Did someone say fully sick ELEC summaries - Josh Pham

Convention
1. Electric Circuit Variables
Passive:

1.1 SI/SI Derived Units/Prefixes

Active:

1.6 Ohm's Law

Limiting cases:
Short circuit:

no voltage drop (

Open circuit:

Be careful! When simplifying resistor networks, if a

component is in parallel with a short, the equivalent
resistance becomes 0 and both components are
replaced with a short.

1.3 Current
Time rate flow of charge, (A)
Convention:

1.7 Voltage division

1.4 Voltage
Work done by EMF in moving charge through a circuit
per unit charge, (V)

1.8 Current division

Convention

1.9 Combining resistances

1.5 Passive/Active Elements
Passive absorbs electrical energy
Active provides energy
Independent sources don't rely on other circuit
variables, whilst dependent sources do.

Series:
Parallel:

1.10 Power
Time rate transformation of energy, (W)

Did someone say fully sick ELEC summaries - Josh Pham

2. Kirchoff's Laws
2.1 Definitions/topology
A branch is a single element ( )
A node is a point of connection ( )
A loop is a closed path. ( )
A mesh is a loop containing no other loops.

2.2 KCL/KVL

KCL: Sum of currents in = sum of currents out

KVL: Sum of voltage drops = sum of voltage gains around
a loop.

The trick with mesh currents is that, when forming the

equations using KVL, say for the first mesh, as enters
, it is not the only current travelling through the
resistor. is also travelling through it in the opposite
direction, so the current travelling through
when
analysing mesh 1 is
.

and so on...

2.3 Nodal analysis

1. Name nodes and select reference (usually
bottom one).
2. Assign current/voltage labels (usually - is at
ground and + is up top). A voltage source in a
branch gives you the voltage source of that
branch.
3. Apply KCL and express in terms of node voltages.
4. Solve equations simultaneously

Super mesh
A super mesh occurs when meshes share a current
source. Created by excluding the current source/any
elements in series. It is not ignored, but rather as the
current "crosses" into the other half, you use the other
current:

Supernode
A supernode is a voltage source (and any elements
connected in parallel with it) between two nonreference nodes

2.5 Nodal vs mesh

Pick

To solve, circle the supernode and apply KCL (currents

coming in and out of the supernode).

2.4 Mesh currents

1. Assign mesh currents,
for
2. Apply KVL to each mesh
3. Solve equations simultaneously

meshes.

Did someone say fully sick ELEC summaries - Josh Pham

3.4 Source transformation (Relationship between

Norton and Thevenin)

3. Circuit Theorems
3.1 Superposition
Used to determine the responses of a linear circuit by
summing the individual responses of each independent
source (can't disable dependent sources).
To disable a voltage source, short it.
To disable a current source, open circuit it.
1. Turn off all independent sources except the one
whose effect you want to determine.
2. Repeat until you have found all responses for
each source and sum them.

3.2 Thevenin's theorem

Any circuit of sources and resistances with an identified
terminal pair can be replaced by an equivalent circuit
consisting of a voltage source
in series with a
resistance
.
1. Find
(open circuit voltage at terminals)
2. Disable all independent sources and find
equivalent resistance
.
3. Don't disable dependent sources. Instead
disable all independent sources and apply a 1V
source at the terminals and work out . Then you
can find

using

. Alternatively you can

apply a 1A source and find terminal

using
.

and then

Maximum power transfer

The maxmum power is delivered to the load when
.

3.3 Norton's theorem

Any circuit of sources and resistances with an identified
terminal pair can be replaced by an equivalent circuit
which consists of an ideal current source in parallel
with a resistor .
1. Find (the short circuit current across the
terminals)
2.
.

Did someone say fully sick ELEC summaries - Josh Pham

We know,
4. Capacitors and RC Transients

4.1 Capacitors
A capacitor is a passive element
designed to store energy in its
electric field. It consists of two
parallel conducting plates
separated by an insulating
medium (dielectric).
Capacitance

From KVL,

is a the ability to store charge (F):

4.2 Energy stored by capacitor

Noting that the capacitor becomes an open circuit, after

a long period of time, when the capacitor becomes an
open circuit,
.

Let the time constant

4.3 Combining capacitors

Series:
Parallel:

4.4 RC Transients
First order RC circuits are those containing either one
capacitor or one inductor forming a first order ODE. The
complete response of an RC circuit is made of a transient
(natural) and a steady state (forced) response.
With each response there are 3 stages.

Hence, to obtain the complete response you must find,

1. Initial conditions
2. Transient period
3. Final conditions

1. Initial capacitor voltage

2. Final capacitor voltage
3. Time constant

The capacitor acts as an open circuit for

hasn't been closed) and

(as

(switch
and

and substitute into the above formula.

Implication
1. Voltage cannot change instantaneously

Analysing the transient response,

as

as

and

Did someone say fully sick ELEC summaries - Josh Pham

We know,
5. Inductors and RL Transients

5.1 Inductors
An inductor is a passive element made of coils designed
to resist changes in electric current passing through it
(introduce inductance (henries)).

Energy is stored in a magnetic field in the coil as long as

current flows. When current flows, a time varying
magnetic field induces a voltage in the conductor,
according to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction.
According to Lenz's law, the direction of the induced
EMF is always such that it opposes the change in current
that created it.
Model of an inductor

From KVL,

where

Hence, to obtain the complete response you must find,

1. Initial inductor current
2. Final inductor current
3. Time constant
Implication
1. Current cannot change instantaneously

5.2 Combining inductors

Series:

5.3 Energy stored by inductor

Parallel:

5.3 RL Transients
Contain one inductor and one or more resistors. The
inductor acts as a short circuit for
and
(as
and

5.4 RC and RL Transients

Apply the implications simultaneously. Find initial and
final conditions and substitute into derived formulae.

6. Sinusoids and Phasors

Did someone say fully sick ELEC summaries - Josh Pham

Writing a sinusoidal signal as a phasor:

6.1 Sinusoids

To convert from phasor (frequency domain) to time

domain, you need .
= amplitude (V)
= angular frequency (rad/s)
= phase shift

Concept of lagging and leading

The wave that comes first in time leads the

other, whilst the other lags.

6.3 Phasor relationships for circuit elements

Resistor:
in phase
Capacitor: leads by 90o
Inductor: lags by 90o

You will be expected to plot the phasors of these

voltages and currents on a phasor diagram.

6.4 Impedance and admittance

Impedance is the complex resistance to sinusoidal
current. It has the unit ohms.

It can be represented as,

Comparison only valid when

.
When attempting to find the phase shift of two
signals (one in cos and one in sin), you need to
convert them all to sin or cos (preferably cos)
[and both positive or both negative] using
. Remember that sin and
cos shift polarities every 180 shift.
Remember from graph transformations that
causes a shift right, and
causes a shift left. Using this you can find which
one lags and which one leads.

6.2 Phasors

All time-varying sinusoidal signals can be

represented as a non time-variant complex
number in the frequency domain.

resistance
reactance

are the impedances for the capacitor and inductor

respectively. They are purely imaginary.

THESE ACT AS SHORT CIRCUITS AT DC (low ) AND

OPEN CIRCUITS AT HIGH FREQUENCY (high )
[IMPORTANT!!!!! WE SEE THIS IN OP AMPS
QUESTIONS).
Admittance

Complex number revision

is the reciprocal of impedance.

It can be represented as,

conductance
susceptance

When dealing with capacitors, inductors, resistances in

AC circuit analysis, you must convert all components to
the frequency domain (phasors and impedances) and
then conduct analysis.

where
Operations:

6.5 AC Analysis

Did someone say fully sick ELEC summaries - Josh Pham

Complex power

Use all the previous theorems (Kirchoffs Laws,

Thevenin etc) but now with phasors.
Kirchoff's AC laws:

Measured in VA

Apparent power

6.6 Power Analysis

(VA)

Effective value of a periodic signal (RMS)

Power factor
The effective value/RMS of a periodic current
is the dc current that delivers the same
average power to a resistor as the periodic
current.
The effect value of a periodic signal
is its
RMS value.

In this course,

or

, are given by,

Average power

Only the resistive load absorbs power at all

times. Reactive loads (L or C) absorb zero
average power.

Maximum power transfer

Maximum power transfer occurs when

i.e, when the load impedance is the
conjugate of the Thevinin impedance.
This maximum power transfer is given by,

Reactive power

Phantom power in inductors and capacitors.

Measured in VAr.

(purely reactive, no average

power consumed),
(purely resistive, all
average power consumed).
lagging
leading

7. Operational Amplifiers

Did someone say fully sick ELEC summaries - Josh Pham

For integrators and differentiators,

7.1 Basic info/anatomy

Active elements that perform basic math

functions (+, -, , )
For analysis purposes, we ignore that it is
connected to an external power supply
otherwise KCL will not directly hold.

When dealing with AC circuits convert to

impedances etc.

7.3 Key quantities

The polarity of an input is outputted with

opposite polarity if connected to the inverting
input ( )
The polarity of an input is stays the same if
connected to the non-inverting input ( ).

Nearly all OP amps questions will ask for the

transfer function
or the open loop gain
(the constant of proportionality which your
input signal is subjected to produce an output).

7.3 Key configurations

The key configurations used to perform basic math
functions presented below. Do not memorise these.
Please see that their analysis uses the exact same ideal
conditions.

7.2 Ideal conditions/equivalent circuit

Non-inverting configuration

Every OP-amps question literally uses the same set of

ideal conditions that you need to apply to solve the
question.
Firstly, we assume that

and

By applying nodal analysis at 1,

Because
,
. Thus there is no current
flow and thus no voltage drop meaning that
.
Summary

Other (vital tidbits)

(as no current enters the op amp).

Since the current through the op amp is 0,
.

High frequencies, capacitors act as short circuits

Low frequencies (DC), capacitors act as open
circuits

But

Inverting configuration

Did someone say fully sick ELEC summaries - Josh Pham

Subtracting/Difference configuration

Nodal analysis at node a,

Since

and
Nodal analysis at node b,

In the ideal op amp model,

Summing configuration

Hence,

When the inputs are the same, (

equal 0 and thus,

should

Cascade configuration
Since

Also,
Thus,

(connected to ground),

The saturation limits how much we can amplify. The

input of the adjacent op amp is the output of the one
before it.

Did someone say fully sick ELEC summaries - Josh Pham

Integrating configuration

No current in the op amp therefore,

therefore,

Differentiating configuration

Did someone say fully sick ELEC summaries - Josh Pham

8. Transformers

7.3 Eliminating ideal transformers from circuits

7.1 Fundamental equation

The rules for eliminating transformers and:

Transformers are AC equipment used to

transfer power from one circuit to another
without a change in frequency.
Used to convert AC power at a certain voltage
to power at another voltage.
Only works with DC because no alternating flux
means no power transmission meaning the
voltage drop occurs through the primary
resistance which is quite low, burning the
primary coils.
The AC voltage applied to the primary coil
of turns
sets up an alternating flux,
inducing an AC voltage in the secondary coil
of turns
whose size depends on the turns
ratio .

1. Reflecting the secondary circuit to the primary side

Divide by
Divide by
Multiply by

2. Reflecting the primary circuit to the secondary side

Multiply by
Multiply by
Divide by

7.4 Important examples

By Faraday's law, and the requirement that

7.2 Impedance relations

1. A transformer of
2400 and
48 is used
as an impedance matching device. What is the
reflected value of a 3 load connected to the
secondary?

2. A 240/120 V rms power transformer is rated at

10 kVA. Determine

Did someone say fully sick ELEC summaries - Josh Pham

3. A 4800 V rms transmission line feeds a
distribution transformer with 1200 turns on the
primary and 28 turns on the secondary. When a
10 load is connected across the secondary,
find:
a) Secondary voltage
b) Primary and secondary currents
c) Power supplied to the load.
a)
b)

c)
Since the load is purely resistive,

Sickest digital system summary/10 - Josh

Digital Systems
1. Introduction to Digital and Binary
1.1 Digital and analog signals

Digital systems are a method of signalling.

Whereas analog signals are waveforms, digital signals are streams of bits based on the
binary number systems. Where a bit, is a digit of the binary number system.

1.2 Binary number system

Consists of only two numerals.

Works on a base 2 number system.
Every number can be written in binary are long strings of 1s and 0s.

Example
Convert 11100110 into a regular base 10 numeral

Since there are 8 binary digits, this is an 8 bit system meaning it goes from

(right to left)

1.3 Truth tables

Works in tandem with the binary number system.

Truth tables are exhaustive descriptions of outputs for all possible inputs.
Possible inputs are dictated by the number of bits which is often influenced by certain
relationships e.g. if
, then true etc...

Example
Daniel goes to the mall. The items he shops for are categorised into things he needs and things he
wants. His method of payment are cash/debit.
If he wants an item, he will only buy it if he has cash.
If we needs an item, he will buy it with cash/card.
Solution
Define variables:

(predetermined by the other inputs).

Sickest digital system summary/10 - Josh

We form a 5 by 16 (0 15) table. We know we only have 15 possible combinations. This is because
we only really have 4 real variables (P being determined by the previous inputs),
, so we go
from
.

First we start by writing all the numbers on the sides using binary.

This is the way we determine our (NWCD) [fundamental variables). How we can figure out P.
For the first column, he doesn't need it, doesn't want it. So he won't buy it. If we continue according
to rules we can fill out the P column.

Sickest digital system summary/10 - Josh

1.4 Logic gates

Logic gates are devices that perform a local operation on one of more logical inputs to
produce a singular logical output.
Used extensively in digital circuits.

1.4.1 AND gates

We have 2 inputs so, we have 22 possible outcomes. "Z is true iff X and Y are true"

1.4.2 OR gates
"Z is true iff X or Y are true"

1.4.2 NOT gates

The not gate inverts/negates. (1 input, 21 possible outcomes). Replaces the input with the
complement of the input.

1.4.3 NAND gate (NOT and; the complement of the AND gate)
"Z is true if X or Y are false"

Sickest digital system summary/10 - Josh

1.4.4 NOR gate (not OR; the complement of the OR gate)

"Z is true if X and Y are false"

1.4.5 XOR gate (Exclusive OR)

"Z is true if X Y"

1.4.6 XNOR gate (Exclusive Not OR gate)

"Z is true if X = Y"

Sickest digital system summary/10 - Josh

1.5 Boolean Algebra

Practically we must work with a large number of signals. Each signal has a binary choice (yesno, on-off, move-stop).
Boolean Algebra provides a method of simplifying and handling these signals.

Mathematical consequences of logic gates

AND
OR
NAND
NOR
XOR
XNOR

Fundamental theorems
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)

(input of X and 0 into an AND gate results in an output of 0)

(equals iff
)

Commutative laws

Associative Laws (brackets don't do much)

Distributive laws

(read A or B and A or C) etc

Absorption laws
1)
2)
3)
4)
De Morgan's theorem

(complement of A or B) = (complement of A and complement of B)

Sickest digital system summary/10 - Josh

When we have two quantities whose truth tables are matching they are equivalent (can be used to
prove De Morgan's theorem).

(The truth table are exactly the same)

1.6 Analysis of Digital Circuits 1

Draw a truth table for the digital circuit. Also find a Boolean Expression for .
Solution

We have a NOR and AND and OR GATE. We have 3 inputs A, B, C and one input Z.
We should split up the inputs of the OR gate. One input will be X. The other will be Y.
X will be the resultant of a NOR gate between inputs A and B and
And Y will be the resultant of an AND gate between B and C.
Hence,

Sickest digital system summary/10 - Josh

Draw the digital circuit corresponding to:

Solution
To begin, lets draw our inputs A B C and D.

The
section is addressed as follows: What we also need to do now is B complement and an and
gate with C. To make B complement, we add a NOT gate and combine it with C using an and gate.

To get the
, branch off C and add a not gate. Relate C and D using an AND gate. To get the A . B.
C term, to do that, we need to make an AND gate between A B, C.

Now we have our A gate like so,

Now we need to make an OR gate between all of the terms,