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Considerations in the optimal preparation

of patients for dialysis
Subodh J. Saggi, Michael Allon, Judith Bernardini, Kamyar Kalantar-Zadeh, Rachel Shaffer
and Rajnish Mehrotra on behalf of the Dialysis Advisory Group of the American Society of Nephrology
Abstract | Every year, more than 110,000 Americans are newly diagnosed with end-stage renal disease and in
the overwhelming majority, maintenance dialysis therapy is initiated. However, most patients, having received
no predialysis nephrology care or dietary counseling, are inadequately prepared for starting treatment;
furthermore, the majority of patients do not have a functioning permanent dialysis access. Annualized
mortality in the USA in the first 3months after starting dialysis treatment is approximately 45%; this high
rate is possibly in part due to inadequate preparation for renal replacement therapy. Data from the Dialysis
Outcomes and Practice Patterns study suggest that similar challenges exist in many parts of the world.
Implementation of strategies that mitigate the risk of adverse consequences when starting dialysis are
urgently needed. In this Review we present a step-by-step approach to tackling inadequate patient preparation,
which includes identifying individuals with chronic kidney disease (CKD) who are most likely to need dialysis in
the future, referring patients for education, timely placement of dialysis access and timely initiation of dialysis
therapy. Treatment with dialysis might not be appropriate for some patients with progressive CKD; these
individuals can be optimally managed with nondialytic, maximum conservative management.
Saggi, S.J. etal. Nat. Rev. Nephrol. advance online publication 10 April 2012; doi:10.1038/nrneph.2012.66

Introduction
In 2008, more than 110,000 Americans were started on
maintenance dialysis, a life-saving therapy for patients
with end-stage renal disease (ESRD). 1 Ideally, when
patients begin renal replacement therapy (RRT), they
should meet the following conditions: firstly, they
should not require hospitalization for the management
of untreated acute or chronic complications of uremia;
secondly, they should have a thorough understanding of
the different treatment options; and thirdly, they should
have a functioning, permanent access for the dialysis
therapy of their choice.2
There is concern that a sizable proportion of patients
in the USA are not adequately prepared for initiating dialysis therapy. In 2008, 44% of patients received
no predialysis nephrology care and only 25% had
received ongoing care by a nephrologist for more than
12months prior to initiating dialysis.1 Despite the critical
importance of lifestyle management (and the fact that
reimbursement is available for such counseling in the
Competing interests
M. Allon declares an association with the following company:
CorMedix. J. Bernardini declares an association with the
following company: Baxter. K. Kalantar-Zadeh declares an
association with the following company: DaVita. R. Shaffer
declares an association with the following organization: the
American Society of Nephrology. R. Mehrotra declares an
association with the following companies: Amgen, Baxter,
DaVita, Genzyme, Mitsubishi Tanabe Pharma, NovaShunt AG,
Reata Pharmaceuticals, Shire and Vifor Pharma. S.J. Saggi
declares no competing interests. See the article online for full
details of the relationships.

USA), fewer than 10% of patients receive dietary counseling prior to starting dialysis.1 Furthermore, substantial numbers of patients newly diagnosed with ESRD are
not offered alternatives to in-center hemodialysis (such
as home dialysis or pre-emptive transplantation), even
in the absence of medical contraindications.3,4 More
than 80% of patients in the USA initiate hemodialysis
therapy with a central venous catheter (CVC); this type
of access is associated with significantly higher rates of
infectious complications, as well as more long-term non
infectious complications compared with a permanent
vascular access.1,57 Inadequate preparation for dialysis
in the USA can only partially be accounted for by delayed
referral to nephrology specialists; however, as a consider
able number of patients who have received more than
1year of specialist care prior to initiating dialysis are
also inadequately prepared for this treatment.1 In 2006,
the annualized mortality in the first 3months of starting
dialysis for patients in the USA was approximately 45%,
which was in part due to inadequate preparation of the
patient for RRT.8
The available data on dialysis preparation practices
outside the USA are limited. Findings from studies performed in the 1980s and 1990s indicate a high rate of
delayed referrals to a nephrologist in Europe, and contemporary data from Canada also demonstrate a high
incidence of suboptimal dialysis initiation.912 Analyses
from the Dialysis Outcomes and Practice Patterns Study
(DOPPS) further highlight the international scope of this
challenge.13 One in five patients starting hemodialysis

NATURE REVIEWS | NEPHROLOGY

State University of New

York Downstate
Medical Center, Renal
Division, 450 Clarkson
Avenue, Box 52,
Brooklyn, NY 11203,
USA (S.J. Saggi).
Division of Nephrology,
University of Alabama
at Birmingham, 1530
Third Avenue S,
Birmingham, AL 35294,
USA (M. Allon).
University of Pittsburgh,
128 Hastings Street,
Pittsburgh, PA 15206,
USA (J. Bernardini).
Division of Nephrology
and Hypertension,
Harbor-UCLA Medical
Center, 1124 W Carson
Street, Torrance,
CA90502, USA
(K.Kalantar-Zadeh,
R.Mehrotra). American
Society of Nephrology,
1510 H Street, NW,
Suite 800, Washington,
DC 20005, USA
(R.Shaffer).
Correspondence to:
R. Mehrotra
rmehrotra@
labiomed.org

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Key points
A large gap exists in care in transitioning patients with chronic kidney disease
(CKD) to renal replacement therapy; a step-by-step approach is proposed to
bridge this gap in care
Demographic and clinical criteria can help identify those individuals with CKD
who would benefit from early preparation for renal replacement therapy
Iterative multidisciplinary patient education is the first step in preparing
patients for dialysis and should offer decision support for selection of dialysis
modality or maximum conservative care
Dialysis access should be placed sufficiently early to preclude the need for
central venous catheters
The decision of when to start dialysis should be individualized based on uremic
symptoms and/or the appearance of complications but should not be delayed
until patient becomes too sick

in DOPPS-participating countries (USA, Canada, UK,

Belgium, Sweden, Germany, France, Spain, Italy, Japan,
Australia and New Zealand) first see a nephrologist
within 1month of requiring dialysis.13 Additionally,
over one-half of patients in the UK, Sweden, Belgium
and Canada start hemodialysis treatment with a CVC.5
As such, a high prevalence of suboptimal initiation of
dialysis treatment is not unique to the USA.
In this Review we discuss the challenges associated
with preparing patients for dialysis therapy and present
a practical step-by-step approach to help bridge the gap
in care and reduce the high mortality seen in the first
few months of starting dialysis (Figure1). In concert
with continued efforts to slow disease progression and
delay dialysis, the measures discussed in this Review
should be implemented at appropriate times during the
course of chronic kidney disease (CKD). The outlined
approach is targeted primarily at practicing nephrologists although individual components might be relevant
to other specialists providing care to patients with CKD
(such as internists, family practitioners, endocrinologists
and geriatricians). Discussion of other areas of care in
patients with CKD and ESRD (such as the management
of high-risk pathology including diabetes mellitus and
hypertension, treatment of anemia and provision of vaccinations, and social support), although of importance,
are beyond the scope of the Review.

Step one: identify patients for RRT

Renal replacement therapy
An estimated 13% of adults in the USA have CKD, and
approximately 700,000 have stage 4 CKD (glomerular
filtration rate [GFR] 1529ml/min/1.73m2).14 Longterm follow-up of population-based cohorts suggests
that many individuals with CKD are unlikely to exhibit
sufficient progressive decline in renal function to require
dialysis. Over a 5year follow-up of members of the
Kaiser Permanente Northwest Division (a large, nonprofit, group-model health maintenance organization,
which provided comprehensive, prepaid medical coverage to approximately one-fifth of the population of a US
city), only 17% of patients with stage 4 CKD required
dialysis but, notably, 45% of patients had died before
requiring dialysis.15 In contrast to the findings from this
unselected cohort, in a study involving 4,231 Canadian

Step one
Identify patients with CKD highly likely to need dialysis
or in selected cases nondialytic MCM

Step two
Begin preparation sufficiently early to mitigate need for CVCs;
avoid cannulating upper extremity veins above the wrist

Step three
Provide CKD education and offer decision support
for patients in selecting dialysis modality

Step four
Place hemodialysis vascular access at least 46 months
prior to anticipated need for dialysis; perform early
placement of embedded peritoneal dialysis catheters

Step five
Timely initiation of dialysis dictated primarily by patient
symptoms and/or early signs of uremic complications

Figure 1 | A proposed step-by-step approach to help

prepare patients for dialysis. Abbreviations: CKD, chronic
kidney disease; CVCs, central venous catheters; MCM,
maximum conservative management.

patients with stage 4 CKD who had been selected because

they had been referred to nephrologists, only 7% of study
participants died before needing dialysis, but 24% of
patients were found to require dialysis support.16 These
data suggest that targeting all patients who have CKD
with an estimated GFR (eGFR) below a certain threshold (<30ml/min/1.73m2) for RRT preparation might be
inappropriate. Instead, focusing on individuals who have
at least one additional characteristic associated with a
high probability of reaching ESRD, in addition to a low
eGFR, would better identify those who would benefit
from preparation for future dialysis (Box1).
With advancing age, the likelihood of dying prior to
initiating dialysis far exceeds the likelihood of starting
dialysis therapy. In a US population of veterans with
CKD and a mean eGFR of 18ml/min/1.73m2 at cohort
entry, 67% of those aged 1844years initiated dialysis
within 2years and 22% died during this time. By contrast, in the group of patients who were 85years of age
or older only 17% had initiated dialysis within 2years,
but 41% of this age group died during this time.17 If all
study participants had begun preparation for dialysis at
cohort entry, the ratio of unnecessary to necessary dialysis access surgery would have been 0.5:1 for the group of
patients aged 1844years, but 5:1 for those aged 85years
and older. Similar results have been demonstrated in
several other cohort studies.1820 Patient age should,
therefore, be an important consideration when deciding whether to begin preparation for RRT. Indeed, many
elderly patients have stable reductions in eGFR and, in
our opinion, only those individuals with progressive loss
of renal function should be referred for planning RRT.
Increasing albuminuria within each eGFR strata for
CKD stages 15 is associated with a substantial increase

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in the risk of requirement for future dialysis.21,22 Routine
measurement of the albumincreatinine ratio on spot
urine samples could help physicians identify individuals
with reduced eGFR who are more likely to have progressive CKD and, therefore, require referral to prepare for
future RRT. Analyses of large patient cohorts also consistently identify high blood pressure, high levels of serum
phosphorus, and/or low hemoglobin levels, as additional
predictors of future dialysis requirement.16,19
No single characteristic can reliably identify which
individuals with advanced CKD are likely to progress
to ESRD. It is important, therefore, that at every clinical encounter physicians consider each patient with
advanced CKD with respect to the discussed characteristics using demographic, clinical and laboratory information (Box1), and ensure that preparation for RRT begins
sufficiently early for individuals likely to reach ESRD.
Moreover, all patients with advanced CKD could benefit
from patient education tailored to each individuals
probability of dialysis need in the future.

Nondialytic maximum conservative management

Although dialysis prolongs the lives of many individuals with ESRD, the burden of RRT might not justify the
potential benefits of treatment in certain patients, such as
the elderly.23 However, as illustrated by the North Thames
Dialysis Study, judgment on the appropriateness for RRT
should not depend solely upon chronological age but
should instead be based on a composite assessment of the
health and functional status of the individual.24 Results
from studies suggest that there are subgroups of patients
who have a low likelihood of benefiting from dialysis
therapies.2527 For example, initiating dialysis does not
reverse the progressive decline in functional status of
nursing home residents; rather, the decline in functional
status seemingly accelerates after dialysis initation.25 For
certain individuals with advanced CKD, nondialytic,
maximum conservative management (MCM) might,
therefore, be superior to initiating dialysis;26 this suggestion highlights the importance of considering the appropriateness of dialysis for individuals with CKD early in
the disease course. Assessment of disease management
requires shared decision-making between patients, their
family members, and the treating physicians.27
Most of the data on the principles of management and
outcomes of patients with advanced CKD who elect to
have MCM are derived from the UK.26,28,29 In most of the
published studies to date, the life expectancy of patients
with advanced CKD who choose MCM is shorter than
that of patients with matching characteristics who choose
RRT; the median life expectancy of patients with stage 5
CKD who forgo RRT has been reported to range from
14months to 23months.20,26,28,29 However, the primary
goal of care in patients who opt for MCM should be
focused on symptom management to enhance quality of
life and ensure patient comfort (Box2).26,30
In selected individuals, maximizing renoprotective therapies can be an important component of
MCM. Traditionally, reninangiotensinaldosterone
system (RAAS) blockade has been used to slow CKD

Box 1 | Characteristics associated with progression to ESRD

Young age
Decline in renal function over time
Presence of albuminuria
Presence of underlying primary renal disease (such as diabetic nephropathy,
renovascular disease, or primary glomerular diseases)
High blood pressure
Development of CKD complications (such as increased serum phosphorus
and/or decline in hemoglobin levels)
Abbreviations: CKD, chronic kidney disease; ESRD, end-stage renal disease.

Box 2 | Key elements of nondialytic maximum conservative management

Interventions to slow rate of decline of native renal function

Dietary counseling to prevent hyperkalemia
Diuretics for management of hypervolemia
Correct anemia to manage symptomatic fatigue and prevent blood transfusions
Phosphate binders to relieve symptoms associated with hyperphosphatemia
Referral for hospice care, if appropriate

progression; however this intervention might be limited

by hyperkalemia in individuals with advanced CKD.
Furthermore, findings from a UK study demonstrated
that discontinuing angiotensin-converting-enzyme
(ACE) inhibitors and/or angiotensin-receptor blockers
(ARBs) in patients with advanced CKD was associated
with a significant increase in eGFR.31 For these reasons,
continued use of ACE inhibitors or ARBs should be periodically re-evaluated in individuals who choose MCM
and, in fact, discontinuing drugs from these classes
might facilitate patient management.
Additional dietary interventions can be considered
in certain patients who elect MCM. These interventions include: low-protein diets (0.60.8g/kg daily);
ketoanalog-supplemented very-low-protein diets; or
nutritional supplements with low amounts of protein,
phosphorus, and potassium.3234 A vegetarian diet might
serve as another adjunct as it provides reduced amounts
of protein and less digestible phosphorus, for example
phytate-based phosphorus.35 However, dietary restrictions can be onerous and should be considered on an
individual case-by-case basis. Correction of metabolic
acidosis can also slow the decline in renal function. 36
Other therapies are in development that may slow the
decline of renal function, for example drugs that adsorb
uremic toxins (such as indoxyl sulfate and oral anti
oxidants) and anti-inflammatory modulators (such as
bardoxolone methyl).3739 Some patients who choose
MCM might benefit from referral for hospice care,
which can be provided either in the patients home or at
a hospice facility.

Step two: begin preparation for RRT

Preparation for RRT should begin early enough in the
course of CKD to allow time for patients to consider different treatment options and to establish a permanent
functioning access for the dialysis modality of choice.
If pre-emptive living donor kidney transplantation is
appropriate, the patient should undergo the procedure before they need temporary dialysis to minimize

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morbidity resulting from dialysis access. In addition,
allowing adequate time for patients to consider their
options enables individuals who would be appropriate
for MCM to consider this option as well. However, preemptive transplantation is uncommon, and limited evidence suggests that when given a choice most patients
choose to have dialysis rather than MCM.1,26 As such, the
overwhelming majority of individuals who reach ESRD
are likely to require maintenance dialysis and appropriate preparation should be incorporated early in their
management plan.
In determining how early to begin preparation of
patients for dialysis, it is useful to consider that in our
experience it can take 13months of iterative CKD education for patients to accept potential need for RRT, and
also to decide which therapy best meets their expectations and fits their lifestyle. Sufficient time should also be
allocated for placement and maturation of dialysis access.
The mean time for arteriovenous fistula maturation for
patients in the USA is approximately 3months, although
shorter times (of approximately 1month) have been
reported in Europe and Japan.40 Moreover, a substantial
proportion of new fistulae fail to achieve suitability for
dialysis treatment; therefore, the first vascular access
should be placed sufficiently early to allow enough time
to either revise the initial access, or for a second access
to be placed and mature prior to initiation of dialysis.31,32
In our opinion, therefore, preparation for RRT should
begin about 912months prior to the anticipated dialysis
need. Of note, CKD progression rates can change over
time making it challenging to precisely anticipate the
need for dialysis.41 In our opinion, it follows that education about CKD, dialysis therapies, dialysis access, and
MCM should be initiated in individuals with an eGFR
2030ml/min/1.73m2. Furthermore, in our opinion
a vascular access should be placed in patients with an
eGFR 1520ml/min/1.73m2, in whom progression to
ESRD seems likely.
As most patients are likely to require hemodialysis
at some stage of their disease, preservation of veins is
a critical aspect of advanced planning. Most patients
undergoing hemodialysis will require several arteriovenous fistulae or grafts in both upper extremities. To
prevent the loss of available veins for dialysis access, cannulation of veins above the wrist in either upper extremity should be avoided.42 Every effort should be made to
limit phlebotomy and intravenous catheters to veins in
the hand. Peripherally inserted central catheters (commonly known as PICC lines) are particularly problematic
as they can cause thrombosis of the upper arm veins in
up to 38% of patients precluding future vascular access
in the entire ipsilateral upper extremity;43 avoiding these
catheters in patients with CKD from early in the disease
course is, therefore, of paramount importance.

Step three: CKD education

Although a paucity of clinical trials exists, a preponderance of other evidence demonstrates tangible benefits
of CKD education.4450 Early patient education in those
with CKD is shown to be highly effective when focused

on health promotion, shared decision-making, and discussion of treatment options.45 In the only randomized,
controlled trial on patient education that we are aware
of, a one-on-one educational session followed by phone
calls every 3weeks significantly extended the time to
requiring dialysis.47 Post hoc analyses from this clinical
trial, as well as findings from other observational studies,
demonstrate a variety of additional benefits from patient
education, including the following: reduced patient
anxiety; delay in dialysis need; reduced number of hospitalizations; reduced numbers of emergency room and
physician visits; increased likelihood that the patient
will remain employed in work and be more adherent
to therapy; and reduced mortality.46,48,49 Furthermore,
results from several studies have demonstrated a substantially reduced need for CVCs following patient education.49,50 Consequently, it is important to maximize these
benefits by engaging patients in CKD education prior to
planning dialysis access placement (Table1).
Patient education involves messengers, messages,
receivers and a process. Before patient education can
begin, the physician must initiate the discussion of what
is often called breaking the bad news.40,41 Patients do not
want insensitive truth-telling but prefer for the truth to
be told with support to assist them in decision-making.51
It is estimated that it takes an average of five encounters
before individuals actually understand the message;
therefore, patient education on CKD should be iterative.52
The initial message should be delivered in a private room
that is free of interruptions, and preferably when the
patient has a supportive friend or relative with them.5254
Communication of the bad news should be followed by
formal CKD education, for which reimbursement is now
available in the USA for Medicare beneficiaries.55
The curriculum for predialysis education should
include psychosocial aspects and coping skills. 56
Components of successful CKD education programs
have also included individualized and ongoing education
throughout the course of the disease, tours of dialysis
facilities, meeting patients who are undergoing treatment with different dialysis modalities, use of videos
and written materials, and behavior-changing protocols
with small-group problem-solving activities.46,57,58 These
and other strategies can be incorporated into any CKD
education program (Table1). The educator needs to
possess skills in patient communication and to understand the nature of the patients barriers to receiving
the information.
Presenting treatment options to the patient is a major
undertaking for the educator, and offering decision
support is an important goal of successful CKD education. There is a large variability in the uptake of home
dialysis options (peritoneal dialysis or hemodialysis)
between centers, regions, and different countries.1 Data
from the USA indicate that the low uptake of peritoneal
dialysis in the country does not reflect patient choice but
is instead more often a reflection of the choice not being
offered to patients by health-care providers.3,4,59 Findings
from numerous surveys show that most patients have no
medical or psychosocial contraindications to in-center

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Table 1 | An approach to developing a successful CKD education program
Core aspects

Details

Program initiation

Begin early in the course of CKD (eGFR <30ml/min/1.73m2) but also involve all late-referred patients
including those who have recently started dialysis with no prior nephrology care

Program leader

Designated CKD Educator*, preferably assisted by a dietitian and social worker

Target audience

Patients and their family members and/or care-givers; one-on-one or in a class setting

Program content

Discussion of CKD and interpretation of tests of kidney function; complications of CKD; interventions to
slow loss of kidney function; importance of preserving upper extremity veins for future dialysis access;
different options for dialysis and their impact on the individuals lifestyle; renal transplantation; dietary
changes necessitated by disease state; timing of placement of dialysis access; insurance coverage and
other financial considerations; advance directives

Frequency

Generally 36 sessions required

Use community
resources

Involve current or former dialysis and transplant patients; include tours of dialysis facilities

Offer decision support

Help patients choose the dialysis modality that best fits their lifestyle and overcome fears of dialysis;
discussion of treatment options should include home dialysis and nondialytic maximum conservative care

*The Medicare program in the USA offers reimbursement for CKD education if provided by a physician, nurse practitioner, physician assistant, or certified nurse
specialist.102 Abbreviations: CKD, chronic kidney disease; eGFR, estimated glomerular filtration rate.

or home dialysis.3,6063 Moreover, results from recent

studies indicate that the 4year, 5year, and 10-year survival rates of patients treated with in-center hemodialysis
are equivalent to survival rates with peritoneal dialysis.64
Accordingly, for the vast majority of patients with CKD,
decisions about dialysis modality should be based on
what fits best with their lifestylea decision which individuals and their families must make for themselves.65
Widespread, comprehensive CKD education will also
empower patients to assume responsibility for their
dialysis care, thereby increasing the uptake of home
dialysis options. Expansion of home dialysis therapy is
likely to be safe as the equivalency of outcomes of home
peritoneal dialysis with in-center hemodialysis are maintained even when much larger proportions of patients
are treated with the former therapy.64 This therapy is also
potentially more cost-effective given the lower societal
costs for providing peritoneal dialysis, compared with
in-center hemodialysis, in many countries.66
The discussion about treatment options should begin
with open-ended questions and can be followed by introducing the two choices available to patients, dialysis or
MCM. If the patients preference is for dialysis, the choice
of home dialysis versus in-center dialysis should be discussed next. Notably, fear and/or lack of knowledge of
home dialysis has been shown to dissuade many patients
from selecting this option.67 One of the goals of patient
education should be to offer patient support and help
overcome such fear. Logical decision-making can be
enhanced if the patient completes a 4part grid listing
their perceived advantages and disadvantages of dialysis therapies. Regular contact between the educator and
the patient over the weeks to months after starting education is important in the process of decision-making.
However, it is should be noted that the patients choice
of dialysis modality is simply the treatment with which
they begin RRT, as many patients will actually transition between different therapies (for example, changing
dialysis modalities, or from dialysis to transplantation
and possibly back to dialysis again).

Step four: timely dialysis access

Hemodialysis
Patients who have made an initial decision to have hemodialysis can be referred for timely placement of a permanent vascular access (arteriovenous fistula or graft) to
minimize use of CVCs. CVCs are often used as a bridge
to a permanent vascular access, either because the patient
starts dialysis without a mature fistula or graft, or because
an existing permanent access has failed. CVCs are easy
to place and can be used immediately for hemodialysis,
but they are prone to causing recurrent bacteremia and
thrombosis, and can also lead to central vein stenosis.6,7
Each type of vascular access has advantages and disadvantages. Fistulae have a high likelihood of failing to
mature (2060%), and 14months is often required
after their creation before fistulae can be cannulated.68,69
Nevertheless, once the fistula matures it can last for many
years with relatively few interventions.68 Arteriovenous
grafts have a lower early failure rate than do fistulae (10
20%), and can usually be cannulated for dialysis within
23weeks of placement; however, grafts only last for an
average of 23years and require more frequent interventions to maintain long-term patency than do fistulae.69
A mature fistula is, therefore, the preferred access type.42
Advanced planning is required to ensure that patients
have mature fistulae suitable for hemodialysis prior to
the need for treatment. To achieve this goal, predialysis
surgical creation of a permanent vascular access needs
to be sufficiently early in the course of CKD to allow
for potential surgical or percutaneous interventions to
promote maturation of immature fistulae.69 In addition,
preoperative vascular mapping will assist the surgeon in
planning the optimal site for vascular access placement.70
In the past 10years, the importance of patient-specific
factors in planning placement of vascular access has
become increasingly recognized.71 In certain patient subpopulations, there might be a subset of patients in whom
a graft is a superior choice.72 For example, in patients
who have initiated dialysis prior to vascular access placement, failure of a fistula would result in prolonged CVC

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dependence along with the complications associated
with CVC use. Furthermore, if the patient is elderly with
limited life expectancy, a compelling case might be made
in favor of graft placement over a fistula creation.73 The
case for graft placement is stronger still if the patient has
had a previous fistula that failed to mature.

Peritoneal dialysis
In patients who choose peritoneal dialysis, the considerations regarding access are somewhat different. The
optimal interval between catheter placement and the
start of peritoneal dialysis is approximately 2weeks
(known as the break-in period), which allows sufficient
time for the catheter track to heal and minimizes the
chance of a leak when dialysate is instilled in the peritoneal cavity.74 However, placing the peritoneal dialysis
catheter long before the need for dialysis would necessitate training the patient to perform daily catheter care,
which is generally not possible outside of established
peritoneal dialysis programs. Consequently, surgery for
placement of a peritoneal dialysis catheter is generally
deferred until the need for dialysis is imminent. Given
the challenges in precisely timing the need for dialysis
and in obtaining operating room access at short notice,
many patients who have committed to peritoneal dialysis
instead begin hemodialysis with a CVC. However, peritoneal dialysis catheters can be placed at any stage during
the course of the diseaseif a patient chooses to commit
to the therapy and to preclude the need for prolonged
catheter care prior to the start of dialysis, the external
limb of the catheter can be embedded in the subcutaneous tissue.75,76 The external limb can then be externalized
in a physicians office and full-dose peritoneal dialysis
can begin on the same day.75
Conversely, unlike hemodialysis, it is also feasible to
begin peritoneal dialysis with a permanent dialysis access
at short notice, precluding the need for CVCs. Although
it is optimal to allow for a 2week break-in period, peritoneal dialysis can begin on the same day as catheter
placement, as long as care is taken to introduce only low
volumes of fluid into the abdomen when the patient is
supine.77,78 This approach can be considered when the
need for dialysis is imminent, for example in selected
patients who have been referred late in the course of their
disease or when catheter placement has been delayed.
In the context of minimizing long-term use of CVCs,
it is also important to consider the challenges presented
by patients on peritoneal dialysis who need to transfer
to hemodialysis. It is estimated that 1015% of patients
on peritoneal dialysis may require transfer to hemo
dialysis treatment every year.79,80 This situation might
result in prolonged CVC dependence until a new vascular access is placed and achieves suitability for dialy
sis. This issue raises the question of whether a back-up
arteriovenous fistula should be placed in every patient
treated with peritoneal dialysis. In a UK dialysis center
where back-up vascular access was placed in all patients
undergoing peritoneal dialysis, 94% of fistulae were
never used for hemodialysis and 70% of fistulae were not
functioning when needed.81 As such, routine placement

of a vascular access in all patients who start treatment with peritoneal dialysis is not justified. However,
nephrologists might consider placement of a back-up
fistula in certain patients starting peritoneal dialysis, for
example when peritoneal dialysis can only be performed
for as long as residual renal function is present, or in
patients with progressive difficulty in achieving adequate
peritoneal ultrafiltration.79

Step 5: timely initiation of dialysis

In the 1990s, expert groups recommended that initiation of dialysis be considered when renal function declines to a predetermined level (mean of urea
and creatinine clearance of 10.5ml/min/1.73m2).82
Over the past 10years, however, the mean eGFR of
patients starting dialysis in the USA has progressively
increased.1,83 Notwithstanding this change over time,
there is no relationship between the duration of pre
dialysis nephrology care and eGFR at the time of starting dialysis.84 Furthermore, patients who start dialysis
with a high eGFR are as likely as patients with a lower
eGFR to use CVCs as the first dialysis access.84 These
observations suggest that nephrologists might be recommending patients for dialysis for the same general
reasons, irrespective of eGFR. For example, individuals
with low levels of serum creatinine (and a high eGFR)
might need to start dialysis if they are likely to have
poor tolerance for the consequences of renal function
decline. Findings from several observational studies
demonstrate that patients who start dialysis with a high
eGFR are substantially more likely to have characteristics associated with an increased mortality (such as
older age, male sex, white ethnicity, diabetes mellitus
and other cardiovascular comorbidities).8494 Concerns
about the rising trend of starting dialysis in patients
with a high eGFR have been raised, particularly since
many studies now show a direct association between a
high eGFR at the time of dialysis initiation and subsequent risk of death.8494 This risk persists even after statistical adjustment for potential confounders and also
when analyses are restricted to the healthiest subgroup;
however, there is always the issue of residual confounding in observational studies.87,88 Furthermore, there are
data to suggest that with decreasing renal function,
muscle mass becomes a more important determinant of
serum creatinine level than is GFR.95 It follows then that
the association between high eGFR and an increased
risk of death might, in part, be a reflection of the effect
of cachexia (muscle loss causing lower levels of serum
creatinine at any given level of eGFR) on mortality. 86
Given the limitations of observational studies, it is fortuitous that the importance of renal function at dialysis
initiation has been tested in a randomized controlled
clinical trial. In the only such trial that we are aware of,
the IDEAL study, there was no difference in survival
between patients randomly assigned to begin dialysis
early (at a creatinine clearance of 1014ml/min) or late
(at a creatinine clearance of 57ml/min).96 It is important to note that three-quarters of patients randomly
assigned to starting dialysis late actually needed to begin

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REVIEWS
treatment earlier, primarily owing to the development
of uremic symptoms.96
These data suggest that initiation of dialysis simply
when renal function approaches a predetermined threshold, as measured by eGFR, is not appropriate. Indeed,
it seems that dialysis can be safely delayed in otherwise
asymptomatic individuals with advanced CKD. This is
particularly important in patients in whom a permanent
dialysis access is not ready for use, and deferring dialysis might mitigate the need for CVCs. However, findings from the IDEAL study also indicate that it might
not be universally possible to defer initiation of dialysis
until patients reach an eGFR <7ml/min/1.73m2 as many
patients with advanced CKD can develop uremic symptoms at high levels of renal function.96 In addition to the
indications for emergent dialysis (hyperkalemia, volume
overload, pericarditis and encephalopathy), dialysis
therapy has been shown to be effective in ameliorating
uremic anorexia and is associated with improvement
in measures of proteinenergy wasting.9799 Hence, it is
important to observe patients with advanced CKD for
the early development of symptoms and/or uremic complications and begin dialysis at an appropriate time such
that it precludes the development of complications that
might require hospitalization or emergency intervention.

1.

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Conclusions
This step-by-step approach to the management of
patients with CKD and ESRD outlines a strategy to
bridge gaps in patient care with respect to the initiation
of dialysis. Many of the recommendations presented in
this Review are similar to those developed independently
by a European workgroup.100,101 The primary measures
of success of this strategy would include minimizing
the proportion of patients who start dialysis with CVCs,
and maximizing the number of patients that actively
participate in developing their care plan and who start
dialysis with a permanent access. Challenges exist that
might limit the implementation of this approach, such as
the occurrence of ESRD after acute kidney injury or late
patient presentation following an asymptomatic disease
course. Educating these individuals about CKD might,
nevertheless, facilitate their participation in selection
of dialysis modality and might also result in an earlier
transition to a permanent dialysis access.
Review criteria
No specific database searches were performed for this
Review. Each section has been written by an author
selected based on international recognition of their
expertise in the area.

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Acknowledgments
The following are the members of the Dialysis
Advisory Group of the American Society of Nephrology
(ASN) at the time of writing this Review: M. Allon,
M.Chonchol, P. Eggers (National Institute of Diabetes
and Digestive and Kidney Diseases liaison), J. Inrig,
K. Kalantar-Zadeh, R. Mehrotra (Advisory Group
Chair), S. Moe (ASN Council liaison), S.J. Saggi,
R.Shaffer (ASN Staff), S. Watnick, D. Weiner and
B.Young.
Author contributions
S.J. Saggi, M. Allon, J. Bernardini, K. Kalantar-Zadeh
and R. Mehrotra researched data for the article,
provided substantial contribution to discussions of
the content, contributed to writing the article and to
review and/or editing of the manuscript before
submission. R. Shaffer contributed to review and/or
editing of the manuscript before submission.
Disclaimer
The opinions expressed in this manuscript are those
of the authors and endorsed by the Dialysis Advisory
Group of the American Society of Nephrology (ASN)
and do not reflect the opinions of their institutions or
the entire membership of the ASN.

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