factors to influence
the process of demand generation and the service generating organisation
have to switch on the process by innovating the promotional measures since
the other factors found of uncontrollable nature are not within their control.
The quality of marketing mixes influences the sensitivity of marketing
decisions and the formulation of a sound marketing mix is not possible unless
you identify the errors and intensify corrective measures much earlier than
the side effects start troubling you.
The professionals bear the responsibility of matching the offerings to
the market demand. The matching of demand and supply optimally is a
difficult task that requires excellence. There are a number of factors to be
taken into consideration.
The task of predicting the behaviour of users is found critical since a
number of factors influence the same. The emerging trends in the
environmental conditions influence our behavioural profile and a
majority of them are found of uncontrollable nature. The fluctuating
trends in the money and stock markets govern the behaviour of

investors and the deteriorating law and order conditions influence the
traveling plan of tourists.
Unavailability of sufficient lead-time is also an important factor
making the task difficult to the professionals and the decision is so
quick that the professionals find themselves helpless.
In the process of the utilization of available capacity, the smaller
production/assembly/packaging cause wastage. The nursing services
make it clear.
Higher annoyance is expected due to the lack of alternatives. If the
users fail in getting the services on time, the level of dissatisfaction is
found at its peak. The users/customers using the services of airways
are found annoyed if the flights are delayed or the time schedule is not
maintained.
The cost on account of round-the-clock services affects the benefit
relationship for extraordinary setting of performance standards.
The aforesaid complexities, of course, make the task of optimizing the
demand and supply difficult.

CAPACITY SCHEDULING
How much of what (service) will be needed to achieve its pre-determined
goals is an important consideration that makes an advocacy in favour of
capacity planning and scheduling.

However approximate we find the

analysis of demand, the service generating organisations bear the

responsibility of planning for the capacity. There are a number of critical
variables requiring due consideration in the process such as, goals of the
service firm, availability of capital and the quality of human resources,
market segments served and the level of service quality aimed at. A detailed
scheduling of man, materials, money and machines (Four Ms) is essential for
each element of the service mix on a time map
Building the Brand Nationally and Globally
Positioning is the articulation of a brand-building strategy for a service. It
would be ultimately tested when the service brand is built up through a
combination of marketing and branding initiatives. The rest of this book
deals with the process of doing all that it takes to successfully market the
services. The process of building a new service brand can take a few years,
particularly across a large geographical area. Locally, in a limited area, some

brands can be built successfully in a much shorter period, such as a new

restaurant, a college, or a resort. Typically, the Indian brands in various
service categories are not very large or spread out widely across geographical
areas. There are some exceptions to this (For example Agarwal packers and
movers, Gati cargo, Taj hotels, NIIT computer coaching centres, and Maruti
car service available through authorized dealers). The US market provides
the best examples of big service companies, with uniform brand names
spread across a large geographical area. There is Wal Mart, the largest
retailer in the world, and many others like Sears, Target, etc. in the same line
of business. In food, they have the McDonalds and Wendys chains, in
seafood there is Long John Silvers, in oil changes for cars there is a chain
called Jiffy Lube, and in books, a chain called Waldenbooks. Similarly, in
hotels, there are chains such as the Marriott and Ritz-Carlton.
In India, typically the service brands are local or at the most regional
brands, catering to a region (southern, northern, eastern, etc.). Thee may be
contributing factors involved in this, such as a startling diversity in taste
across regions, states, etc.

which has made a uniform approach rather

difficult. However, efforts are now being made in areas like garments and

toys to set up pan-Indian retail stores with a common brand identity, such as
Pantaloons and Shoppers Stop. But there have been success stories in the
media, of TV channels suddenly capturing a large market across many Indian
states, like Zee TV in the north, Sun TV in the south, and Star Plus across
many states with successful programming designed to the housewives tastes.
The Delhi Public School, a school in Delhi, now has franchised locations
outside Delhi too, in places like Kolkata, Lucknow and Pune, to capitalize on
its brand image. So do many coaching classes that prepare students for a
management entrance tests, like Time, Career Launcher, and IMS.
In general, however, the Indian service brands have a long way to go,
when compared with brands of the American companies. Why is it that an
Indian entrepreneur does not dram of selling a McDosa or a McVada
across the world?. Why cannot we capture the quintessential Indian theme of
Atithi Devo Bhava to start a chain of global hotels?

Perhaps, the

opportunities were there, and still continue to exist. Maybe the environment
was not conducive to thinking big, with too many constraints imposed by
Indias poverty of vision and economic policy. But there may be a day in the

next two decades, when we may strike it big in many services, other than our
staple, the IT sector.
It is also likely that trends like research, design and development
laboratories of the world migrating to India may accelerate, and fields like
pharmaceutical and biotechnological research may grow in India, supported
by foreign company funding. The brand India is globally known for hightech services where brainpower is required.

It is relatively weak in the

development of capital-intensive services, and in the management of

processes in large organizations. However, services are a possible outlet for
Indias capabilities, which have typically lagged behind her potential.
It is the time to consider various traditional of services and examine
the most versatile information Technology service that offers much more
than what it is offering right now. The sector is undergoing tremendous
rationalization that works on the principle of less people and more work:
much different from the traditional ideas of more people and less work.

The subject of services as a specialized sector of marketing has its roots in

the following points:

Owing to the emergence of multiple sources of income and more

professionalism, the consumers are getting higher disposable incomes,
which they can spend, at their discretion for a more comfortable and
convenient life. There can be exceptions like misers and saints, who
may not like to go for the good things of life even if they have
adequate purchasing power.

There is intense competition in the market; to be a cut above the rest;

the
business organisations hire specialized agencies that can offer them
the best services for their plans and procedures to gain perfection.
Earlier, specialists like lawyers, auditors, consultants were hired by
major organisations, but as the scenario is changing even small
organisations are looking for specialists in transport and warehousing,
advertising agencies, expert underwriters, field management agencies
and what not.

Todays customer is highly demanding. He wants everything at one

point.

Hence, departmental stores, apart from selling their usual products

have started giving additional services. for example, if you buy cloth,
they may also give the facility of stitching and dry cleaning.

PROMINENT DIFFERENCES BETWEEN GOODS AND SERVICES

Goods and Services are different types of offerings marketed by
organisations. It is important to know the major points that differentiate
them. The prominent points of differences are enlisted below:

The basic difference is that a good or a product is tangible and a

service is intangible.

At a given point of time we can set quality standards for goods and
achieve them. But it is difficult to set any quality standards in services
because we cannot measure them.

Goods have a resale value, which is not the case with services.

Goods have a durability, which services do not have.

Goods have a transferable value, which services do not have.

Unlike most cases of goods, services have shorter distribution

channels.

In services the consumer can immediately show reaction, which may

take some time in the case of goods.

The pricing of goods is done on the basis of the material used whereas
in services it is done on the basis of the material.

Services cannot be stored unlike goods.

The image of services can be known by the service providing

corporations while that of goods can be known by their brands.

Goods can be displayed while services cannot.

SERVICE EXCELLENT IN QUALITY

In this competitive age, the organisations have two options-excel or
perish. It
is essential that they should remember the following points:

There should be no service delays.

As far as possible the service provider should interact either in the

customers language or any other that can be easily understood by
him.

The employees dealing directly with the customers must be properly

trained.

The tinge of professionalism should not be visible.

REASONS FOR AN IMPROPER SERVICE DELIVERY

Unsuccessful deliveries can be an outcome of various factors. Some of
them can be:

A Misperception by the Company

It may so happen that what the customer has asked or expected is not
grasped by the company. Because of this misperception, the service delivery
is not as desired by the customer.
Lack of Accuracy
The service provider may perceive the customers expectations rightly
but
due to not setting an accuracy level or a standard of service, he may not
satisfy the customer to the desired extent.

Lack of Training
The employees entrusted with the task of dealing with the customer
may
lack the required know-how or may not be properly trained to ensure a
desirable delivery to the customers.
Information from the Company
Sometimes the information from the company is given in such a way
by the
representatives and the media that the customer is almost hypnotized. But
when the latter approaches the company, he finds that in reality there is
nothing like what he has heard.
A Misinterpretation by the Consumer
If often happens that the customer is unable to perceive the true nature
of a service provided by the company. Even if the latter is careful and decent
in its efforts, the customer may misinterpret. Thus, if a salesman is highly
cordial with a female customer, the latter may smell something fishy in it.

Services are activities or benefits that one party can offer to another that are
essentially intangible and do not result in the ownership of anything.
Services marketing strategy calls not only for external marketing but also for
internal marketing to motivate employees and interactive marketing to create
service delivery skills among service providers. Services have four special
characteristics:

(1) intangibility, (2) perishability, (3) simultaneous

production and consumption, and (4) lack of standardization.

These

characteristics lead to several major problems, including supply and demand

imbalances, locational inconvenience, uneven service quality, and difficulties
in demonstrating service benefits.

Managers should attempt to take into

account the special characteristics of services when developing the marketing

mix.

They can select from four basic service-marketing strategies.

(1)

association (with brand names, tangible objects, or other physical evidence),

(2) industrialization, (3) demand balancing & (4) relationship marketing
nonprofit organizations face some of the same complexities that other service
organizations

do.

Although

nonprofit

organizations

are

service

organizations, they may focus their marketing efforts on places, social ideas,
people, or organization membership. It is necessary to appreciate that in a

service market, performance specifications are difficult to define and quality

standards tricky to evaluate. It is the people who assume important roles here
in terms of skills and their personal characteristics successful service
organizations employ marketing tactics such as:

(a) Creating a strong company image

A method employed to overcome problems of intangibility is the creation of
a strong corporate image. Citibank is a good example. Through continuous
efforts, it has established itself as an innovator in the industry.
(b) Controlling cost and increasing speed
Customers cannot comprehend the cost of the services and consequently feel
that the prices charged are ad hoc. Conversely, many service organizations
are unable to examine costs properly, since traditional methods of costing are
product-based. Practices vary from basing prices in relation to competition,
to customer willingness to pay.
(c) Creating a strong sales team

Two methods followed consistently by leading service organizations are

careful recruitment of customer-contact people, and proper training of
personnel.
(d) Creating a strong word-of-mouth program
In the service business, the role of advertising is relatively less important and
direct mail is usually found to be of greater benefit. Successful service
companies make efforts to encourage customers to tell other people about
company services.
(e) Creating a flexible and adaptive organization
Companies sometimes have to cope with excessive demand, while on the
other hand; there are periods of highly depressed demand. To counter these
situations, they have to be flexible.

The Indian service sector will be more competitive in future. The trend
towards automation, standardization, computerization and telecom facilities
is changing the structure of service organizations. There is a move towards
international linkages. Finally, new services are entering the market, creating
new opportunities and making existing ones obsolete.

INTERNAL MARKETING
We agree with this view that services are predominantly people-based.
In the services generating organisations, we find personnel of the marketing
department as well as others very much instrumental in performing the
marketing function. This makes it essential that we clearly understand the
common purpose and spirit of the tasks to be performed and its backward and
forward linkages with the other tasks. Internalizing the marketing function is
an important task found of critical nature. This makes an advocacy in favour
of internal marketing with the motto of employing quality people.
Bringing home the concept of internal customer focuses on marketing
internally to the internal market of employees this makes an advocacy in
favour of employing a higher number of skilled personnel in the service
generating organisations. The service firms valuing investments in people as
much as investments in machines, using technology to support men or people
on the front line, making recruitment and training as crucial for sales clerks
and housekeepers as for managers and senior executives and linking

compensation to performance for employees at every level not just at the top
need a new model for managing services.
The task of internal marketing is simplified considerably with the help
of internal interactive communication, internal mass communication, market
and image research, external mass communication and advertising. The task
of raising the customer consciousness is difficult and the following issues are
found having a far reaching effect.
Sponsoring employees for training programmes in the areas of
marketing. The behavioural management needs an intensive care.
Increasing the involvement of staff in activities like deposit
mobilization, customer service campaigns, undertaking market
surveys, formulation of branch budget or so.
Organizing the marketing conference and workshops, activating
capsule course relating to the marketing of services.
Sharing of the findings of customer surveys, image and other studies.
Motivating the staff by offering awards and rewards both on an
individual and a group basis.

 Provision for guiding on the customer service with the help of a house
journal, special newsletters and other printed leaflets.
Setting up of marketing/customer cells.
Maintaining visibility through strengthening public relations activities.

Increasing Business Mindedness

An important task is to increase the business mindedness of
employees. The following activities may be helpful in the process:
Sharing of performance results Vs budgets and problems facing the
organisations.
Allocation of specific goals to staff and close monitoring of the dayto-day developments.
Training for the development of detailed customer call progammes.
Exposure of staff to the criteria of cost-benefit.
Development of teamwork among staff.
Promotion of education programmes.
Encouraging the use of suggested services.

The personal commitment is an important dimension for increasing the

business mindedness and the service generating organisations need to
develop employees so that performance-orientation is made possible. We
cant negate that employee-orientation would make the ways for performance
orientation which focuses on enriching the credentials and making the
compensation plans attractive.

Responding to the specific characteristics of service markets described above

does mean that, unlike many tangible goods situations, it is extremely
difficult to separate marketing activities from all the other functions being
undertaken within the firm.

Furthermore the nature of the buyer-seller

interaction which occurs at the production/consumption interface can have a

significant impact on the customers repeat buying decisions (e.g. if a
customer arrives at a hotel to discover that a mistake has been made over a
reservation and the room is no louger available, the way in which the
receptionist handles this problem will have a significant influence on whether
the customer can be placated or is lost forever as a future guest).

Eigler and Langeard (1977) have proposed three main categories of

resource involved in the buyer-seller interaction:

Contact personnel, who interact directly with the customer.

Physical resource that comprise the human and technical resources used by
the organization in undertaking the production, delivery and consumption of
the service offering.
The customer, who is the person forming a purchase, loyalty decision based
on the quality of service received to date.

Gronroos (1984) has proposed that management of these three variables is a

marketing task which differs form traditional F.M.C.G marketing because it
involves assets not usually part of the of the mainstream marketing operation,
but instead is drawn from across the entire cost-generating production
resources within the organization. Gronroos has proposed that in service
firms there exist three marketing tasks.

He describes these as external

marketing (i.e. the normal formal processes associated with the management
of the 4Ps), interactive marketing (i.e. the activities which occur at the buyer-

seller interface) and internal marketing. This latter variable is concerned with
all of the activities associated with ensuring every employee is (a) customerconscious and (b) committed to the philosophy that every aspect of their
personal role must be orientated towards achieving total customer
satisfaction.
The suggestion that internal marketing is a holistic process which
integrates the multiple functions of the organization by ensuring employees
understand all relevant aspects of organizational operations and are motivated
to act in a service-orientated manner, creates the very difficult problem of
how one measures the effectiveness of the customer-organization interaction.
Although a number of writers have suggested that the objective of service
satisfaction is to minimize the gap between customers desires and actual
experience, developing feasible techniques for the measurement of
expectations and perceptions has proved somewhat more problematical.
One of the most important contributions to measuring these variables
has been made by Parasuraman, Zeithmal and Berry (1985; 1988; Zeithmal,
Parasuraman and Berry, 1990) who from 1983 onwards have implemented a
carefully sequenced research project aimed at delivering an effective model

for assessing the effectiveness and quality of the service provision process.
The first stage of their research was to identify some common variables,
which could be used to categorize customer expectations. By the use of
focus groups they identified the following five variables:

COMPANY HUMAN AND TECHNICAL RESOURCES

Internal Marketing

External Marketing

Interactive Marketing

Three marketing forms within the service provision process

1.

Reliability the ability to perform the promised service dependably

and accurately

2.

Tangibles the images created by the appearance of physical

facilities, equipment, personnel and communication materials.

3.

Responsiveness the willingness to help customers and provide

prompt service.

4.

Assurance the process by which the knowledge, ability and

courtesy of employees engenders customer trust and confidence in
the service provider.

5.

Empathy created by the caring, individualized attention which

employees offer the customer.

Internal Marketing involves such basic elements as listening to customers and

communicating to others in the customer-supplier chain.

This involves

everyone at every level and they are to be motivated by appropriate means.

Also it involves formation of groups and group interaction to be encouraged
by initiating suitable listening and communicating techniques. All these lead
towards overall internal effectiveness.

Establishment of quality circles

throughout the customer-supplier chain will facilitate more efficient activities

in determining product attributes, package design, launching strategies,
promotion measures distribution method and the like.

External Marketing
External Marketing is concerned with the process of identifying, segmenting
and targeting external customers for the purpose of positioning the product
by means of appropriate marketing mix strategy designed.

The CORE

method (Customer Orientation for Results) involving four steps, namely,

understanding customer view point, carrying needed changes, establishing
new direction and working together for customer profit, necessitates a blend
of both internal and external marketing towards achieving marketing goals.
Until recently, service firms lagged behind manufacturing firms in
their use of marketing. Many service businesses are small (auto repair shops,
dry cleaners) and often consider marketing unneeded or too costly. Other
service businesses (colleges, hospitals) once had so much demand that they
did not need marketing until recently.

Still others (legal, medical, and

accounting practices) believed that it was unprofessional to use marketing.

Still, just like manufacturing businesses, good service firms use
marketing to position themselves strongly in chosen target markets.
Southwest Airlines positions itself as Just Plane Smart for commuter
flyers-as a no-frills, short-haul airline charging very low fares. The Ritz-

Carlron Hotel positions itself as offering a memorable experience that

enlivens the senses, instills well-being, and fulfills even the unexpressed
wishes and needs of our guests. These and other service firms establish
their positions through traditional marketing mix activities.
However, because services differ from tangible products, they often
require additional marketing approaches. In a product business, products are
fairly standardized and can sit on shelves waiting for customers. But in a
service business, the customer and frontline service employee interact to
create the service. Thus, service providers must work to interact effectively
with customers to create superior value during service encounters. Effective
interaction, in turn, depends on the skills of frontline service employees, and
on the service production and support processes backing these employees.
Thus, successful service companies focus their attention on both their
employees and customers. They understand the service-profit chain, which
links service firm profits with employee and customer satisfaction. This
chain consists of five links:
Healthy service profits and growth-superior service firm performance,
which results from

 Satisfied and loyal customer-satisfied customers who remain loyal,

repeat purchase, and refer other customers, which results from
Greater service value-more effective and efficient customer value
creation and service delivery, which results from
Satisfied and productive service employees-more satisfied, loyal, and
hard working employees, which results from
Internal service quality-superior employee selection and training,
qualities work environment, and strong support for those dealing with
customers.

Therefore, reaching service profits and growth goals begins with taking care
of those who take care of customers.
The concept of the service-profit chain is well illustrated by a story
about how Bill Marriott, Jr., chairman of Marriott hotels, interviews
prospective managers:
Bill Marriott reels job candidates that the hotel chain wants to satisfy
three groups: customers, employees, and stockholders. Although all of the
groups are important, he asks in which order the groups should be satisfied.

Most candidates say first satisfy customers.

Marriott, however, reasons

differently. First, employees must be satisfied. If employees love their jobs

and feel a sense of pride in the hotel, they will serve customers well.
Satisfied customers will return frequently to the Marriott. Moreover, dealing
with happy customers will make employees even more satisfied, resulting in
better service and still greater repeat business, all of which will yield a level
of profits that will satisfy Marriott stock holders.
All of this suggests that service marketing requires more than just
traditional external marketing using the four Ps. Figure shows that service
marketing also requires both internal marketing and interactive marketing.

FIGURE

Three types of marketing in service industries

Company

Internal marketing
marketing

External

Employees

Interactive marketing

Customers

Internal marketing means that the service firm must effectively train
and motivate its customer-contact employees and all the supporting service
people to work as a team to provide customer satisfaction. For the firm to
deliver consistently high service quality, everyone must practice a customer
orientation. It is not enough to have a marketing department doing traditional
marketing while the rest of the company goes its own way. Marketers also
must get everyone else in the organization to practice marketing. In fact,
internal marketing must precede external marketing.
Interactive marketing means that perceived service quality depends
heavily on the quality of the buyer-seller interaction during the service
encounter. In product marketing, product quality often depends little on how
the product is obtained. But in service marketing, service quality depends on
both the service deliverer and the quality of the delivery, especially in
professional services.

The customer judges service quality not just on

technical quality (say, the success of the surgery) but also on its functional

quality (whether the doctor showed concern and inspired confidence). Thus,
professionals cannot assume that they will satisfy the customer simply by
providing good technical services. They have to master interactive marketing
skills or functions as well.
Today, as competition and costs increase, and as productivity and
quality decrease, more marketing sophistication is needed.

Service

companies face three major marketing tasks: They want to increase their
competitive differentiation, service quality, and productivity.

Managing Differentiation
In these days of intense price competition, service marketers often complain
about the difficulty of differentiating their services from those of competitors.
To the extent that customers view the services of different providers as
similar, they care less about the provider than the price.
The solution to price competition is to develop a differentiated offer,
delivery, and image. The offer can include innovative features that set one
companys offer apart from competitors offers. For example, airlines have
introduced such innovations as in-flight movies; advance seating, air-to-

ground telephone service, and frequent-flyer award programs to differentiate

their offers. British Airways even offers international travelers a sleeping
compartment, hot showers, and cooked-to-order breakfasts. Unfortunately,
most service innovations are copied easily. Still, the service company that
innovates regularly usually will gain a succession of temporary advantages
and an innovative reputation that may help it keep customers who want to go
with the best.
Service companies can differentiate their service delivery in three
ways-through people, physical environment, and process. The company can
distinguish itself by having more able and reliable customer-contact people
than its competitors have. Or it can develop a superior physical environment
in which the service product is delivered. Finally, it can design a superior
delivery process. For example, a bank might offer its customers electronic
home banking as a better way to deliver banking services than having to
drive, park, and wait in line.
Service companies also can work on differentiating their images
through symbols and branding. For example, the Harris Bank of Chicago
adopted the lion as its symbol on its stationery, in its advertising, and even

as stuffed animals offered to new depositors. The well-known Harris Lion

confers an image of strength on the bank. Other well-known service symbols
include The Travelers red umbrella, Merrill Lynchs bull, and Allstates
good hands.
To differentiate its service, British Airways offers international
travelers such features as sleeping compartments and hot showers. As the
comments in this ad show, customers really appreciate such services.

Managing Service Quality

One of the major ways a service firm can differentiate it is by delivering
consistently higher quality than its competitors do.

Like manufacturers

before them, many service industries have now joined the total quality
movement. Many companies are finding that outstanding service quality can
give them a potent competitive advantage that leads to superior sales and
profit performance. Some firms have become almost legendary for their
high-quality service.
The key is to exceed the customers service-quality expectations. As
the chief executive at American Express puts it, Promise only what you can

deliver and deliver more than you promise! These expectations are based on
past experiences, word of mouth, and service firm advertising. If perceived
service of a given firm exceeds expected service, customers are apt to use the
provider again. Customer retention is perhaps the best measure of quality-a
service firms ability to hang onto its customers depends on how consistently
it delivers value to them. Thus, whereas the manufacturers quality goal
might be zero defects, the service providers goal is zero customer
defections
The service provider needs to identify the expectations of target
customers concerning service quality.

Unfortunately, service quality is

harder to define and judge than product quality. It is harder to get agreement
on the quality of a haircut than on the quality of a hair dryer, for instance.
Moreover, although greater service quality results in greater customer
satisfaction, it also results in higher costs.

Still, investments in service

usually pay off through increased customer retention and sales. Whatever the
level of service provided, it is important that the service provider clearly
defines and communicates that level so that its employees know what they
must deliver and customers know what they will get.

Many service companies have invested heavily to develop streamlined

and efficient service-delivery systems. They want to ensure that customers
will receive consistently high-quality service in every service encounter.
Unlike product manufacturers who can adjust their machinery and inputs
until everything is perfect, however, service quality always will vary,
depending on the interactions between employees and customers. Problems
inevitably will occur. As hard as they try, even the best companies will have
an occasional late delivery, burned steak, or grumpy employee. However,
although a company cannot always prevent service problems, it can learn to
recover form them. A good service recovery can turn angry customers into
loyal ones. In fact, good recovery can win more customer purchasing and
loyalty than if things had gone well in the first place. Therefore, companies
should take steps not only to provide good service every time, but also to
recover from service mistakes when they do occur.
The first step is to empower frontline service employees-to give them
the authority, responsibility, and incentives they need to recognize, care
about, and tend to customer needs. For example, Marriott has put some
70,000 employees through empowerment training, which encourages them to

go beyond their normal jobs to solve customer problems. Such empowered

employees can act quickly and effectively to keep service problems from
resulting in lost customers. The Marriott Desert Springs revised the job
description for its customer-contact employees. The major goal of these
positions now is to ensure that our guests experience excellent service and
hospitality while staying at our resort. Well-trained employees are given the
authority to do whatever it takes, on the spot, to keep guests happy. They are
also expected to help management ferret out the cause of guests problems,
and to inform managers of ways to improve overall hotel service and guests
comfort.
Studies of well-managed service companies show that they share a
number of common virtues regarding service quality.

First, top service

companies are customer obsessed. They have a distinctive strategy for

satisfying customer needs that wins enduring customer loyalty.
Second, well-managed service companies have a history of top
management commitment to quality. Management at companies such as
Marriott, Disney, Delta, Federal Express, and McDonalds looks not only at
financial performance but also at service performance. Third, the best service

providers set high service quality standards. Swissair, for example, aims to
have 96 percent or more of its passengers rate its service as good or superior;
otherwise, it takes action. Citibank aims to answer phone calls within ten
seconds and customer letters within two days. The standards must be set
appropriately high. A 98 percent accuracy standard may should good, but
using this standard, 64,000 Federal Express packages would be lost each day,
10 words would be misspelled on each page, 400,000 prescriptions would be
misfiled daily, and drinking water would be unsafe eight days a year. Top
service companies do not settle merely for good service, they aim for 100
percent defect-free service.
Fourth, the top service firms watch service performance closely-both
their own and that of competitors. They use methods such as comparisonshopping, customer surveys, and suggestion and complaint forms. For
example, General Electric sends out 700,000 response cards each year to
households who rate their service peoples performance. Citibank takes
regular measures of ART-accuracy, responsiveness, and timeliness-and
sends out employees who act as customers to check on service quality.

Good service companies also communicate their concerns about

service quality to employees and provide performance feedback. At Federal
Express, quality measurements are everywhere. When employees walk in the
door in the morning, they see the previous weeks on-time percentages.
Then, the companys in-house television station gives them detailed
breakdowns of what happened yesterday and any potential problems for the
day ahead.
Managing Productivity
With their costs rising rapidly, service firms are under great pressure
to increase service productivity. They can do so in several ways. The service
providers can train current employees better, or they can hire new ones who
will work harder or more skillfully for the same pay.

Or the service

providers can increase the quantity of their service by giving up some quality.
Doctors who work for health maintenance organizations (HMOs) have
moved toward handling more patients and giving less time to each. The
provider can industrialize the service by adding equipment and
standardizing production, as in McDonalds assembly line approach to fast-

food retailing.

Commercial dishwashing, jumbo jets, and multiple-unit

movie theaters all represent technological expansions of service.

Service providers also can increase productivity by designing more
effective

services.

How-to-quit-smoking

clinics

and

exercise

recommendations may reduce the need for expensive medical services later
on.

Hiring paralegal workers reduces the need for expensive legal

professionals. Providers also can give customers incentives to substitute

company labor with their own labor. For example, business firms that sort
their own mail before delivering it to the post office pay lower postal rates.
However, companies must avoid pushing productivity so hard that
doing so reduces perceived quality.

Some productivity steps help

standardizes quality, increasing customer satisfaction. But other productivity

steps lead to too much standardization and can rob consumers of customized
service. Attempts to industrialize a service or to cut costs can make a service
company more efficient in the short run but reduce its longer-run ability to
innovate, maintain service quality, or respond to consumer needs and desires.
In some cases, service providers accept reduced productivity in order to
create more service differentiation or quality.

UNIT-IV: DELIVERING QUALITY SERVICES

Learning Objectives:

To identify the basic principles underlying the concept of service quality

To define the determinants of service quality

To explain the potential problems and correct use of SERVQUAL and gap
theory in measuring service quality

To outline the various gaps in the evaluation of service quality

To specify the strategies that can be sued to reduce the size of each of the
service quality gaps

To understand the concepts of Total Quality Management, ISO9000, Six

Sigma and the Malcom-Baldrige Model

Contents:

Introduction

Concept of Service Quality

SERVQUAL and Gap theory

Various Gaps in the evaluation of service quality

Strategies to bridge the service quality gaps

The concepts of TQM, ISO9000, Six Sigma & Malcom-Baldrige Model

Introduction: Service quality is very important for customers as well as service

providers. To achieve competitive advantage, the service organizations are focusing
more on the quality.

The concept of quality has drawn massive attention in

academic and business circles.

There are many definitions of quality. The word quality means different things to
different people. To address such issues as the measurement of service quality, the
identification of causes for shortfall in service quality and the design and
implementation of corrective actions, it is essential for the service providers to have
a common understanding of the concept of quality.

David Garvin identifies five perspectives on quality:

1. The transcendent view of quality is synonymous with innate excellence; a
mark of uncompromising standards and high achievements. This view point
is often applied to the performing and visual arts. It argues that people learn
to recognize quality only through the experience gained from repeated
exposure. From a practical stand point, however, suggesting that managers
or customers will know quality when they see it is not very helpful.
2. The product-based approach sees quality as a precise and measurable
variable. Differences in quality it argues, reflects differences in the amount

of an ingredient or attribute possessed by the product. Because this view is

totally objective, it fails to account for difference in the tastes, needs, and
preferences of individual customers.
3. The premise that quality lies in the eyes of the beholder is the basis for userbased definitions.

These definitions equate quality with maximum

satisfaction. This demand-oriented, subjective perspective recognizes that

the wants and needs of each customer is different.
4. The manufacturing oriented approach is basically supply based and is
concerned

with

engineering

and

manufacturing

practices.

The

manufacturing based approach focuses on conformance to internally

develop0ed specifications, which are often driven by productivity and costcontainment objectives.
5. Quality is defined in terms of value and price by value-based definitions.
Quality comes to be defined as affordable excellence by considering the
trade off between performance and price.

These views of David Garvin help us to explain the conflicts that arise between
managers in different functional areas. In many senses quality is subjective. For
many people quality implies excellence or luxury. Quality can also be measured in
terms of fitness for purpose.

In seeking quality service, customer needs and

expectations may vary. Service quality is not easy to measure in precise manner.
The nature and characteristics of services can have an impact on quality issues.

It is very difficult to measure and assess the service quality because

of the Intangibility of many services.

Inseparability of the service from the service provider highlights the

role & influence of the people in the service transaction, and on
quality levels.

A service is never exactly repeated and will always be variable to

certain extent because of the heterogeneous characteristic of service.

The perishable

nature of services can lead to customer

dissatisfaction if demand cannot be met.

The most appropriate approach in defining and measuring service is the user-based
approach. The idea that quality is subjective and will be strongly linked to the
individuals needs and expectations recognizes that customers have different criteria
for judging service quality.

This user-based approach equates quality with

maximum levels of satisfaction. Valarie Zeithaml, A.Parasuraman & Leonard Berry

identified Ten criteria consumers use in measuring and assessing service quality.

Generic Dimensions Customers Use to Evaluate Service Quality:

Valarie and her associates developed a survey research instrument called

SERVQUAL to measure customer satisfaction with different aspects of service
quality. This instrument is based on the assumption that the customers can measure
a firms service quality by comparing their perceptions of its service with their own
expectations. SERVQUAL can be applied across a broad spectrum of service
industries as a generic measurement tool. Reflecting the five important dimensions
of service quality such, Tangibles, Reliability, responsiveness, Assurance &
Empathy, the scale contains 21 perception items in its basic form and a series of
expectation items.

On a wide range of specific service characteristics the

respondents complete a series of scales that measure their expectations of

companies in a particular industry. Respondents are subsequently asked to record
their perceptions, using those same characteristics of a specific company whose
services they have used.

When perceived performance ratings are lower than

expectations, this is a sign of poor quality. The reverse indicates good quality.
The Tangibles Dimension:
In forming the evaluations the consumers often rely on the tangible evidence that
surrounds the service because of the absence of a physical product. The tangibles
dimension of SERVQUAL compares consumer expectations with the firms
performance regarding the firms ability to manage its tangibles. A firms tangibles
consist of a variety of objects such carpeting, desks, lighting, wall colours,

brochures, daily correspondence and the appearance of the firms employees. The
tangibles component in SERVQUAL is two-dimensionalone focusing on
equipment and facilities, the other focusing on HR & communications materials.

The tangibles component of SERVQUAL is obtained via four expectations

questions i.e., E1 to E4 and four perception questions i.e. P1 to P4. The perception
questions apply to the specific firm under investigation whereas the expectations
questions apply to excellent firms within a particular industry. Comparing the
perception scores with the expectation scores provides a numerical variable that
indicates the tangibles gap. The smaller the number, the smaller the gap, and the
closer consumers perceptions are to their expectations. The items that pertain to
the tangibles dimension are given below.
Tangibles Expectations:
E1Excellent firms will have modern-looking equipment.
E2The physical facilities at excellent firms will be visually appealing.
E3Employees of excellent firms will be neat in appearance.
E4In an excellent firm, the materials associated with the service will be visually
appealing.

Tangibles Perceptions:
P1Firm ABC has modern-looking equipment
P2Firm ABCs physical facilities are visually appealing.
P3Firm ABCs personnel are neat in appearance
P4Materials associated with the service are visually appealing at firm ABC.

The Reliability Dimension:

The reliability dimension reflects the consistency and dependability of a firms
performance.

Consumers perceive the reliability dimension to be the most

important of the five SERVQUAL dimensions. Failure to provide reliable service

generally translates into an unsuccessful firm.

SERVQUAL measures the

reliability gap asw shown below:

Reliability expectations:
E5When excellent firms promise to do something by a certain time, they will do
so.
E6When customers have a problem, excellent firms will show a sincere interest
in solving it.
E7--Excellent firms will perform the service right the first time.
E8Excellent firms will provide their services at the time they promise to do so.
E9Excellent firms will insist on error-free records.

Reliability perceptions:
P5When firm ABC promises to do something by a certain time, it does so.
P6Firm ABC shows a sincere interest in solving your problem whenever you
have a problem.
P7Firm ABC performs the service right the first time.
P8Firm ABC provides its services at the time it promises to do so.
P9Firm ABC insists on error-free records.

The Responsiveness dimension:

A Service firms commitment to provide its services in a timely manner is reflected
in responsiveness. The concern of the responsiveness dimension of SERVQUAL
is the willingness &/or readiness of personnel to provide a service. Sometimes the
customers may face a situation in which the employees are busy in their own talk
with their other colleagues while ignoring the needs of the customers. This is an
example of unresponsiveness.

The preparedness of the firm to provide the service is reflected in responsiveness.

The

SERVQUAL

expectation and

responsiveness gap are given below:

perception items

that

address

the

Responsiveness Expectations:
E10Employees of excellent firms will inform the customers exactly when
services will be performed.
E11Employees of excellent firms will give genuine service to customers.
E12Employees of excellent firms will always be willing to help customers.
E13Employees of excellent firms will never be too busy to respond to customer
requests.
Responsiveness perceptions:
P10Employees of ABC firm will inform their customers when the service will be
performed.
P11--Employees of ABC firm will give prompt & genuine service to customers.
P12Employees of ABC firm are always willing to help customers.
P13Employees of ABC firm are never too busy to respond to customer requests.

The Assurance Dimension:

The competence of the firm, the courtesy it extends to its customers and the security
of its operatives are addressed by the assurance dimension of SERVQUAL.
Competence in this context is the firms knowledge & skill in performing its service

courtesy refers to how the firms employees deal with the customers & with their
possessions.

Courtesy includes such aspects as politeness, friendliness, and

consideration for the customers property. Security is also an important component

of the assurance dimension. Security reflects a customers feelings that he is free
from risk, danger and doubt.

The SERVQUAL items used to address the

assurance gap are given below.

Assurance Expectations:
E14The behaviour of personnel of excellent firms will instill confidence in
customers.
E15Customers of excellent firms will feel safe in their transactions.
E16Personnel of excellent firms will be consistently courteous to customers.
E17Personnel of excellent firms will have the knowledge to answer customer
questions.
Assurance perceptions:
P14The behaviour of personnel of ABC firm instill confidence in customers.
P15Customers feel safe in their transactions with firm ABC.
P16Personnel of firm ABC are consistently courteous to their customers.
P17Personnel of firm ABC have the knowledge to answer the customer
questions.

The Empathy dimension:

The ability to experience anothers feelings as ones own is called as empathy.
Empathetic firms have not lost touch with what it is like to be a customer of their
own firm. Empathetic firms understand the needs of their customers and make the
services accessible to their customers. Firms that do not provide their customers
individualized attention and that offer operating hours convenient to the firm and
not to its customers fail to demonstrate empathetic behaviour.

The empathy dimension of SERVQUAL addresses the empathy gap in the

following manner.
Empathy expectations:
E18Excellent firms will give individual attention to its customers.
E19Excellent firms will have operating hours convenient to al their customers.
E20Excellent firms will have personnel who give customers personal attention.
E21Excellent firms will have the customers best interest at heart.
E22The specific needs of the customers will be understood by the employees of
excellent firms.

Empathy perceptions:
P18Firm ABC gives individual attention to customers.
P19Firm ABC has operating hours convenient to all its customers.
P20Employees of firm ABC give personal attention to all its customers.
P21Firm ABC has customers best interest at heart.
P22Employees of firm ABC understand their customers specific needs.

Limitations of SERVQUAL:
SERVQUAL is an excellent instrument for measuring service quality is not free
from several limitations.

The service providers must be well versed with the

limitations of the instrument and also the gap theory methodology on which it is
based. The major limitations of the SERVQUAL instrument are discussed below:
1. The SERVQUAL measures the expectations of the customers in an ideal
firm in a particular service industry. This may or may not be relevant to the
capabilities of a particular service firm or the group of service firms
available to a customer.
2. Another frequent criticism of the SERVQUAL instrument is its generic
nature. Since it is not industry particular, it does not assess variables which
may be industry specific.

3. Length of the SERVQUAL questionnaire is another major issue of

criticism. A combination of perception and expectation items of
SERVQUAL results in a 44 item survey instrument. The argument is that
the 44 items are highly repetitive and unnecessarily increase the length of
the questionnaire. Further argument is that the expectations section of the
instrument is of no real value and that the perceptions section along should
be used the measure the service quality.
4. Another limitation of SERVQUAL instrument related with the gap
methodology used for assessing the level of service quality. Evaluating
consumer expectations after a service has been provided will bias the
responses of consumers. If the customers had a positive experience, they
will tend to report lower scores for their expectations, so there is a
measurable gap between what they expected and the service they received.
If customer had a negative experience, the opposite occurs. Customers tend
to report higher scores for their expectations, so there would be a negative
gap between expectations and perceived level of service.
5. Another frequent criticism of the SERVQUAL instrument is that the five
proposed dimensions of service quality - reliability, responsiveness,
assurance, empathy and tangibles- do not hold up under statistical scrutiny.

Consequently, opponents of SERVQUAL question the validity of the

specific dimensions in the measurement instrument.
6. The sixth major criticism of SERVQUAL related to the instruments
ability to predict consumer purchase intentions. Research has indicated that
the perception section alone of the SERVQUAL scale is a better predictor
of purchase intentions than the combined expectations-minus-perception
instrument. The SERVQUAL instrument is criticized on the point that the
satisfaction has a more significant effect on purchase intentions than does
service quality.
Concluding Remarks about SERVQUAL instrument:
1. The relevance of employees of customer relations department:
The SERVQUAL instrument highlights many important points that service
providers should consider while examining service quality.

The attitudes and

performance of customer relations executives determine heavily the perceptions of

customers about the services.

The interaction between employees and the

customers directly determine the responsiveness, empathy and assurance

dimensions. The tangible dimension depends partly on the appearance & dress of
the employees of the service provider.
2. Process is equally important as outcome:

The customers judge the service based on the final outcome and also the process
through which the service passes through. The nature and frequency of the service
is also important in addition to its delivery.

Finally the customer satisfaction

depends on the production and consumption of the services.

3. Difficulty in predicting consumer perceptions:
There are several factors out side the control of the organization that may not be
readily apparent, but the ratings of service quality dimensions will be influenced to
a large extent by such factors.

Despite its limitations SERVQUAL continue to be a frequently used instrument to

measure service quality and is presently being modified to take into consideration
the service quality issues in e-business. When used in conjunction with other forms
of measurement, SERVQUAL provides a valuable diagnostic tool for measuring
the firms service quality performance.

A MODEL OF SERVICE QUALITY

Consumers compare the service they received with the service with the expected in
the process of assessing the quality of service.

The mathematical formula to

calculate the service quality can be expressed as P-E, where P is the consumer

perceived level of service received and E is consumer expectations prior to the

service encounter. A positive number would indicate consumer expectations were
exceeded. A zero would indicate the consumer expectations were met. A negative
number would indicate that expectations were not met.
The figure given below presents a model of service quality that identified Five
potential gaps.
The horizontal dashed line divides the service quality gaps that are formed related
from the one gap above the dashed line that is consumer oriented.
Gap-5, which is the difference between what consumers received and what they
expected, is the sum of Gap-1 to Gap-4. Gap-5 is affected by both direction and the
magnitude of the first four gaps.
A Model of Service Quality:

GAP-1:

(THE KNOWLEDGE GAP)

Gap-1 is the difference between what customers expected and what management
perceived customers expected. Gap-1 is also known as knowledge gap. It is the
gap between what customers want and what managers think customers want. Many
service providers think they know what their customers want but are really
mistaken. Customers of a restaurant may prefer quality and taste of food

over an attractive arrangement of the tables. Customers of a hotel may be interested

more in on-site amenities over comfortable rooms.
As result of knowledge gap many other mistakes may occur. The wrong facilities
may be given, the wrong employees may be appointed and the wrong training may
be extended. The services that the customers desires are not offered, whereas
services may be provided that customers have no use for. A detailed knowledge of
customers desire and then developing a solution into the service operating system
may close this kind of knowledge gap.

Factors influencing the Knowledge gap (Gap-1)

There are three main factors which influences the knowledge gap. They are:
Levels of Management: The managerial levels in the organization influence the
size of the knowledge gap. When more levels of management are added, the
organizational hierarchy becomes more complex and increased levels of

management tend to become more distant from customers. As a result of all

this, the size of the knowledge gap tends to increase.
Upward Communication: Upward communication is the second important
factor that influences the size of the knowledge gap. Upward communication is
the flow of information from front-line staff to upper levels of the organization.
As the bottom level employees interact more frequently with customers, they
are often more in touch with the needs of customers than the top management.
Therefore the increase in upward communication reduces the knowledge gap
and vice versa.
Research Orientation: The attitude of the organization towards conducting
research can influence a great extent on the size of gap-1. As firms research
orientation increases the size of knowledge gap reduces.

Strategies for reducing gap-1 (knowledge gap)

There are four strategies available to service providers to reduce the knowledge gap.
These are presented in the following table.

By interacting with customers, management can understand what customers expect

in terms of service quality and the customers feelings about the service they have
received. Communication between management & customers is common in small
service firms. Whereas, in large service organizations, it is very difficult for the
management to maintain communication with customers.
As some of the customers may not be honest in their communication with service
providers, to ensure open and honest communication, service firms can use
marketing research. In case of a large corporation, the research can be performed

by the marketing department; otherwise it can be performed by outside consultants.

The focus of the marketing research must be on the service quality and consumer
expectations of the service.
Upward communication plays a vital role in reducing the size of knowledge gap
where the management is separated from the customer care staff. Open, nonthreatening environment should be created to encourage the customer care
personnel to communicate with top management. The top management should
make a request to the customer care personnel for upward communication of ideas
for improvement.

For effective implementation of upward communication

employees offering productive ideas should be recognized and rewarded.

Reducing the levels of management is one good strategy to reduce the size of the
knowledge gap. As the layers of management increase the chances of management
having a correct understanding of what customers want in terms of service quality
will decrease. Therefore many service providers are seeking means to reduce the
number of management levels.

GAP-2

(THE STANDARD GAP)

Gap-2 is the difference between managements perception of consumer

expectations and the conversion of these perceptions into service quality
specifications. Management may understand and know what customers want but
unable to translate these expectations into the exact service specifications. Gap-2 is
also known as standard gap. At the time of developing standards the service firm
should use a flow char of its operations to identify all points of contact between the
firm and its customers. Detailed standards can be written for (1) The way the
system should operate & (2) The behaviour of customer relations personnel at each
point in the system.
Three causes of Standard gap

(Gap-2)

1. The first cause of gap-2 is the indifferent attitude of management.

Management may promise about providing high quality service, but in
actual practice they may offer only the minimum level of service that will
suffice. The intention is to avoid customer dissatisfaction but not to provide
customer satisfaction. In the short run, this philosophy may succeed and
generate greater revenue but in the long run customers will switch to those
service providers who provide better service. Because of the pressure to
generate short-term profits.
2. The second important reason for standard gap is insufficient resource.

3. The third important factor influencing gap-2 is the market conditions. The
most common market condition impacting the standard gap is Competitive
Parity. This is a situation where the competitive service providers produce
almost identical quality services.

Often the service firms will match

competitors offerings to prevent the competitor from capturing additional

market share. Instead of meeting the wants of the customers, the service
firms will translate customer expectations into matching competitive
offerings. As a result of this, there will be a gap between what firms know
customers expect and service specifications.
A second market condition affecting standard gap is monopoly markets such as
public utilities, cable services etc. Each operates as a virtual monopoly with no
competitors.

These service providers may understand certain needs and

expectations of the customers but may not convert them into service
specifications unless it is a statutory requirement. This kind of situation is
created because the cost of meeting certain customer expectations is higher than
the additional income that could be earned.

Strategies for reducing standard gap

(Gap-2)

To reduce the size of Gap-2 service providers must have the commitment of top
management. The mission statements of many organizations reflect on the firms
commitment to provide high level of service quality to its customers. But in actual
practice the service providers focus on cost reduction, gross sales and Net Profit
rather than a high level of service quality.

The two reasons for this discrepancy between mission statement and actual practice
are the difficulty of measuring service and the ease of measuring cost, sales and
profits.
Secondly, the current reward system is often based on non-service type criteria.
Most of the employees are promoted and rewarded for generating greater sales,
increasing net profits or reducing costs not for enhancing service quality.
The service firms must stat with a commitment by the management if at all there
going to be serious about providing high quality service. The top management must
set an example for their employees by committing to provide high level of service.
By setting service quality goals the standard gap can be reduced. While setting
service quality goals, the management must keep in mind the customer, the service
contact provider and the management.

The customer relations team must

understand the managements perspective and the need to generate a profit. The

customer relations team should provide their team members with valuable inputs
into the best process for achieving service quality goals. The top management must
understand the possibilities in terms of operation.
The service quality goals must be customer oriented. While setting service quality
standards, the customer wants and desires should be taken into consideration. The
customers should be included in the goal setting process as it is advantageous to
both management and customer relations personnel.
The size of gap-2 can be reduced by task standardization. Standardization can be
done through hard technology, which is substituting machines or computers for
people, or soft technology which is improving work methods.

Methods are

designed to standardize the operation and provide a uniform delivery of the service
to customers, reducing the gap between management perception of consumer
expectations and the conversion of those expectations into service quality
specifications.

GAP-3

THE DELIVERY GAP

The third service quality gap is the difference between the service quality
specifications and the delivery of those specifications to the customer. The delivery
gap occurs between the actual performance of a service and the standards set by
management. The existence of the delivery gap depends on both the willingness

and the ability of employees to provide the service according to specification.

Major reasons for this type of gap are the variable and inseparable nature of
services.

As most of the services are performed by people, the quality of service is highly
dependent upon how well the service provider performs his job. If the services are
provided by the service contact personnel as specified, customers are usually

satisfied and their expectations are met. If employees do not provide the service as
specified in the service specifications, customer expectations will not be met and
customers will be dissatisfied. Causes and strategies for delivery gap are presented
in the table.

Factors influencing the delivery gap

(Gap-3)

1. Employees willingness to perform the service is one factor that influences

the size of the delivery gap. Employees willingness to provide a service
can differ greatly from employee to employee and in the same employee
over time. Because of frustration and dissatisfaction with the organization,
many employees who start off working to their full potential often become
less willing to do so over time. Further, a considerable range exists between
what the employee is actually capable of accomplishing and the minimum
the employee must do in order to keep his job. Most of the service firms
find it very difficult to keep employees working at their full potential all the
time.
2. Employee job fit is the second factor that influences the size of the delivery
gap. Employees may have been appointed for jobs they are not competent
to handle or to which they are unsuited temperamentally or they may not
have been provided with appropriate training for the expected roles.
3. Role conflict is another common factor influencing the size of the delivery
gap. The service firms may see an inconsistency between what the service
manager expects employees to provide and the service their customers
actually want, whether or not the knowledge gap has been closed.
4. Role ambiguity is another cause of the delivery gap. When employees do
not understand the roles of their jobs or what their jobs are intended to

accomplish, it results in role ambiguity. Sometimes, the employees may be

unfamiliar with the service firm and its goals. The delivery gap widens as
role ambiguity increases.
5. Dispersion of control is another reason for size of delivery gap. When the
employees are not allowed to make independent decisions about individual
cases they may feel alienated from the service. Employee alienation is bound to
increase when control over certain aspects of the services moved to a different
location.

Employees experience learned helplessness and feel unable to

respond to customer requirements. The delivery gap becomes wider, as the

dispersion of control increases.
6. As a result of inadequate support, the delivery gap may also suffer. Inadequate
support may be not receiving training on administration and usage of
technology etc., essential for employees to perform their jobs in the best
possible way. Even the best employees can be discouraged if they are forced to
work with faculty equipment. Failure to properly support employees leads to a
lot of wasted effort, poor employee productivity, unsatisfied customers, and an
increase in the size of the delivery gap.

Strategies for reducing Delivery gap

(Gap-3)

Team work is a common characteristic of successful service firms. A feeling of

team work is created when employees see other employees and management as key
members of the team. The lower level employee must feel that management from
their immediate superior to the CEO of the company cares about them and that they
are a critical part of the firms success. Among employees, there must be a spirit of
cooperation and not competition.

When every employee is involved in the

company and committed to providing a high level of service to customers, to the

company, and to other employees, the size of the delivery gap can e reduced.
There must be a fit between employee skills and job requirements so that the
employees can provide the services according to the job specifications. The service
providers must employ people who have the ability to perform the job. Each
employee should be trained to perform the job according to the procedures of the
service firm.
As the technology is available, many service firms are using machines, tools and
computers to help service employees in doing their job. The service employees
must have proper equipment to perform their job according to the company
standards. The service employees should be provided with appropriate equipment
with proper condition and they should be educated on how to use the technology to
improve the quality of their work.

Computerized diagnostic equipment is necessary to diagnose problems with newer

automobiles. The quality of the diagnoses is dependent upon the quality of the
equipment, the condition of the equipment and the ability of the service technician
to operate it.
The concept of perceived employee control is another important factor in reducing
the delivery gap. The employee morale is enhanced; if they are allowed some
flexibility and control in the service process. Flexibility and control will also allow
service employees to modify the process to meet the particular needs and desires of
the customers. The outcome of the service will become more predictable by having
control of the service encounter.
The size of delivery gap is also influenced by the supervisory control system. The
likelihood of employees doing the job according to the specification improves when
they are encouraged and rewarded for meeting job specifications. However, often
supervisors will tell employees to follow the correct job specifications but reward or
punish employees on other criteria.

Employees may be evaluated by their

supervisors on such criteria as a balanced cash register for bank teller, the number
of automobiles repaired by a mechanic, etc. When this happens, employees will
reduce the specifications to improve whatever criteria will be used by their
supervisor in their evaluations.

In many service contact positions the role conflict is inherent. The way in which
the role conflict is handled will have an impact on how closely the service delivered
matches the service specified.

The primary conflict faced by service contact

personnel is between the expectations of customers and the expectations of

management.

This conflict is increased when the employees are not given

flexibility to meet the needs of customers.

The role conflict can be reduced by allowing service contract personnel adequate
flexibility to meet customer needs. The employees need to have some control over
the service encounter.

Reducing the amount of conflict faced by the service

employees is the responsibility of management.

Not only does reducing role

conflict aid service employers in meeting the needs of customers but it will increase
job satisfaction, job morale, and length of employment.
Reducing role ambiguity is another strategy in reducing the size of gap-3. As role
ambiguity increases, role conflict increases and job satisfaction decreases. If the
employees lack an understanding of what is supposed to be done, it becomes
difficult for them to perform the necessary job specifications.
Management assumes employees understand their job but this is not always the
case.

In fact, many times service contact personnel do not have a clear

understanding of goals and expectations. To reduce role ambiguity, service firms

must do the following:

1. Provide frequent and clear downward communications from management on

what is expected and how the service is to be performed.
2. Provide employees with constructive feedback to help them understand how
the service is to be performed and what management expects.
3. Provide employees with product and service knowledge so they can perform
their jobs better.
4. Train and retrain employees in the proper method of performing the service.
5. Train service contact personnel to communicate effectively with customers,
with their supervisors, and with other customers.

GAP4

(THE COMMUNICATION GAP)

Gap4 is the difference between the service delivered to customers and the
external communications about the service. Promises are made to consumers by a
firms promotional efforts in the form of sales promotions, sales staff and
advertising.

These promises may be explicitly stated or they may be implied. If

the firm does not provide the service that is promised, there is a gap between what
customers expected and the service received.

External communicators are essentially promises the firm makes to its customers.
When the communications gap is wide, the firm has broken its promises, resulting
in a lack of future customer trust.

Factors influencing the communications gap

(Gap4):

As consumer expectations for a service increase, the probability of patronizing the

firm will also increase. To increase patronage, firms are tempted to make promises
that may be difficult or even impossible to deliver.
The communications gap is influenced primarily by two factors. The first, the
propensity of the firm to over promise often occurs in highly competitive business
environments as firms try to outdo one another in the name of recruiting new
customers. The second factor pertains to the flow of Horizontal communication
within the firm. Communications are developed at the firms headquarters without
conferring with service firms in the field.

In some instances, new service

programmes are announced to the public by corporate headquarters before the local
service firms are aware that the new programs exist.

A lack of horizontal

communication places an unsuspecting service provider in an awkward position

when a customer requests the service promised and the provider has no idea what
the customer is talking about.
Strategies for reducing the communications gap

(Gap-4)

By addressing two important issues namely, the horizontal communications and

propensity to over promise the service firms can reduce the size of gap-4. Service
contact people should have input in the firms advertising and promotional plans.
This input will ensure that messages conveyed to the prospective customers can e
operationally performed. The reverse is also true; service personnel should be
informed prior to an advertising or promotional campaign.

Knowing what

customers will be told about the service will help service staff perform the correct
service.
In service firms with field sales representative, there must be communication
between the salespeople and the personnel performing the service. Sales people
often make promises to prospective customers to gain contracts. If promises are
made, the operations department needs to be aware of it so they can ensure the
promises will be delivered.

With a pressure to achieve greater profits or to meet competitive claims the

tendency to over promise increases. In both cases, severe damage to the firms
image will occur since it is unlikely the firm can perform the service as promised.
Prescriptions for closing service gaps:

Tools for analyzing and addressing the service quality issues:

The following important tools are used to determine the root cause of specific
service quality problems.
1. Root cause analysis:
The Fishbone diagram has been developed by Japanese quality expert Kaoru
Ishikawa as a tool to address the problem of service quality, wherein groups of
managers and staff brainstorm all the possible reasons that might cause a specific
quality problem. The resulting factors are categorized into five groups such as,
equipment, people, material, procedures and others on a cause and effect chart
which is popularly known as fish bone diagram because of its shape.

This,

technique has been used for many years in manufacturing and more recently also in
services.

To sharpen the value of the analysis for use in service organizations an extended
frame work with eight groups has been adopted. People has been divided in to
Front-stage personnel and Back-stage personnel to highlight the fact that frontstage service problems are often experienced directly by customers, whereas back
stage failures tend to show up more obliquely through a ripple effect. Procedures
has been divided into Information recognizing that many service problems result
from information failures especially failures by front-stage staff to tell customers
what to do and when. Finally, there is a new group called Customers. In highcontact services, customers are involved in front stage operations. If they do not
play their own roles correctly, customers may reduce service productivity and cause
quality problems for themselves and other customers.
2. Pareto analysis:
The Italian economist who has developed a tool which seeks to identify the major
causes of observed out comes is named as Pareto analysis.

This analysis

underlies the rule 80/20, because it often reveals that around 80 percent of the value
of one variable, for example, number of service failures, is accounted for by only 20
percent of the causal variable i.e. number of possible causes.
Combining the fishbone diagram and Pareto analysis serves to highlight the main
causes of service failure.
3. Blue Printing:

A well structured blue print is a powerful tool for identifying points of failure. It
enables us to visualize the process of service delivery by depicting the sequence of
front-stage interactions that customers experience as they encounter service
providers, facilities & equipment, which are hidden from the customers are not part
of their service experience. Blue prints can be used to identify potential fail points
where failures are most likely to happen. Blue prints help us to understand how
failures at one point may have a ripple effect latter in the process. Using frequency
counts, managers can identify the specific types of failures that happen most
frequently and thus need immediate attention. One desirable solution is to design
fail points out of the system. In case of failures that cannot easily be designed out
of a process or are not easily prevented, solutions may concentrate on development
of contingency plans and service recovery guidelines.

It is very relevant to know on several formal quality programs namely, the Total
Quality Management, ISO9000, Six Sigma and the Malcom-Baldrige Model, as the
whole thinking, tools and concepts of Service quality originates from such quality
programs.

Therefore, an attempt has been made to describe each one briefly

hereunder.

TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT:

Total Quality Management, concepts originally developed in Japan, are widely used
in manufacturing and more recently have also been used in service firms. Some
concepts and tools of TQM can be directly applied to services. Control charts,
flowcharts. Fishbone diagram and such other TQM tools are being used by service
firms with great results for monitoring service quality and determining the root
causes of specific problems.
Twelve critical dimensions have been identified for the successful implementation
of TQM in a service context. They are: (1) Top-management commitment and
visionary leadership, (2) Human resource management, (3) technical system,
including service process design and process management, (4) Information and
analysis system, (5) benchmarking, (6) continuous improvement, (7) Customer
focus, (8) Employee satisfaction, (9) Union intervention and employee relations,
(10) Social responsibility, (11) Servicescapes, and (12) Service culture.
1SO 9000 CERTIFICATION:
More than 90 countries are members of the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) based in Geneva, Switzerland.

The

ISO promotes

standardization and quality to facilitate international trade. ISO 9000 comprises

requirements, definitions, guidelines, and related standards to provide an
independent assessment and certification of a firms quality management system.
The official ISO 9000 definition of quality is: The totality of features and

characteristics of a product or service that bear on its ability to satisfy a stated or

implied need. Simply stated, quality is about meeting or exceeding your customers
needs and requirements. To ensure quality, ISO 9000 used many TQM tools and
routinizes their use in participating firms.
As with other quality initiatives, such as TQM and Six Sigma, service firms were
late in adopting the ISO 9000 standards, and about two-thirds of the 510, 616
organizations that had been ISO 9000 certified by the end of 2001 were in
manufacturing industries.

Major Service sectors that have adopted ISO 9000

certification include wholesale and retail firms, IT service providers, health care
providers, consultancy firms, and educational institutions. By adopting ISO 9000
standards, service firms, especially small ones, can not only ensure that their
services conform to customer expectations but also achieve improvements in
internal productivity.
MALCOLM-BALDRIGE MODEL APPLIED TO SERVICES:
The Malcolm-Baldrige National Quality Award (MBNQA) was developed by the
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) with the goal of promoting
best practices in quality management. The Baldrige Model assesses firms on seven
areas: (1) Leadership commitment to a service quality culture; (2) Planning
priorities fro improvement, including service standards, performance targets, and
measurement of customer satisfaction, defects, cycle time, and productivity; (3)

Information and analysis that will help the organization to collect, measure, analyze,
and report strategic and operational indicators; (4) Human resources management
that enables the firm to deliver service excellence, ranging from hiring the right
people to involvement, empowerment, and motivation; (5) Process management,
including monitoring, continuous improvement, and process redesign; (6) customer
and market focus that allows the firm to determine customer requirement and
expectations; and (7) Business results.
SIX-SIGMA APPLIED TO SERVICE ORGANIZATIONS:
The Six-Sigma approach was developed by Motorola engineers in the mid-1980s to
address the issue of increasing numbers of complaints from its field sales force
regarding warranty claims. The program was soon adopted by other manufacturing
firms to reduce defects in a variety of areas.
Subsequently, service firms embraced various Six-Sigma strategies to reduce
defects, reduce cycle times, and improve productivity. Statistically, six sigma means
achieving a quality level of only 3.4 defects per million opportunities (DPMO).
Over time, Six Sigma has evolved from a defect-reduction approach to an overall
business-improvement approach. As defined by Peter Pande, Robert Neuman, and
Ronald Cavanagh: Six Sigma is a comprehensive and flexible system for
achieving, sustaining and maximizing business success. Six Sigma is uniquely
driven by close understanding of customer needs, disciplined use of facts, data and

statistical analysis, and diligent attention to managing, improving, and reinventing

business processes.

Process improvement and process design/redesign are the two strategies forming the
cornerstone of the Six Sigma approach. Process-improvement strategies aim at
identifying and eliminating the root causes of service delivery problems and thereby
improving service quality.

Process design/redesign strategies act as a

supplementary strategy to improvement strategy.

If a root cause cannot be

identified or effectively eliminated with in the existing processes, either new

processes are designed or existing processes are redesigned to fully or partially
address the problem.
The most popular Six Sigma improvement model used for analyzing and improving
business processes is the DMAIC model.
measures:

Define the opportunities

Measure Key steps/inputs

Analyze to identify root causes

Improve performance

Control to maintain performance

DMAIC stands for the following

Discussion Questions:
1. What are the underlying themes of service quality? Suggest illustrations of
each theme.
2. Define the five dimensions of service quality. Give an example of each
dimension.
3. Explain how a manager might use the conceptual model of service quality to
improve the quality of his or her own firm
4. What factors contribute to the size of the knowledge gap?
5. How does the communication gap relate to success in e-business?
6. Develop specifications for the role of a Good Student.
7. What are the criticisms of SERVQUAL? What are its developers responses
to these criticisms?
8. You have been hired by a firm to develop the firms service quality
information system. What are the components of this system?
9. Explain the SERVQUAL model. How is it used by services marketers?
10. Identify the potential problems with SERVQUAL and the use of the gap
theory methodology for measuring service quality. Discuss the precautions
that should be taken to reduce these problems.

11. Identify the two types of performance measures that can be used to measure
service quality. Cite examples of each type.
12. Identify the gaps in the evaluation of service quality. Identify the causes of
each gap and the marketing strategies firms can use to reduce the size of
each gap.
13. What are the main tools service firms can use to analyze and address service
quality problems?
14. How do such concepts as TQM, ISO9000, Malcolm-Baldrige approach, and
Six Sigma relate to managing and improving productivity and service
quality?
15. Review the five dimensions of service quality. What do they mean in the
context of (a) an Industrial repair shop, (b) a retail bank, (c) an accounting
firm?
16. In what ways can you, as a consumer, help to improve quality for at least
five

service

organizations

that

you

patronize?

What

distinctive

characteristics of each service make some of these actions possible?

17. If you were the manager of a service organization and wanted to apply the
gaps model to improve service, which gap would you start wish? Why? In
what order would you proceed to close the gaps?
18. Which of the four gaps do you believe is hardest to close? Why?

19. Choose an organization to interview, and use the integrated gaps model of
service quality as a framework. Ask the manager whether the organization
suffers from any of the factors listed in the figures in this chapter.
20. What evidence do you see of organizations implementing quality
programmes and continually improving service quality?

How do you

measure service quality?

REFERENCES:
1.

V.A.Zeithaml,A.Parasuraman, and L.L.Berry, Delivering Quality Service:

Balancing Customer Perceptions and Expectations (New York: The Free
Press, 1990)

2.

Christopher Lovelock, and Jochen Wirtz, Services MarketingPeople,

Technology, Strategy, fifth Edition. Pearson Education.

3.

Helen Woodruffe, Services Marketing, Macmillan India Ltd., 2001.

4.

David L.Kurtz and Kenneth E.Clow, Services Marketing, John Wiley &
Sons, New York, 1998.

5.

K.Douglas Hoffman & John E.G.Bateson, Essentials of Services

Marketing: Concepts, Strategies, & Cases, Second Edition, Thomson
South western, Singapore, 2002.

6.

Adrian Buckley, The essence of services marketing, Prentice-Hall of India

Private Limited, New Delhi, 2003.

7.

Neil Baum, Hotels can teach us how to compete on services, American

medical news, vol.37 (May 16, 1994), p 36.

8.

Parasuraman, Zeithaml, and Berry, A conceptual model of service quality

and its Implications for future research, pp.41-50.

9.

Jerry D.Rogers, Kenneth E.Clow, and Toby J.Kash, Increasing Job

Satisfaction of Service Personnel, Journal of Services Marketing, vol.8,
(No.1, 1994), pp.14-26.

10. Zeithaml, Berry, and Parasuraman, Communication and Control

Processes in the Delivery of Service Quality, pp.35-48.

UNIT V

MARKETING OF DIFFERENT SERVICES

CLASSIFICATION OF SERVICES

The following charts visualize various classes of services

along with the organizations that provide them.
Consumer Services
Services

Organisations

Food

Eating-joints, restaurants, fastfoods

Boarding and Lodging

Dharmashalas, hotels, motels

Beauty and Fitness

Beauty parlours, fitness centres, gyms

Medical

Nursing homes, dispensaries, hospitals

Post Sales

Garages, company stations

Entertainment

Cinema, clubs, amusement parks

Communication

T.V., radio, Internet

Transport

Ships, steamers, buses, rails, aeroplanes

Insurance
Financial
Industrial Services

Insurance companies
Finance companies, banks

Unlike consumer services, industrial services are offered

to the business organisations, although there may be some
variable common in both.
Services

Organisations

Consultancy

Specialised consultants, experts

Clerical

Photo-stats, computer-printing, typing centres

Accounting

Specialized centres undertaking commercial accounts

Engineering

Specialized firms providing help in formulating projects, designs, et.

Warehousing

Specialized agencies in warehousing

Distribution

Research

Distribution agencies.
Field management companies and others

Transport

Transport houses, etc.; buses, rails, aeroplanes, ships

Financial

Finance companies, banks

Insurance

Insurance companies

There is a tremendous market for services in the large scale, medium

scale and small scale sector as well. A partial list of services is given
below.
TYPE OF SERVICE OPERATIONS-PARTIAL LIST

Transportation services
Railway
Airlines
Local passenger transportation
Inter-state passenger transportation
Road transportation
Helicopter service
Private aircraft services
Water transportation

Public utilities services

Water supply services
Electric supply
Gas supply
Communication services
Telephone
Postal and Courier
Radio and TV broadcasting
Telecommunication
Tele-conferencing
Satellite
Trading services
Wholesaling and Retailing
Financial and Insurance services
Banking
Leasing
Security and brokerage
Investment banking
Retail banking

 Insurance
Credit reporting
Real estate services
Renting
Investment consultants
Property consultants
Building and real estate management
Marketing related services
Marketing consultancy
Advertising
Tele-marketing
Sales promotion
New product development
New product testing
Market research
Government provided services
Infrastructure
Defense

 Police
Transport
Broadcasting
Education
Medical and others
Engineering services
Equipment inspection
Designing
Construction design
Architectural
Facility planning
Technical research
ERP
Entertainment services
Motion pictures
Video parlours
Game parlours
Theme parks

 Party
Event management
Discos
Bowl parks
Clubs
Business and professional services
Records management
Management consultancy
Legal
Accounting
Meeting facilities
Office management
Hospitality services
Hotels & restaurants
Catering
Home delivery
Others services
Janitorial

 Security
Public relations
Land scaping / Lawn care
Printing
Data processing
Speech writing
Professional speaking
Educational
Training
Travel related
Courier
Health and hospital
Equipment rental
Interior designing
Laundry and cleaning
Computer programming
Personal grooming
Fax

 Old age homes

Ware housing
Window dressing
Repair and maintenance
Home-help

1. FINANCIAL SERVICES

BANK MARKETING
The banking industry is undergoing a revolution caused
by deregulation. The causes for bank marketing can be seen
as:
-

rising

customer

needs

and

expectations

due

improvements in general standard of living

-

entry of foreign and private sector banks in India

economic liberalization of Indian economy.

to

phenomenal growth of competition due to economic

liberalization.

rise in the Indian middle class with considerable

resources.

government intervention in protecting the interest of

consumers.

Thus the significance of bank marketing in Indian

banking system is undeniable
if they have to survive in the competitive environment. Bank
marketing is not just advertising and promotion campaign but
a managerial process by which services are matched with
markets. This indicates evolving a suitable marketing strategy,
which suits the needs of the customer. The major step in this
direction is to blend the marketing variables-product, price,
place, promotion, people, process and physical evidence, to
satisfy the requirements of the customer.
ICICI Bank

The way ICICI Bank has promoted itself to become a

leader in consumer perception has few parallels in the Indian
service industry, especially when you consider the fact that it
was earlier a staid development bank in the unglamorous
business of project financing, and significantly owned by the
government. At least in the public perception, it was a typical
government bank, until it literally changed its colours to an
attractive orange-red.

Along with a spanking new logo, and

aggressive marketing which included print, television, and

personal selling through mailers and telemarketing, the ICICI
Bank almost blanketed the landscape and the consumers
mind space in the years 2000-02, to emerge as a leading player
in the retail banking industry.
From an NBFC to a Bank: Kotak Mahindras Strategic Shift
Kotak Mahindra, which has started as an NBFC (nonbanking financial services company) and has now become a
bank. A major paradigm shift is taking place in the way
corporate finance is structured. Traditionally, banks in India

approached corporate and said here is our bag of money. I

dont think that is sustainable any longer. You have to go to
the supply chain and look for gaps.
If you take the automobile sector, for instance, we are
end-to-end providers. We have done car financing at one end
of the retail chain.

Now we are going to the other end,

financing the ancillary units and suppliers. We do about Rs.

2,000 crore of car financing a year. At any point of time, we
have about Rs 300 crore of dealer finance. We do about Rs.
1,000 crore of commercial vehicle financing. We are targeting
another Rs. 500 crore at the auto ancillary unit level. The total
churn or the transaction volumes in the auto sector would be
in excess of Rs. 5,000 crore a year. We are number three in
auto financing, behind ICICI and HDFC Bank. As a vertical, it
is a large part of our balance sheet.
If you are in end-to-end financing, we can compensate
the reductions, if any, in fee income. But the auto sector is
growing at 30 per cent.

we are trying to replicate the auto

financing model in other sectors-in FMCG, pharmaceuticals,

tractors, etc.
Dont look at the profits of Kotak Primus in the normal
way. That is because there is a very large royalty that Kotak
Primus pays the bank, under our agreement with Ford. If you
look at Kotak Primuss operating profits (before the royalty
payments), it is quite good.

Spreads have been under

pressure. But even today, I can get a customer for car finance
at 15 per cent and 7 per cent. it depends on the risk profile
that you want to take on.
This is true to some extent. As you go deeper, you get
higher returns, but you also run higher risks. We cover the top
60 to 70 cities now. Primarily, well stay there. But as a bank,
we do have the obligation to go to rural areas and we will do
that.
We see the conversion as conferring a longer term
advantage. We did not have access to call money earlier. No
doubt there is a branch cost, but that is met not only by

deposits but also by investment products.

We see this as a

stronger model.
If you have Rs 100, youll put Rs 80 in various products
but leave around Rs 20 in the SB account. We need to capture
that and make it grow bigger. There is a fundamental change
happening, globally.
Most banks have been focusing on the stock of money.
Now it is moving to the flow. Money is becoming more mobile.
If you look at the nationalised banks, it is all focused on the
stock.
The trick to get stable money for us, is to be in the middle
of the flow. As we do have more of investment products, and
keep on the churn, some part of the flow will keep on getting
left behind and the residue will gradually grow. Other banks,
which are focused on the stock, may not be able to hold on to
it.
INSURANCE MARKETING

The term insurance marketing refers to the marketing of

insurance services with the motto of customer-orientation and
profit-generation.

A fair blending of profit-generation and

customer-satisfaction makes the ways for development and

expansion.

The

insurance

marketing

focuses

on

the

formulation of an ideal mix for the insurance business so that

the insurance organisations survive and thrive in a right
perspective.

The quality of services can be improved by

formulating a fair mix of the core and peripheral services. The

persuasion process can be speeded up with the support of
creative promotional measures.

The premium and bonus

decisions can be made motivational, the gap between the

services-promised and services-offered can be bridged over, the
quality

and

value

based

personnel

can

make

possible

performance-orientation and these developments can make the

insurance organisations stronger enough to face the challenges
and threats in the markets. It is meant managerial proficiency,
which makes an assault on unethical and unfair practices by

regulating profiteering.

The organisations thus are found

successful in increasing the market share, maximizing the

profitability and keeping on the process of development. In the
Indian perspective where rural-orientation needs a prime
attention, the insurance marketing may prove to be a device for
combating regional imbalance by maintaining the sectoral
balance. As an investment institution, the rural development
oriented projects make ways for the transformation of rural
society.
The selection of risks (product planning), Policy writing
(customer Service) rating or actuarial (pricing) and agency
management (distribution)-all marketing activities make up an
integrated marketing strategy. We cant neglect that during the
yester decades, there have been considerable developments in
the perception of customer servicing firms like banking and
insurance companies. Particularly in the developing countries
like ours, the organisational objectives advocate spreading of
insurance services much more widely and in particular to the

rural areas and especially to the economically backward

classes with a view to reaching all insurable persons.

This

naturally necessitates an integral marketing strategy. In other

words, market-orientation in place of sales orientation is need
of the hour.

Hence the marketing concept in the insurance

business focuses on the formulation of marketing mix or a

control over the whole group of marketing activities that make
up an integrated marketing strategy.

INSURANCE MARKETING IN INDIA

The Insurance sector plays a vital role in the economic development of our
nation.

It acts as a mobilizer of savings, financial intermediary, promoter of

investment activities, stabilizer of financial markets and a risk manager. India is

still an under-insured country in the world. It is at the 18th position among life
insurance markets and 28th in non-life Insurance markets in the world.
indicates that there is a huge potential, yet to be explored.

This

The business of life insurance in India in its existing form

started in India in the year 1818 with the establishment of the
Oriental Life Insurance Company in Kolkatta.
To survive in the industry they analyze the emerging requirements of the
policy holders/insured and they are in the forefront in providing essential services
and introducing novel products. Thereby they become niche specialists, who
provide the right service to the right person in right time.

TABLE 1
Market share (%) August 2005
NON LIFE INSURERS

LIFE INSURERS
1.

LIC

76.07

1.

New India

21.41

2.

ICICI Prudential

6.91

2.

National

17.11

3.

Bajaj Allianz

4.75

3.

United Inida

17.11

4.

HDFC Standard

2.98

4.

Oriental

17.02

5.

Brila Sunlite

1.72

5.

ICICI-Lombard

8.04

6.

Tata AIG

1.66

6.

Bajaj Allianz

6.15

7.

SBI Life

1.46

7.

IFFCO-Tokio

4.00

8.

Max New York

1.28

8.

Tata-AIG

2.89

9.

Aviva

1.08

9.

ECGC

2.50

10.

Kotak Mahindra

0.71

10.

Royal Sundaram

2.17

Old Mutual
11.

ING Vysya

0.54

11.

Cholamandalam

1.22

12.

AMP Sanmar

0.46

12.

HDFC-Chubb

0.89

13.

Met Life

0.37

13.

Reliance General

0.75

14.

Sahara Life

0.03

14.

Agriculture Insurance

Co.
PRIVATE TOTAL

23.93

PRIVATE TOTAL

26.10

PUBLIC TOTAL

76.07

PUBLIC TOTAL

73.90

GRAND TOTAL

100.00

100.00

Source: WWW. Irdaindia.org

In August 2005, the private players in the life insurance business have
increased their market share to 23.93 per cent. Among them ICICI prudential is
ranked first in capturing the market followed by Bajaj Allianz and HDFC Standard.

In the General Insurance sector the private players have captured 26.10 per cent.
Among them ICICI-Lombard is ranked first, followed by Bajaj Allianz and IFFCOTokio.
The healthy competition in the sector enabled the state owned insurers of
our mother country to reduce its market share to 76.07 per cent and 73.90 per cent
in life and non-life business respectively. Moreover, private insurers have planned
to increase their market share in the next five years. The public insurers have to
enrich its approach to with held its share.
Insurance is a unique service industry. They key industry drivers are related
to life style issues in terms of perceiving insurance as a saving instrument rather
than for risk cover, need based selling, quality of service and customers awareness.
In the present competitive scenario, a key differentiator is the professional
customer service in terms of quality of advice on product choice along with policy
servicing. Servicing focus is on enhancing the customers experience and
maximizing his convenience. This calls the effective CRM system, which
eventually creates sustainable competitive advantage and enables to build long
lasting relationship.

ING Vysya Mutual Fund

The ING Vysya mutual fund is still a relatively small

player in the countrys Rs 1 lakh crore-plus asset management
industry.

It

has,

however,

gone

through

significant

modifications in the recent times, ones that are expected to

support its expansion programmes.
The mutual fund (MF), which currently manages a few
basic schemes, has proposed to introduce a couple of others in
the near future. One, the ING group has increased its equity
stake in Vysya Bank to 43.99 per cent from the 20 per cent it
held earlier. The bank has been renamed as ING Vysya Bank
subsequently. The group now operates as ING Vysya in India
through over 500 branches spread across the country.Two,
there has been an infusion of fresh capital in ING Investment
Management (1) Pvt. Ltd, which is the asset management
company. This has been done to strengthen its presence. The
fresh infusion came with ING Vysya Bank acquiring a stake of
about 26 per cent in the AMC. This reflects the nature of INGs
long-term commitment to the Indian market.

At the moment it is present in eight cities with more than

Rs 1,100 crore of assets under the management. It is believed
that the inherent strengths can be leveraged to formulate more
schemes with a view to create better value.
The liquid and short-term products are already among
the top-rated names in their respective categories. The future
looks bright for the asset management industry and only those
players with strong corporate backing would be the likely
survivors. The bigger ones absorb small and individual fund
houses could well. This would make competition even more
aggressive.
It is proposed to come out with a monthly income plan (MIP) and an index-linked product. These would be in line with
the attempt to cater to the ever-increasing needs of investors. The MIP, which would be launched immediately, is aimed
at high net worth individuals, retired people and pensioners, among others. To be armed with certain additional
services, which would set it apart from other simple MIPs, it would enable them to secure a steady, regular stream of
income.

2. HEALTH SERVICES
Health Industry
Until recently the healthcare industry was at the
crossroads, still unsure which way to go.
exciting times.

Today, it is in for

Low costs, combined with excellent facilities,

have provided the perfect formula for India to become a major

player in the $2.8 trillion worldwide healthcare industry.
Today the cost of healthcare in India is only one-tenth the
cost in the US in cases of major surgeries.

With costs of

providing healthcare low, and with global standards available,

the world cannot compete with us. The cost of a heart surgery
at Apollo is $2,500 as compared to $30,000 in the US. Bone
marrow transplants cost $50,000 in India as against $400,000
in US.
Indias attraction as a low cost, high-quality centre for
healthcare may be new but the signs are visible. In 1998-99,
Apollo Hospitals conducted heart surgeries on 91 patients from
Tanzania. In Chennai, Apollo treats around 30 Sri Lankans a
day.

Daily 40 patients are from Muscat registered in Apollo

hospitals in Delhi, Chennai and Hyderabad for treatment.

Healthcare not only brings in direct purchase of healthcare,
but it also encourages a lot of expenditure, on travel, lodging
and boarding.

Which, translated, means foreign exchange.

And India has enough embassies and tourism development

corporations to spread the message.
Out door sport:
Golf
Water sports: jet-ski, windsurfing, boating
Tennis
Adventure sports: paint ball battle games, hot air ballooning,
sky diving
In door sport:
Snooker
Gymnasia and health clubs
Ice and roller-skating
Ten pin bowling
HOSPITAL SERVICES
Marketing has grown in importance for hospitals, looking
to strengthen their position in a increasingly competitive
healthcare market place.

A world-class hospital is a multi-disciplinary super

speciality medical centre of international standards.

Most

hospitals today are well equipped with the most advanced

diagnostic and treatment facilities.
care-preventive and curative.

They try for total health

Most hospitals in India have

grown to a truly world class stature over the years.

Some

hospitals in India have grown to a truly world class stature

over the years. Some hospitals have even obtained ISO 9002
certification.

Ex., Mallya hospital, Bangalore.

ISO 9002

quality assurance is a structured and user friendly set of

systems, which allows the staff at all levels of the hospital to
follow simple procedures, which make the most complex tasks
easy and efficient. It frees the senior management of everyday
stress in observing and monitoring tasks, which have to be
completed on daily basis.
Virtual Hospital Strategy
Hospital will soon go hi-tech, not so much in terms of
sophisticated medical equipment, but in that a patients kith

and kin can virtually visit him/her from any part of the world
and the patient too can communicate with them and relieve
their undue anxiety.
Bangalore has emerged as a pioneer in the design of an
interactive website used in making virtual visits to hospitals,
thus introducing a human element hitherto unthought of. This
breakthrough in the usage of information technology for
patients, was achieved by the Bangalore-based Think Ahead
Incorporated, designing the website for a hospital here.
The

primary

advantage

of

this

technology

is

the

mitigation of undue anxiety of relatives particularly sons and

daughters, children of patients who are settled abroad-who
cannot at the beside of patients undergoing treatment for a
heart ailment or a major surgery.

The Virtual Family Visit

allows relatives to see realtime images of patients through

audio video files which can be downloaded on their computer
by entering the hospital website through the internet. These
files of the patient are shot by the hospital using a Webcam

(web camera) to show the convalescing patient and his message

for his family members. The files are then unloaded in the
hospital website. The family members can also communicate
with the patient by way of sending on-line get well cards to
patients.

Besides, they can also get reports of the patients

condition from the doctor-in-charge, if the relative so desires.

Wockhardt Hospital, where the Virtual family visit is in
use, the relatives are physically able to see their near and dear
ones recuperating from the treatment which avoid emotional
trauma. This facility in hospital is particularly useful, when a
relative, is unable to rush to the hospital to be physically
present due to various reasons. Besides, the patient himself in
be on the road to faster recovery when he communicates with
his loved ones.
The use of web technology for virtual hospital visit here is
said to be the first of its kind in the world. The claim may be
true considering that family bonds in the country are very
strong and even extends to close relatives. It may also be one

of the reasons, why such a facility had not been thought of in

other parts of the world.

Besides, scaled-down joint families

are still prevalent, where this technology would come in handy.

The success of this facility is revealed by the fact that there
were as many as 8,000 hits within two months after its
introduction some time in May 2000.

3. HOSPITALITY SERVICES INCLUDING TRAVEL, HOTELS

AND
TOURISM
TRANSPORT MARKETING
The

environment

in

which

the

corporations

are

functioning is unique and it is entirely different from that of

commercial and industrial enterprises. Some of the important

elements of marketing environment for transport services are

presented below followed by brief analysis of each of the
elements.
One of the important and unique features of demand for
transport service is that it is a derived demand. Because, the
demand for transport service arises due to the demand for
other goods and services arise. For instance, if Mr. X wants to
purchase a television set, he has to travel from his place to the
place where the television set, he has to travel from his place to
the place where the television set is available.

Thus, the

demand for goods and services creates demand for transport

service, as one has to travel from one place to another to attend
to some work or to affect some purchases. Hence, the demand
for transport services is derived out of the demand for others.
Before

anatomizing

other

dimensions

of

marketing

management, the conceptual exposition of transport

marketing is presented. The term transport marketing is
identification of the most profitable markets now and in

future, assessing the present and future needs of the

users, setting business development goals and making
plans to meet them and further managing the services
and promoting them to achieve the plans-all in the
context

of

the

changing

business

environmental

conditions to cater to the changing socio-economic needs.

The aforesaid facts make it clear that the term transport
marketing is application of marketing principles by the
transport

organisations

in

which

the

marketing

professionals make sincere efforts to market the services

in such a way that generation of profit, satisfaction to
users and protection of social interests are made easier.
Airlines, Cruise and Ferry Lines, Passenger Railways,
Coach and Bus Travel, Car Hire: The range of airline services
has increased considerable, not only in terms of frequency of
flights and number of destinations, but also in terms of
different services, and differing levels of service to meet

different passenger needs.

This shows the important role

marketing plays as competition and demand intensifies.

Passenger rail services have also changed, and their role
in tourism is wide as with, for example, Eurorail tickets
allowing extensive international travel at a basic (service)
standard for students and budget tourists, to the luxury of the
Venice-Simplon Orient Express-where the train voyage is the
holiday.
Cruise lines are operating different services tailored to
consumers budgets, and other shipping lines involved in the
tourist industry, especially the car ferry operators, are
broadening and upgrading their range of services and facilities
to meet consumer expectations, and to remain competitive.
Coach and bus companies have acted in a similar fashion
and these, together with car rental companies, are also
included in this sector.

Tour Operators
Package Tours, Speciality Tours
Tour operators are the firms which specialize in providing
the

whole

holiday

package,

incorporating

accommodation needs for the consumer.

travel

and

They range from

highly specialized operations such as Abercrombie and Kent

who take small groups on safari or expedition-type holidays, to
large operators offering services at all different levels to cater
for budget, family, or singles holidays to near or faraway
destinations.
Thomas Cook is one of the best known of such operators;
they also offer travel agency and financial services to their
consumers.

An independent local coach firm may also be a

tour operator, and indeed, many transportation companies also

offer holiday packages.
Tourism destination operators
Theme Parks, Heritage Centres

This is a new category in many senses, as it is an area of

the tourism industry which has seen massive growth in the
development of theme parks and other types of artificial tourist
destinations in recent years.

However, Disneyland and

Disneyworld

the

in

America

were

forerunners

of

this

development in tourism marketing, and they have been well

established for decades.
It is due to the recent growth, and the continuing trends,
which make it an area which should be considered separately
as a tourism industry.

The new EuroDisney theme park in

France is an example of a tourism destination operation. On a

smaller scale, heritage parks which are being developed from
Britains industrial wasteland such as Wigan Pier, which
attracted over half a million tourists in 1991, and similar
attractions now represent a significant amount of tourism
activity.
All the above sectors of the tourism industry, while quite
distinct in themselves, have many aspects in common. There

are certain features of tourism marketing which differ from

other industries.

The impact of environmental forces, for

example, can provide different pressures opportunities for

tourism than for other service sector industries
Airline marketing
The air transport is the modern and efficient component
of the transportation system. The expansion of air transport
through

the

phenomenon.
transport.

world

has

been

post-Second

World

War

India did not lag behind in developing air

Its progress after the commencement of the First

Five-Year Plan has been accelerated keeping in view the

growing economic activities in the country.
In the field of international passenger originating or
terminating in a particular destination air transport plays a
very important role so far as passenger traffic is concerned. In
international passenger traffic, air transport is fast developing
and capturing the traffic handled by sea transport.
transport,

which

handled

almost

an

equal

number

Air
of

passengers as sea transport, now accounts for nearly four

times the traffic by sea.
Airlines play an important part in the tourism world. The
measures taken to increase capacity and speed means that
their part will continue to increase in future. For some years
the airline companies have sought to increase their traffic by
using modern aircraft and by a pricing policy taking into
account the purpose of travel and elasticity of demand. The
policy is determined by increased capacity coming from new
aircrafts, on one hand and the stiff competition chartered air
transport companies on the other hand.
Services are by their nature intangible. They cannot be
inspected or sampled in their purchase, therefore an element of
risk is involved on the part of the purchaser.
cannot be seen but can only be felt.

The traveling

This makes marketing

much more difficult for service products have many drawbacks,

the fact that a travel agent does not have to pour products
before selling them to clients, reduces the agents commitment

to the sale and hire particular brands.

Tourism marketers

must overcome the drawbacks posed by the intangibles and

there are a number of ways in which this has been achieved in
practice. During and before oil prices sent air fares rocketing,
seats were made available to the public at very low fares to
enable prospective purchases to sample the experience of
flying.

More recently, British Airways experimented with low

prices flights to help prospective passengers overcome their

fear of flying.
Secondly, services are heterogeneous and airline services
are not exception to this. The official, checking the baggage is
unlikely to treat passengers with the same consideration all the
time, similarly it is difficult to obtain consistent service from
the airhostess on all the flights.

While good quality control

procedures can help avoid variations in performance, they

cannot

overcome the human

performance of airline services.

problems

inherent

in

the

The airline product is a highly perishable one. An airline

seat not sold today is lost forever.

This factor is of great

importance for marketing, particularly while pricing.

The

stand-by fares offered by airlines reflect their need to off-load

products before their sale potential is lost.

Substantial

reductions are also offered during off-season or periods of low

demand.
Further Airline services are highly personalized, the
production being the outcome of the seller.

In an airline

service whatever be the quality of the food in the flight, however

comfortable the seating is, however attractive the doctor,
services is much an integral part of the product that it would
be unlikely that we should be prepared to purchase it from a
poor representative.

The airline steward/ less who caters to

our needs enroute is an essential element of the product we are

purchasing and their social skills in dealing with us are very
important. Hence, there are several important considerations

to take into account while marketing airlines.

It is a

fascinating product to create and sell.

There are three important domestic airlines in India (1) Indian Airlines
the biggest one but in the public sector, (2) Jet Airways and (3) Sahara
Airlines, both in the private sector. The Mumbai Delhi Sector is the one
which provides the maximum volume of business and is being handled by all
the three. Sahara Airlines started the fare war in July 1999 by reducing the
airway fare to Rs. 3,555 and added a bonus of gift of Rs. 500 for every
passenger flying Sahara on this route. Jet Airways followed suit and reduced
the fare to Rs. 4,111. Indian Airlines did not remain behind and reduced the
fare to Rs. 3,800. Not only the fares were slashed, many value added benefits
were provided to the passengers. Jet Airways was hit the hardest and
approached the Indian Airlines but the latter did not seem to be in a mood to
respond.
A survey by the Marketing and Development Research Analysis
(MRDA) concluded, 65.4 per cent of the airline passengers choose their
airline on the basis of price. The Economic Times feels that fare war may
spread to other sectors as well. But by making flying affordable for a much

larger number of Indians it may lead to an increase in the growth of civil

aviation in India.
Jet Airways-A Services Marketing Case Study
This case examines the success and problems of Jet
Airways in the domestic airline industry from a service
perspective.

Various aspects of services marketing in the

airline industry and some innovations brought about by Jet are

also highlighted for analysis.
With revenues of Rs 3000 crore and 6.4 million
passengers in 2002-03, and in the tenth year of its operations,
Jet Airways has managed remain Indias most popular
domestic airline. The customer-oriented approach and on-time
performance and schedules ensured that Jet continued to be
the first choice of air travelers. However, the year 2003 was
not a favourable one for the company. The cash profits were
slender, the market share had stagnated, and falling seat
utilisation rates had started posing problems.

With stiff

competition from Sahara in the same services cape and the

newly created Air Deccan, will Jet Airways survive the

turbulence and remain the leader in the domestic aviation
service business? Can its legendary excellence in ground and
in-flight service, largely responsible for its super brand status,
and a source of competitive advantage for the company, enable
it to maintain its leadership position in the aviation industry?
Jet launched its first customer loyalty programme in
1994, which until 1999 had fetched 30,000 customers. With a
view to increasing the loyal customer base, Jet redrafted and
relaunched

the

loyalty

programme

christening it as Jet Privilege (JP).

in

December

1999,

JP customers were not

required to pay a membership fee unlike the other loyalty

programmes in the market. JP did not require passengers to
produce boarding cards or other proof of travel. A passenger
started earning free JP miles (points) the moment he or she
took the first flight and later the concept of retro-credit was
also introduced.

JP was a 3 tier frequent flyer programme

(blue, silver, gold), with different levels of privileges depending

on the number of miles and flights the customer accumulated.

Typical benefits included access to special louges, tele-checkin, guaranteed reservations, extra baggage allowance, hotel
discounts, and others.

JP also involved a joint cooperation

with British Airways and KLM/North-west. The miles earned

on domestic Indian routes could be redeemed on international
flights.
In 2001, Jet Airways introduced an in-flight shopping
programme-Jet

Mall-offering

travelers

ordering products from a catalogue.

the

advantage

of

The intention was to

provide additional services to customers.

It was introduced

keeping in mind the busy schedules of the business travelers

and flexibility for them to shop on-board without wasting any
time.

The specially designed catalogue featured quality

products both branded and unbranded at attractive prices.

The customer had to complete the order form, along with their
credit or charge card number and hand over the same to the
cabin crew or alternately post the order form later.

The

products were to be home delivered to them within two to four

weeks.
Jet excelled at managing customer expectations.

In

2002, customers of Jet Airways received a communication from

the airline that requested their cooperation in observing the
revised check-in timing and helping the airline in working
towards on time flight departures.

The communication

explained that the need heightened security checks was leading

to delays and in an effort to prevent this; the airline had
revised

is

check-in-timings.

While

sending

out

this

communication, the airline placed in perspective the main

reason be hind flight delays (most airline passengers simply
assume that the airline is at fault) and solicited its passengers
cooperation in ensuring that flights leave on time. The other
benefit in such an exercise is that the airlines frontline
personnel were more effectively supported when faced with
passenger ire at flight delays as well as late check-ins

Jet adopted three ways to keep an eye on its performance

in areas that were important to customer service (called key
result areas or KRAs in JET jargon).

The first was feedback

from its customer service department whose staff strength.

The second was part-time consultants flying undercover and
the third was the customer service questionnaire placed on all
Jet flights and answered by about 700 of the 17,000
passengers who took Jets 255 flights daily.
The

KRAs

where

it

constantly

tried

to

improve

its

performance were as follows:

(a) Check-in: The process normally took 40 seconds, but if
an error at the counter pushed the time taken to much
more than 2 minutes, it exceeded the threshold of
customer tolerance, as per international standards.

In

November 1998, 91 per cent of Jet passengers felt that

the airline was able to check them in less than two
minutes.

(b) Customer complaints: When customers at some airports

complained of long check-in waiting period, Jet used the
allotted space to create more counters and reduced
waiting time to within international standards.

The

customer feedback also prompted them to introduce

through check-in, a service offered by all international
airlines.
(c) In-flight meals:

Customer feedback on the eye appeal,

taste and quality was regularly sought.

Finding that

more than 50 per cent travelers preferred Indian cuisine,

appropriate modification were undertaken.
(d) Boarding experience:

wherever possible, effects were

made to use aerobridges to reduce boarding time to

within 8 minutes.
(e) Cabin crew service: This included friendliness, efficiency
and clarity of announcements made.
(f) Baggage arrival: The aim was to release baggage before
the first business class passenger was ready to claim it

and ensure priority baggage was given due priority in

practice.
(g) Overall efficiency of service: This was measured in terms
of

efficiency

(combination

of

speed

and

accuracy),

friendliness and willingness to help.

On-time performance reports were checked every day. All
the 30 airports sent their feedback to Jets Mumbai head office
by the first week of every month. This was collated by the 15th
to draw up a customer service performance map for the entire
Jet network, after which specific points were studied.

And

when something would go wrong, the responsibility would lie

with the station head. A written receipt was to be given to the
complainant and a reply to be given within 48 hours. It was
rectified through counseling, if the error was human, or by
identifying and closing loopholes if it was a systems error. The
underlying objective of these elaborate measures was to
improve customer service.

Konkan

Railway

Corporations

roll-on,

roll-off

(ro-ro)

Service
The Konkan Railway Corporations roll-on, roll-off (ro-ro)
Service is a success, not only for the corporation but also
among the truckers for whom it is intended.

Introduced in

January 1999, the corporation transports loaded trucks on

wagons-called flats in

railway

parlance-between

different

destinations. Last financial year (2002-2003), the corporation

earned Rs 7.50 crore from the ro-ro service, according to Mr D
G

Diwate,

Director

(Way

&

Works),

Konkan

Railway

Corporation.
The service, he says, helps in an indirect saving in fuel
cost, and reduces vehicle operating costs in terms of wear and
tear of tyres and vehicle maintenance. The service is available
between

Kolad,

about

145

km

south

of

Mumbai

in

Maharashtras Raigad district, and Verna, in Goa. The ro-ro

service saves a 430-km stretch of travel to Goa from Verna on
the national highway. The truck drivers need not drive on the

that section. The time taken to transport the wagons on rail is

less than 12 hours while the transit time by road is much
more.
By using the ro-ro service, the transporters use the same
fleet of trucks for more number of trips.

The service also

ensures on-time, intact cargo delivery, free of any risk factor

and free from multiple handling of consignments, says Mr
Diwate.

According to him, the ro-ro service was launched

when the corporation did not have enough freight traffic. One
service is being operated daily in both directions and each train
carries up to 28 trucks. The response has been overwhelming
and now truck operators need to book in advance to use the
facility,

Mr. Diwate said.

The trucks mostly carry building

materials, including marble, cement and iron rods. The truck

operators get to optimize the fleet utilization and achieve faster
turnaround, he adds.
For a two-axle truck (up to 25 tonnes gross weight), the
transportation cost form Kolad to Verna is Rs. 5,100 and for a

three-axle vehicle, it is Rs 7,650. For every additional tonne,

the cost is Rs 200. In the return direction, the cost is Rs 4,800
and Rs 7,200. The corporation plans to move containers in a
similar manner, according to Mr Diwate. There is not much of
difference in the freight between the ro-ro service and
transportation by road, he says.
HOTELS

Accommodation includes hotels, ranging from the biggest

international chains recognizable worldwide such as Hilton and
Holiday Inn to small independent establishments. In order to
gain recognition in an increasingly competitive marketplace,
many smaller independent hotels have grouped together,
adopting a consortium approach. Under a central brand name,
they can offer central reservations services, for example, and
present a recognizable identity to consumers, which enable
them to compete against the larger, more established chains.
Other types of accommodation are also well established
in tourist markets, notably self-catering apartments and club-

type complexes.

Centre Parcs are todays answer to the

Butlins-type holiday camps of the 50s and 60s, while Mark

Warner Holidays are also successful in their inclusive club
formula.

Kadavu resorts
Kadavu Resorts was set up in the year 2001 in the then
sleepy fishing village of Azhinhillam on the banks of the river
Chaliyar in the northern districts of the state of Kerala.
Designed to inculcate architectural designs of the local maplah
and Hindu culture, Kadavu was intended to be a luxury resortcum-business hotel with the distinct charm of the serene
kerala landscape.
The most differentiating factor of Kadavu Resort was its
entrance.

The unique view that one gets as one enters the

lobby is out standing.

Spread over 10 acres of prime

waterfront land, the landscape using plants and trees,

enhances the ethnic feel of the entire resort. It is built from a

special rust stone indigenuous to the Malabar region and the
architecture here harmoniously blends the Maplah with the
Hindu

styles

giving

the

resort

an

absolutely

unique

appearance.
The hotel has 17 independent cottages and 57 elegantly
styled rooms or suites. The rooms are centrally air-conditioned
with views that offer a breathtaking blend of the crystal clear
backwaters surrounded by coconut plantations. Moreover the
lucid movements of the vallams (local canoes) or fishermen in
their vanchis (local canoes) or fishermen in their vanchis
(local fishing canoes) on the backwaters provide a panoramic
view.
Apart from all these, the hotel also provides an Ayurvedic
rejuvenation center offering traditional ayurvedic therapies,
amphitheatre with a daily cultural programme, a coffee shop
and a multicuisine restaurant serving Malabar delicacies.

It

also has one of the largest amoeba shapped swimming pools in

south India with a Jacuzzi and a separate childrens pool, a

childrens park and play area and a tennis court. For meeting
and banquet functions, the hotel also has facilities like
Chaliar the Conference Hall, Thekkini the banquet space
and pool side lawns which can seat 20 to 1,200 people.
Unlike most traditional hotel structures which follow a
match box design, wherein most service outlets and rooms are
within a 30 40 metre radius of the elevaor or production area,
Kadavu resorts adopted a spread-out layout, wherein here was
a series of cottages along with a combination of rooms on the
main block.

The coffee shop was built away from the main

building as were the convention hall and the conference rooms.

This design provided its own problems in terms of providing
quality service within acceptable time limits. The service staff
had to walk several minutes from the main kitchen, up a flight
of stairs and negoiate small hillocks to provide room service
orders to guests on the cottages.

To prevent the inevitable

customer complaints that would arise due to the delays that

may arise from such a long process, Banerjee made efforts to

discourage guests from ordering from their rooms and instead
coax them to visit the restaurants and coffee shops. The room
service menus were deliberately made limited so that guests
who prefer more dining choices would come down to the
restaurants.

The lavish buffet spreads as well as the

complimentary evening tea were provided to tempt the resident

guests to visit restaurants. The tea/coffee makers and minibars were provided in the rooms so that the most frequent
beverage orders could be avoided and the accompanying
pressure on the service system could be relieved.

The

kitchenettes were provided even in the cottages.

TOURISM MARKETING
A clear perception of tourism marketing requires a brief
analysis of marketing. We are well aware of the fact that there
have been fundamental changes in the traditional concept of
marketing, which has been influenced by the multidimensional
changes in the business environment. A transformation in the

attitudes, lifestyles, and expectations is the result of a number

of

developments.

Professionalism

paves

the

ways

for

excellence, which opens doors for quality generation vis--vis

competition. Almost all the organisations producing goods or
generating services have no option but to assign an overriding
priority to quality up gradation that requires innovations. This
necessitates a change in the concept of marketing which
determines its functional boundaries. We find satisfaction of
users the focal point around which all the functional areas of
marketing cluster.

While clarifying the perception of tourism

marketing, it is essential that we assign due weightage to the

three important considerations, the first generation of profits
by the tourist organisations, second world class services to the
tourists which help in satisfying them and the third positive
contributions of tourist organisations to the process of social
transformation and ecological balance.
In view of the above, the following points emerge
regarding tourism marketing:

 Tourism marketing is a process of creating a product

or providing a service.
Tourism
gathering,

marketing

comprises

analyzing

fact-finding,

(marketing

data

research),

communication to inform and promote (Promotion),

ensuring and facilitating sales, selection of marketing,
planning

(distribution),

coordination,

control

and

evaluation (marketing, planning and auditing) and

developing professionally sound personnel (people).
Tourism marketing is an integral effort to satisfy
tourists and more so, it is a device to transform the
potential tourists into the actual tourists.
Tourism marketing is the safest way to generate
demand, expand market and increase the market
share.
Tourism marketing is a managerial process to promote
business.

Tourism is a very complex industry due to its multiple

activities, which satisfies
the needs of the tourist (customer).
transportation,

accommodation,

food

Tourism embraces
catering,

tourist

attraction, as well as organizers like tour operators and travel

agents.

The various sub-sectors of tourism namely-lodging,

transport, are themselves complete industry. Moreover a tour

consists of different requirements of different people and its is
not a homogenous product.

The main problem lies in

maintaining standards for these components. Considering the

plethora of activities in tourism, it requires professionalism in
major decisions and its success is governed by excellence.
While boosting tourism globally, the growing influence of
the internet is filling up some coffers and drying up some,
putting the travel industry intermediaries on notice, much to
the delight of the consumer.

Margins are shrinking and

business drifting away for the middleman, be it a tourist

operator or a travel agent.

The real paradox, however, is that what is being taken

away by the Net is compensated by new business generated
through the Net.

For most intermediaries in the sector, the

loss on the outbound sector is made up by the gain on the

inbound traffic.

By directly contacting tour operator here,

foreign tourists get cheaper accommodation package. Booking

a hotel accommodation through a tour operator in their
country would cost them 25 per cent more. Having eliminated
one intermediary in the chain, Indian tour operators are also
benefiting since they pin a markup on direct sales.
The bonanza, however, may not last long since hotels are
also directly marketing their products on the Net.

Even the

tourism department is getting into action, touch screen

terminals are being set up at airports for tourists to make hotel
bookings directly.
reservations

can

Those who have not done advance

use

this

facility

and

rates

would

be

transparent. Efforts are on to include all major hotels into the

new facility to give tourists a wider choice.

While the optimism about e-commerce revolutionizing

tourism is unmistakable, there are also voices of concern.
Steps should be taken to check frauds and false bookings.
Other area of concern is undercutting.

Most operators only

give details of their package on their websites and the rates are
not mentioned since it might encourage rivals to undercut.
The drawbacks and apprehensions may be there but the
Notification of tourism is here to stay.
Kerala Tourism: Gods Own Country?
Kerala had always been considered the backwaters of
India-in a negative way, tourists thought of it as a nice but far
away place, to be visited if you had th etime, after covering the
more popular destinations like the Taj Mahal, Delhi, Jaipur
and Goa.

But all that has changed, with a single great

campaign, based on a memorable line-Gods Own Country. As

tourism marketers know, a tourist destination sells imagery
first, and then depends on the tourists themselves to
recommend the destination to their friends, relatives and peer

groups. For a long time, Keral ahd advertised its boat races
held at Alleppey (now known as Alappuzha) and the elephant
ritual at Thrissur Pooram, and gained some mileage from
these too. However, the advertising really started getting into
the limelight after the tagline Gods Own Country was added
to the beautiful images. In addition to the foreign tourists, the
campaign successfully drew the attention of domestic tourists,
and as a result Kerala has successfully entered the tourist map
of the world.

New investments in Kerala include tourism-

related projects at Bekal in the Malabar (north Kerala) region.

Tangible

things

such

as

good

air

and

road/rail

connections, and availability of different types of hotels and

resorts also helped, along with the cosmopolitan food habits of
Kerala, which is probably the only state apart from Goa where
meat and seafood of all types are easily available, to cater to
the palates of foreigners who may be predominantly nonvegetarian. Ayurveda practitioners also abound in Kerala, and
the oil messages add to the mystique of the destination. Apart

from traditional hill stations like Munnar, Kerala offers a forest

experience at Thekkady (Periyar wildlife sanctuary), and in the
hills of Wayanad district bordering Tamilnadu and Karnataka.

4. PROFESSIONAL SERVICES
Protech BPO
Protech, a Raipur based BPO firm was established in April 2003. It
offers comprehensive IT-enables services, data processing services,
software solutions, consulting and training to its clients across the country.
Protech makes it easier for their customers to understand the impact of
technology on their businesses and help them to conceptualise business
transformation initiatives. Hence it provides cost effective, flexible and
quality solutions for the contemporary complex market place.
Protech has created a sustainable, economically feasible business model in the area of services and solutions.
Presently, it has a seventy member team with expertise in various domains and technologies and is positioned to double its
strength by the end of the year 2003.The management team comprises individuals with experience in business solutions and
consulting. The employees at Protech have shown their tremendous learning capacity with a learning curve of more than 60
per cent.

The Protech problem lies in getting the contract. It has no history to

back its stupendous performance and claim a contract, nor does it have access
to direct US and other foregign markets. Just serving as a sub-contractor to
big companies is not bringing in sufficient revenue for the company. Related
to the revenue problem is the high attrition rate as compared to industry.

Protech is facing a serious problem of retaining its talented pool due to very
low wages paid to them.
The location of the company has also been a major hurdle. For
instance, at times the contracts required a large number of talented
professionals, particularly lawyers and accountants. In a city like Raipur, the
availability of such professionals in large numbers turned out to be a daunting
task. The company even lost a few contracts due this hurdle.
Being a very new set-up the entire process of the company is yet to be put in
place. Companies operating in the industry should compete on the process or
system they have in place. Having such a process/system helps them to provide
very high level of service. Therefore, increasingly the companies operating in this
field are going for CMM certification. The CMM guarantees the kind of process,
which a firm has in place. It is used as a marketing tool. Protech can at classified
as a CMM 1 level company on a scale of 5.

Phony Software
Phony Software was established in 1989 in Bangalore. It started as a
joint venture between an Indian company Phoenix and a Singapore based
company Symphony to build mainframes.

Following the liberalization

policies initiated by Indian Government in the year 1992, the company had to
revisit its initial focus and tried to position itself as a product based company
with the aim of providing end-to-end solutions as a part of system
integration. As a result of shift in strategic focus, it had to compete not only
with Indian companies but it has to fight it out with other global companies.
Presently, the company has two SBUs the foreign business unit
undertakes business software & hardware design and development services,
and the Indian SBU does system integration solutions in CAD/CAM, film,
video and broadcast, network design and implementation and scientific and
commercial computing.
The company was incorporated on March 30th, 1991 as a public
limited company. In the same year it became fully-owned Indian subsidiary
with more than 50 per cent share holding with Phoenix sons. In the year
1993, the company opened its first development centre in Whitefield,
Bangalore, supported by state-of-the-art design lab and a separate marketing
group of complementary third party hardware and software products was
established. One of the first major customers for the company was Silicon

Ltd (USA). In the year 1993, it raised further capital from the market by
issuing equity shares at par.
Phony Software started as an organisation with an intention to build
mainframes. But from there is evolved as a pioneer in the field of designing
products. It depicts the flexibility in the policies of management. But Mr
Rahul Dev, CEO, Phony Software, sitting in his posh Whitefield office is
wondering what the future holds for him because even after more than ten
years of existence, they have no spread to other domains. The US economic
slowdown has already taught a lesson to many IT firms to return to the
basics.

5. PUBLIC UTILITY SERVICES

The Dabbawalla Business Model
The concept of dabbawalla delivery system started in Mumbai in the
mid 1880s. The citys population then was a mere 10 lakhs as against the
more than 1.30 crore it is today. There were no buses or suburban railways at
that time, and the dabbas were transported on bicycles, hand carts, bullock
carts and tangas (horse carriages). The service cost its customers around 2
annas (12 paise). Over the years, this evolved into a complex network of

delivery, and in their peak days in 1955, the dabbawallas were delivering
close to 2 lakh tiffins per day.
The core factor that has sustained this business model is the desire of
the average middle-class Mumbaiker to eat homemade food. The dabba or
aluminium box consists of discrete compartments, which hold rice, roti, dal,
curd, etc. the Staple diet of most North Indians. Eating out of the dabba
comes closer than anything else to the feeling of eating at home. The second
important factor is the highly evolved transportation system in Mumbai.
Mumbais suburban electric trains and BEST buses efficiently connect
disparate and far-flung regions of Mumbai making the food delivery system a
viable model.
The above factors are coupled with the fact that the dabbawallas
charge a pittance for their delivery the charge (in the year 2001) is around
Rs 200 for an entire month. This is far less than what it would cost for a
person to eat in hotels or other eateries. Thus healthy, home-made food
delivered at a highly competitive rate made the dabbawalla business an
unbeatable model-at least till the late 1990s.

The dabbawalla delivery network runs on the principle of a relay

system. The dabbas are passed on from one dabbawalla to another with
sometimes the lunch boxes changing hands upto 4 or 5 times before finally
reaching the customer. The entire network is divided into clusters of roughly
20 men. The process begins with the first group picking up the aluminium
boxes from homes or a central kitchen. Depending upon the distance to be
covered, dabbas are collected from these places between 8 and 9 in the
morning. Each dabbawalla covers roughly 20 houses. Covering these many
houses quickly is not easy in a city like Mumbai. The heat during summer
and waterlogged roads during the monsoons, with the peakhour traffic
thrown in, make reaching each home the toughest part of the process. At
each dabba receiving point, the dabbawalla has to park his cycle at the gate,
go to the clients house, which in Mumbai would invariably be a flat in a
multi-storied building, collect the lunch and then come down again. These
dabbas are then carted off to railway stations on bicycles where they are
loaded on to the specified local train. A second set of workers unload them at
the local stations like Andheri or Churchgate.

The third set of carriers waiting at the respective station sort out and
assemble the dabbas. The sorting process is done effortlessly-thousands of
tiffins are sorted in a matter of minutes-thanks to an efficient, evolved coding
system (see box below).

This sorting process is repeated across many

stations for area-wise distribution.

Each lunch box/dabba has marked on it a circle of a specific colour
and an identity number for example K-BO-10-19/A/15-Where K is the
identity letter of the Dabbawalla, BO stands for the area from where the
lunch box is to be collected, (Borivali), the number 10 refers to a more
specific locality like Nariman point area and 19/A/15 refers to the 19th
Building and the 15th floor in Nariman point area where the box is to be
delivered.
At each station, after the sorting is finished, hundreds of dabbawallas
pour out of the railway stations with long wooden crates packed with the
sorted-out lunch boxes. These are in turn handed over to the huge number of
waiting delivery persons who set off on their bicycles to offices across the
city. The lunch boxes reach their respective destinations between 11:45 a.m.
and 12:30 p.m. covering the journey from start to finish in a matter of about 4

hours. After lunch hour is over, the entire process is repeated in reverse. The
dabbawallas again visit the work-places in the afternoon to collect the empty
tiffins and deliver them to the stations where trainwise sorting is done and
the dabbas are loaded on to the respective trains. The local carriers at the
suburban station collect them, sort them out and proceed to deliver the empty
tiffins back to the residences.
The dabbawallas work 12 hours a day, year round-in the sweltering
heat of May and the drenching monsoon of June, July & August. They cycle
distances of up to 15 kms in the city, and push trolleys stacked with tiffincarriers through the chaos of Mumbais traffic jammed streets always
delivering on time.
As is obvious, the entire system depends on teamwork and meticulous
timing. In the words of a dabbawalla, Once you have the boxes with you,
you cant even stop to go to the toilet because if youre late by even five or
10 minutes the chain gets disrupted.
So integral have the dabbawallas become to Mumbais way of life that the
railways have given them a special reserved compartment next to the guards cabin
on certain suburban trains.What makes the entire process amazing is the

astonishingly low level of mistakes the dabbawallas make despite the fact that most
of these persons are semi-literate and illiterate.

In spite of the complexity and sheer volume of the business, the 5,000
dabbawallahs make a mistake only about once in every two months-which
works out to one error in every 8 million deliveries, or 16 million if the return
trip is included. If we made 10 mistakes a month, no one would use our
service, says a dabbwalla. It is accuracy generated by sheer necessity.
The dabbawallas became world famous when a few years ago US
business magazine Forbes gave them at 6 Sigma performance rating, or a
99.999999 percentage of correctness-which technically means one error in
every six million transaction. The dabbawallas, in reality, with one mistake
in 16 million deliveries, are even better than the 6 Sigma standards. The
dabbawallas now routinely deliver talks to high-flying corporates and bschool students on teamwork and how they manage operational hurdles and
still sustain quality:
Till 2004, the dabbawallas of Mumbai functioned as a
loose and unorganized association of people. Each dabbawalla
would charge about Rs 200 per person per month.

After

paying the Western Railway for transport, the rest would go to

the dabbawalla.
The dabbawallas had an association called the Mumbai
Tiffinmens Association where each would make a contribution
of Rs 10 per month. The Rs 50,000/- collected would, after
meeting

minimal

administration

expenses,

go

towards

charitable causes like feeding the poor. The purpose of

organizing themselves into a company was two-fold.

It gave

them increased bargaining power and ensured the existence of

a

social

security/pension-like

pooling

of

funds

for

the

dabbawallas when they retired from work.

A most important reason was the dabbawallas ambitious
plans to branch out into other cities of India. The dabbawallas
reasoned that in cities across India there would exist
prospective clientele who would still prefer home-made food
and they hoped to capitalize on this.
JEWELLERY MARKETING STRATEGIES

Broadly speaking many and varied are the jewellery habits. It varies on
different aspects. Some such are based on culture, religion financial viability,
custom, changing trend in fashion, love for novelty, style, flexibility in bargaining,
post purchase service, brand image, product quality, and goodwill of the retailer,
along with the clients on the part of the buyer, whose purchasing power is
presumptions. Craze for status and false prestige in addition to the necessity
imposed by ceremonial rites and rituals, make it mandatory. Of late the fairly
knowledge based society, and globalization make their sway on the consumers
buying behaviour, well defined.
Adornment jewellery
Jewelleries can conveniently be dually classified as adornment ones and
asset oriented, which once again lends itself for further rectification as human and
idol wearings for beautification. Religious fevour rooted in ancient beliefs too,
sometimes urges even the unaffordable buyer, to go in for them adducing the
motive on religion.
Human jewellery
Interesting feature with the human jewelleries is its further scope for
division as male and female usable. Watch chains cigarette cases, bracelets, belt
buckles, pocket book frames, and rings go under the banner of mens wares while

necklace, chins studs, bracelets, anklets, hair decorative items and bangles fall
under female jewelleries category.
Children jewellery
A third division as children jewellery also is as much noteworthy as earlier
mentioned adult ones. They receive love attribute association, besides bearing
testimony for their parents richness and affection.
Saving jewellery
The absence of a well defined banking system, fairly well to do people wer
bent upon the purchase of 22 carat jewelleries for the purpose of savings. We may
venture to call it as lack of self control on their part, who feared money may get
squandered impulsively. Another greatly contributing factor for such habits is the
liquidity of such assets. They under unavoidable circumstances pledge them for
capital mobilization to meet the exigencuies. Agricultural pursuit, as many others,
is one of the seasonal needs normally and usually felt by agrarian community.
Even here the golden jewelleries, as against the gems embedded ones, enjoy
the privilege of being the price fixation instrument. The former ones do fetch
comparably great value against the later ones, while pledged for capital
mobilization. Many a families thrive on the jewellery making pursuit for
generations together by virtue of their fineries making nuances and intricacies.

Artistic jewellery
The price of artistic jewellery is not calculated on the basis of metal contents
but on the artistic value imbibed or developed by the craftsman.
Aestics jewellery
The mechanized production has paved way for the entry of novice in the
field. They consolidate their position with their knowledge of the marketing
strategies and tactics. The festival occasion aesthetics create artificial scarcity and
price hike.
Now the software professionals ensure the reasonable income resulting in
reasonable disposal. The buyer stands to gain. This leading pursuit needs to
develop design and strategies for capturing the reasonable share in the gold market.
India has enormous potential to compete in the world market, if she
develops to adapt, new marketing strategies that can counter the marketing
strategies of competitors. The strategies can aim at maximization of product or
promotion strategies. It is time for making parading shift in strategies formulation
for accruing its due share in the world market. The quality assured variety and its
designs, can be the focal point of the strategies formulation. The brand building,
brand machine and brand extension will ensure growth in sale. The domestic
rivalry will lead to the development of new design and exploration of new market.

6. COMMUNICATION SERVICES
Pricing a Courier Service
Indias postal system has undergone a revolution since
the private courier service providers made an entry into what
was

one-organisation

industry-in

other

words,

dominated by the Indian postal department.

totally

Like all other

industries where brand proliferation has taken place, India

soon had a spate of new service providers-regional, national
and international names made their appearance.
In the late 90s, yet another technology leap has found a
lot of takers-the Internet. This technology has revolutionized
communication, both business and personal, to such an extent
that personal letter writing suddenly became extinct among
those who had access to the net.
The courier industry, though, continued its existence
under

increasing

competitive

pressures,

mainly

due

to

increasing demand form the business community for the

transportation of business documents. Besides, the industry

could

also

cash

in

on

the

existing

demand

for

the

transportation of bulk packages within the country and

abroad. A drop in prices has led to courier services becoming
more affordable. Taking stock of the existing market situation,
the postal department has also introduced its own branded
high speed courier service-the Speed Post.
1. In the environment of 2003, a new company would like to
enter the courier services business.

The promoter, Mr

Darbari Singh, an NRI who has returned to India,

believes that the service levels offered by many of the
Indian players leave a lot to be desired.

Based on an

analysis of the current players in the courier (documents

and packages) industry, their profitability, market shares,
etc.

advice Mr Singh on target market selection, entry

pricing and long term prospects.

CTV
In India the television industry has made steady growth. A number of new
players including foreign are expected to step in the market. The industry will

consolidate within around three or four years. But the country has a huge highuntapped demand. It is sad to note that 95 colour TV sets are sold per 1000 persons
in India against 400 per thousand in China. The rural market for TV sets accounts
for around 40 per cent of the CTV sales.
The television industry started in India in 1970 with the production of black
and white TV sets, which were all 20 inch sets, 14 inch TV sets were launched in
1984. in 1982 when Asian Games (ASIAD) was held in India colour TV sets were
introduced. Setting up of Doordarshan Kendras in many parts of the country,
Indias victory in the prudential world cup in cricket in 1983 etc., provided a great
impetus to CTV demand. The central government also encouraged this sector.
Various, state governments came up with their own TV companies, e.g., Uptron,
Keltron and Meltron. In 1989, the old players like Weston, Dyanora and Televista
also diversified into CTVs. By 1989, there were about 200 players in the market.
In 1991, due to initiation of economic liberalization programme, the growth
of CTV scaled high. There was reduction in excise and import duties. Then the
opening up of Indian skies to foreign satellite channels in 1991-92 and the coming
of cable TV, gave Philip for the growth of TV industry. Simultaneously private and
more aggressive domestic players like Videocon, BPL etc., consolidated their
presence in the CTV market, focusing an product promotion and technology. Then

the global brands such as Akai, Aiwa, Sansui, Toshiba etc., have entered the market
by having tie-ups with Indian players. At last the other multinationals like Sony,
LG, Samsung, etc., entered into the field and quickly captured the imagination of
the market with innovations in product quality and features.

TABLE
INDIAN COLOUR TV MARKET AS ON APRIL-MARCH 2004
Company

In Units

% Share

L.G

24,56,000

26.55%

Samsung

13,50,000

14.59%

Onida

9,20,000

9.95%

Videocon

9,00,000

9.73%

Sansui

8,00,000

8.65%

Philips

8,00,000

5.34%

Akai

4,94,000

4.32%

Sony

4,00,000

3.26%

BPL

3,02,000

2.72%

IGO

2,52,000

1.79%

Others

1,66,000

13.08%

Total

92,50,000

100%

Source: Consumer Survey April-March 2004.

It is observed from the table that the Indian CTV market was estimated at
9.25 million sets for the year 2004. It is also noted from the table that the top six
brands including LG, Samsung, Onida, Videocon, Sansui and Philips have
consolidated their dominancy in the CTV market and the combined market share of
the top six brands in 2004 was around 75 per cent, a significant growth as compared
to 67 per cent in the preceding year.
Cable Television
The cable industry originated in the late 1980s with a single video channel
and DD channels distributed through coaxial cable in a single building/society
called MA TV system, extended to the societies near by thus migrated to CATV
Systems.

The increase in the penetration of cable and satellite TV has born a

prominent driver of demand for TV sets and satellite households to toal television
households rose from about 11% in 1992 to around 50% in 2002. Now their access
has been estimated over 40 million households. The urban penetration is about 60%
while rural penetration is about 34.3%. Thus, there is rapid growth in the number of
channels, particularly in regional languages, which enabled demand proliferation
for cable TV (and indirectly for TVs) in the country.
Digital TV
Digital TV presents crystal-clear picture. It has about ten times more picture
details than the conventional TV, the black bars are placed at the top and bottom of
the screen one can see the complete picture in HDTV.
Flat television
The Indian colour television industry is witnessing a major transition with
significant growth in the flat TV market. Due to declining price margins and
aggressive thrust by CTV manufacturers to upgrade consumers to the flat TV
technology, the flat TV in the consumer electronics industry is increasingly
becoming the first choice of CTV buyers in India.
This segment recorded an approximate 10 per cent growth during 2003-04
with total sales estimated at 1.45 million sets with result entry level 21-inch flat TV

is a major volume driver in this segment and is reducing the share of mid-sized
conventional TVs. So there is phenomenal growth in demand for sound based 21
inch and large screen flat TVs. Thus the flat-panel TVs (Plasma and LCD), the
latest models have promising performance with ever increasing sale. The main
advantages of these TVs are their size and shape. They are sleek and can be fitted
on the wall like a painting picture. Flat TV companies are trying to rationalize
prices with growing volumes.
Thus, Indian television market has made steady progress. Many new
players, particularly foreign, are expected to enter the market. No doubt television
industry will soon consolidate its market. As far as urban areas are concerned,
television market is encouraging. Thanks to the mushroom growth of cable
connections which helps to penetrate TV sets in semi-urban areas. But the rural
market also.

7. EDUCATIONAL SERVICES
Education is a service that is geared primarily to the
consumer market. There is a category of consumers for whom
education and the pursuit of knowledge are expressive motives.
Educational institutions in developing countries have always

faced more demand than they could cope with.

Formal

education begins at the school age and depending upon the

choice, vocation and circumstances of the pursuant, it matures
into intermediate and higher levels of learning, ramifying into
professional and specialized fields.

Apparently, the benefits

sought from higher and professional or vocational courses are

more tangible or measurable in terms of (a) entry qualifications
to a chosen profession, (b) certification to enable practicing a
profession or (c) relative ease of access to a suitable form of
living hood. Covering the field of marketing of education per
se, in its entirety is somewhat impossible. The focus here is,
therefore, limited to the coaching centers that provide guidance
for Common Aptitude Test (CAT).
The CAT is a qualification test for all the students in
India and abroad to enroll themselves in one of the six IIMs
(Indian Institute of Management) and a host of other reputed
management institutions.

The number of institutes providing coaching for the same

across the country runs into four figures. This is probably the
reason why the industry is as big as 120 crore rupees per
annum.
COACHING INSTITUTES FOR CAT EXAMINATION
(A) Institute of Management Studies (IMS)
Located in almost every major town/city in the country,
the IMS recently celebrated its 25th anniversary. With personal
counseling, huge course material, best faculty attracted to its
ranks, and an unmatched reach all over the country, the IMS
gives its students, an edge that takes them a notch above the
rest.

An unmatched leader in its category, IMS claims that

every second IIM grad has enrolled with IMS. Recognized as

the 44th most trusted brand in service industry*, it is ranked
fourth in the education sector after Kendriya Vidyalaya, Indian
Institute

of

Technology

(IITs)

and

Delhi

Public

School.

Surprisingly, the survey rated the IMS a rank above Indian

Institute of Management (IIMs), which happens to be the bread

and butter of IMSs business.

The IMS was a pioneer in many

initiatives in its sector like the mock CAT, which is a national

level test, intended to give the students a feel of real
competition.
Some of the well-known courses in classroom offerings of
IMS are:
IMS CAT Foundation (for students not comfortable in
Maths and English)
CATapult (long-term extensive training starting from
basic areas: 12 months)
CAT Classic (medium term training focusing on CAT
and other exams: 6 months)
CAT Cruncher (short term training spanning across 9
weeks)
All courses are provided through the 54 IMS centers
located across the country.
However the fee structure vary across the centers.

(B) Career Launcher

Career Launcher is a relative newcomer in the industry
compared to IMS. With more than 50 centers located in India
and the Middle East, it caters its service to almost 15000
students every year.

With divisions like Student Services,

Institutional Services and Academic Support Services, it caters

to the classroom needs of both Indian and international
students for the MBA entrance examinations in India.

Its

competitiveness lies in the extensive technological investment

that has done to supplement its core entrance preparation
programme. Its classroom course offerings include.
Pegasus Extended (Full length; 18 months)
Pegasus Foundation (40 hrs-8 weeks programme for
those who have lost touch in Maths/DI)
Pegasus Integrated (160 hours full stretch programme)
Pegasus Gallop (Medium Length; 6-12 months)

A comparison of all the four classroom-coaching offerings is

given in Table.
TABLE

Features
Classroom Training (Fundamentals
+ speed building)
Classroom
Training
(Exercise
driven)
Course Material
Seminars
Student Information Systems
Video Library
Management
Compas-Monthly
Magazine
All India Test Series
PDP

Pegasus
PGL
Pegasus
Integrated Pegasus Integrated Gallop
Y
N

Y
N

N
Y

N
Y

Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

Y
Y
Y
Y
Y

Y
Y

Y
N

Y
Y

Y
N

As mentioned above, the state-of-the-art technology has

placed Career Launcher on the top of aspirants mind.
(C) Career Forum
Career Forum is one of the smaller service providers that
is in operation since the last twelve years. It is located in only
six cities and has 24 centers. What makes it stand apart is the
high pressure rate (approximately 520 interview calls from each
city) which is probably attributed to the fact that it is located in
major cities which provides maximum number of students to

the IIMs. Besides, it has a significant presence in Western and

South India (only two centers in Delhi and no location in the
Eastern part of the country). The classroom offerings of
Career Forum are:
FocusCAT: The generic classroom coaching that has three
versions (a) long-term (10-month programme) (b) medium
term (5-6) months programme) (c) Weekend batches
(spans across 5-6 months)
CATscan: All India mock CATS which gives students an
exposure to CAT-like environment.
CAT Express: It is for the students who are confident
enough to get a call from IIMs and want to start
preparation as soon as they have given the CAT.
CAT Clincher: This programme is meant for all students
who have received an Interview call from IIMs or one of
the six premier institutes (XLRI, S P JAIN, FMS, NITIE,
NMIMS & JBIMS).
The strong point of Career Forum is the focus that apart
from the regular faculty they have part time faculty also
that are mostly on a short-term basis and usually plan to
appear for the CAT they. This ensures that the faculty
identifies the needs of the student in a succinct manner.
Besides, the permanent faculty is suggested to take the
exam themselves of complement the visiting faculty.
Apart from that, the Career Forum invites the fresh IIM
students (who might be currently in their MBA
programme) to conduct the interviews. This gives quite a
lot of confidence to the aspirants.
(D) TIME Institute
The TIME Institute has its branches spread in select
places all over India and extensively in the southern part of the
country. Headquartered in Hyderabad, it is not a technologyoriented institute. It has targeted mostly the second rung cities
and towns in an aggressive manner. Knowing that there is a

significant chunk of places where other big institutes have not

reached, it has already spread its branches accordingly and
has significantly made its presence known. In places like
Calicut, it is so established that even institutes like IMS had to
wrap up their business because of the strong brand equity that
TIME has enjoyed in such places. However, it is worth nothing
that TIME has a decent presence in metros as well, but
probably it is not doing that well there as far as results are
concerned. The nature of courses that are offered are similar
with a flat fee structure across branches. TIME remind us of
the South West Airlines who have made their motto as No
Frills airline providing the minimal basic necessities.
Similarly, TIME has focused quite a lot on classroom, faculty
and flat course structure. Probably, this is the reason why
they have only the following courses in offer: (a) Regular LongTerm (b) Regular Medium-Term (c) Regular Short-Term.
All the three come with an option of (a) Weekend Batch
(b) Weekday Batch (c) Morning/Evening Batch.
Not a very technology savvy organisation, it does not have
a website of its own. Besides, the e-mail ids they use do not
have their own domain name. Their official e-mail ids are all
based on www.eth.net, which belongs to education to Home
group.

However it is worth noting that the headquarters have a

strong hold on to all the franchisees keeping a tab on each and
everyone. Any complaint if heard is dealt with very severely. This is
the reason why despite being located in not so high flying cities, the
TIME has been able to give a good service to all those who were
earlier ignored by IMS, Career launcher and Career Forum.

REFERENCE
1. Deccan Herald, Bangalore.
2. Economic Times, 25th July, 2000.

3. Thehindubusinessline.com, November 23, 2003.

4. Thehindubusinessline.com, November 24, 2003.
5. The Economic Times, May 21, 1999.
6. The Economic Times, July 7, 1999.
7. The Hindustan Times, July 18, 1999.