Graphic design

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Graphic symbols are often functionalistand anonymous,[1] as these pictographsfrom the US National Park Service illustrate.

Graphic design is the art of communication, stylizing, and problem-solving through the use of type, space, and
image. The field is considered a subset of visual communication andcommunication design, but sometimes the
term "graphic design" is used interchangeably with these due to overlapping skills involved. Graphic designers
use various methods to create and combine words, symbols, and images to create a visual representation of
ideas and messages. A graphic designer may use a combination of typography, visual arts andpage
layout techniques to produce a final result. Graphic design often refers to both the process (designing) by which
the communication is created and the products (designs) which are generated.
Common uses of graphic design include identity (logos and branding), publications (magazines, newspapers
and books), print advertisements, posters, billboards, website graphics and elements, signs and product
packaging. For example, a product package might include a logo or other artwork, organized text and pure
design elements such as images, shapes and color which unify the piece. Composition is one of the most
important features of graphic design, especially when using pre-existing materials or diverse elements.

History[edit]
Main article: History of graphic design

Page from the Book of Kells: Folio 114v, Decorated text. Tunc dicit illis

While Graphic Design as a discipline has a relatively recent history, with the term "graphic design" first
coined by William Addison Dwiggins in 1922,[2] graphic design-like activities span the history of
humankind: from the caves of Lascaux, to Rome's Trajan's Column to theilluminated manuscripts of the
Middle Ages, to the dazzling neons of Ginza. In both this lengthy history and in the relatively recent
explosion of visual communication in the 20th and 21st centuries, there is sometimes a blurring distinction
and over-lapping of advertising art, graphic design and fine art. After all, they share many of the same
elements, theories, principles, practices and languages, and sometimes the same benefactor or client.
Inadvertising art the ultimate objective is the sale of goods and services. In graphic design, "the essence
is to give order to information, form to ideas, expression and feeling to artifacts that document human
experience."[3]

The advent of printing[edit]

Main article: History of printing
During the Tang Dynasty (618907) between the 7th and 9th century AD, wood blocks were cut to print on
textiles and later to reproduce Buddhist texts. A Buddhist scripture printed in 868 is the earliest known
printed book. Beginning in the 11th century, longer scrolls and books were produced using movable type
printing making books widely available during the Song dynasty (9601279). [4] Sometime around
1450, Johann Gutenberg's printing press made books widely available in Europe. The book design
of Aldus Manutius developed the book structure which would become the foundation of western
publication design. This era of graphic design is called Humanist or Old Style.

Emergence of the design industry[edit]

In late 19th-century Europe, especially in the United Kingdom, the first official publication of a printed
design was released which marked the separation of graphic design from fine art.
In 1849, Henry Cole became one of the major forces in design education in Great Britain, informing the
government of the importance of design in his Journal of Design and Manufactures. He organized
the Great Exhibition as a celebration of modern industrial technology and Victorian design.
From 1891 to 1896, William Morris' Kelmscott Press published books that are some of the most
significant of the graphic design products of the Arts and Crafts movement, and made a very lucrative
business of creating books of great stylistic refinement and selling them to the public. Morris created a
market for works of graphic design in their own right to create a profession for this new type of art for
aspiring individuals who wishes to earn a living through these skills. The work of the Kelmscott Press is
characterized by its obsession with historical styles. This historicism was, however, important as it
amounted to the first significant reaction to the stale state of nineteenth-century graphic design. Morris'
work, along with the rest of the Private Press movement, directly influenced Art Nouveau and is indirectly
responsible for developments in early twentieth century graphic design in general. [5]

Twentieth century design[edit]

A Boeing 747 aircraft with liverydesignating it as Air Force One. The cyan forms, the US flag, presidential seal and
theCaslon lettering were all designed at different times and combined by designerRaymond Loewy in this one final design.

The name "Graphic Design" first appeared in print in the 1922 essay "New Kind of Printing Calls for New
Design" by William Addison Dwiggins, an American book designer in the early 20th century.[6]
Raffe's Graphic Design, published in 1927, is considered to be the first book to use "Graphic Design" in its
title.[7]
The signage in the London Underground is a classic design example[8] of the modern era and used a
typeface designed by Edward Johnston in 1916.
In the 1920s, Soviet constructivism applied 'intellectual production' in different spheres of production. The
movement saw individualistic art as useless in revolutionary Russia and thus moved towards creating
objects for utilitarian purposes. They designed buildings, theater sets, posters, fabrics, clothing, furniture,
logos, menus, etc.[citation needed]
Jan Tschichold codified the principles of modern typography in his 1928 book, New Typography. He later
repudiated the philosophy he espoused in this book as being fascistic, but it remained very influential.
[citation needed]
Tschichold, Bauhaus typographers such as Herbert Bayer and Lszl Moholy-Nagy, andEl

Lissitzky have greatly influenced graphic design as we know it today. They pioneered production
techniques[citation needed] and stylistic devices used throughout the twentieth century. The following years saw
graphic design in the modern style gain widespread acceptance and application. [9] A booming post-World
War II American economy established a greater need for graphic design, mainly advertising and
packaging. The emigration of the German Bauhaus school of design to Chicago in 1937 brought a "massproduced" minimalism to America; sparking a wild fire of "modern" architecture and design. Notable
names in mid-century modern design includeAdrian Frutiger, designer of
the typefaces Univers and Frutiger; Paul Rand, who, from the late 1930s until his death in 1996, took the
principles of the Bauhaus and applied them to popular advertising and logo design, helping to create a
uniquely American approach to European minimalism while becoming one of the principal pioneers of the
subset of graphic design known as corporate identity; andJosef Mller-Brockmann, who designed posters
in a severe yet accessible manner typical of the 1950s and 1970s era.
The growth of the professional graphic design industry has grown in parallel with the rise of consumerism.
This has raised some concerns and criticisms, notably from within the graphic design community with
the First Things First manifesto. First launched by Ken Garland in 1964, it was re-published as the First
Things First 2000 manifesto in 1999 in the magazine Emigre 51[10] stating "We propose a reversal of
priorities in favor of more useful, lasting and democratic forms of communication - a mindshift away from
product marketing and toward the exploration and production of a new kind of meaning. The scope of
debate is shrinking; it must expand. Consumerism is running uncontested; it must be challenged by other
perspectives expressed, in part, through the visual languages and resources of design." [11] Both editions
attracted signatures from respected design practitioners and thinkers, for example; Rudy
VanderLans, Erik Spiekermann, Ellen Lupton and Rick Poynor. The 2000 manifesto was also notably
published in Adbusters, known for its strong critiques of visual culture.

Applications[edit]

Color

From road signs to technical schematics, from interoffice memorandums to reference manuals, graphic
design enhances transfer of knowledge and visual messages. Readability and legibilityis enhanced by
improving the visual presentation and layout of text.

Design can also aid in selling a product or idea through effective visual communication. It is applied to
products and elements of company identity like logos, colors, packaging, and text. Together these are
defined as branding (see also advertising). Branding has increasingly become important in the range of
services offered by many graphic designers, alongsidecorporate identity. Whilst the terms are often used
interchangeably, branding is more strictly related to the identifying mark or trade name for a product or
service, whereas corporate identity can have a broader meaning relating to the structure and ethos of a
company, as well as to the company's external image. Graphic designers will often form part of a team
working on corporate identity and branding projects. Other members of that team can include marketing
professionals, communications consultants and commercial writers.
Textbooks are designed to present subjects such as geography, science, and math. These publications
have layouts which illustrate theories and diagrams. A common example of graphics in use to educate is
diagrams of human anatomy. Graphic design is also applied to layout and formatting of educational
material to make the information more accessible and more readily understandable.
Graphic design is applied in the entertainment industry in decoration, scenery, and visual story telling.
Other examples of design for entertainment purposes include novels, comic books, DVD covers, opening
credits and closing credits in filmmaking, and programs and props on stage. This could also include
artwork used for t-shirts and other items screenprinted for sale.
From scientific journals to news reporting, the presentation of opinion and facts is often improved with
graphics and thoughtful compositions of visual information - known as information design. Newspapers,
magazines, blogs, television and film documentaries may use graphic design to inform and entertain. With
the advent of the web, information designers with experience in interactive tools such as Adobe Flash are
increasingly being used to illustrate the background to news stories.

Skills[edit]
A graphic design project may involve the stylization and presentation of existing text and either
preexisting imagery or images developed by the graphic designer. For example, a newspaper story
begins with the journalists and photojournalists and then becomes the graphic designer's job to organize
the page into a reasonable layout and determine if any other graphic elements should be required. In a
magazine article or advertisement, often the graphic designer or art director will commission
photographers or illustrators to create original pieces just to be incorporated into the design layout. Or the
designer may utilize stock imagery or photography. Contemporary design practice has been extended to
the modern computer, for example in the use of WYSIWYG user interfaces, often referred to asinteractive
design, or multimedia design.

Visual arts design[edit]

Main article: Visual arts
Before any graphic elements may be applied to a design, the graphic elements must be originated by
means of visual art skills. These graphics are often (but not always) developed by a graphic designer.
Visual arts include works which are primarily visual in nature using anything from traditional media, to
photography or digital art. Graphic design principles may be applied to each graphic art element
individually as well as to the final composition.

Typography[edit]

Main article: Typography

Typography is the art, craft and techniques of type design, modifying type glyphs, and arranging type.
Type glyphs (characters) are created and modified using a variety of illustration techniques. The
arrangement of type is the selection of typefaces, point size, tracking (the space between all characters
used), kerning (the space between two specific characters), and leading (line spacing).
Typography is performed by typesetters, compositors, typographers, graphic artists, art directors, and
clerical workers. Until the Digital Age, typography was a specialized occupation. Digitization opened up
typography to new generations of visual designers and lay users.

Page layout[edit]
Main article: Page layout
The page layout aspect of graphic design deals with the arrangement of elements (content) on a page,
such as image placement, and text layout and style. Beginning from early illuminated pages in handcopied books of the Middle Ages and proceeding down to intricate modern magazine and catalogue
layouts, structured page design has long been a consideration in printed material. With print media,
elements usually consist of type (text), images (pictures), and occasionally place-holder graphics for
elements that are not printed with ink such as die/laser cutting, foil stamping or blind embossing.

Interface design[edit]
Main article: User interface design
Since the advent of the World Wide Web and computer software development, many graphic designers
have become involved in interface design, in an environment commonly referred to as a Graphical User
Interface (GUI). This has included web design andsoftware design, when end user interactivity is a design
consideration of the layout or interface. Combining visual communication skills with the interactive
communication skills of user interaction and online branding, graphic designers often work with software
developersand web developers to create both the look and feel of a web site or software application and
enhance the interactive experience of the user or web site visitor. An important aspect of interface design
is icon design.

User experience design[edit]

Main article: User experience design
Considers how a user interacts with and responds to an interface, service or product and adjusts it
accordingly.

Printmaking[edit]
Main article: Printmaking
Printmaking is the process of making artworks by printing on paper and other materials or surfaces.
Except in the case of monotyping, the process is capable of producing multiples of the same piece, which
is called a print. Each piece is not a copy but an original since it is not a reproduction of another work of
art and is technically known as an impression. Painting or drawing, on the other hand, creates a unique
original piece of artwork. Prints are created from a single original surface, known technically as a matrix.
Common types of matrices include: plates of metal, usually copper or zinc for engraving or etching; stone,

used for lithography; blocks of wood for woodcuts, linoleum for linocuts and fabric plates for screenprinting. But there are many other kinds, discussed below. Works printed from a single plate create an
edition, in modern times usually each signed and numbered to form a limited edition. Prints may also be
published in book form, as artist's books. A single print could be the product of one or multiple techniques.

Tools[edit]

The pencil is one of the most basic graphic design tools.

The mind is an important graphic design tool. Aside from technology, graphic design
requiresjudgment and creativity. Critical, observational, quantitative and analytic thinking are required for
design layouts and rendering. If the executor is merely following a solution (e.g. sketch, script or
instructions) provided by another designer (such as an art director), then the executor is not usually
considered the designer.
The method of presentation (e.g. arrangement, style, medium) may be equally important to the design.
The appropriate development and presentation tools can substantially change how an audience perceives
a project. The image or layout is produced using externaltraditional media and guides, or digital image
editing tools on computers. Tools in computer graphics often take on traditional names such as "scissors"
or "pen." Some graphic design tools such as a grid are used in both traditional and digital form.
In the mid-1980s, the arrival of desktop publishing and graphic art software applications introduced a
generation of designers to computer image manipulation and creation that had previously been manually
executed. Computer graphic design enabled designers to instantly see the effects of layout or typographic
changes, and to simulate the effects of traditional media without requiring a lot of space. However,
traditional tools such as pencils or markers are useful even when computers are used for finalization; a
designer or art director may hand sketch numerous concepts as part of the creative process. Some of
these sketches may even be shown to a client for early stage approval, before the designer develops the
idea further using a computer and graphic design software tools.
Computers are considered an indispensable tool in the graphic design industry. Computers and software
applications are generally seen by creative professionals as more effective production tools than
traditional methods. However, some designers continue to use manual and traditional tools for production,
such as Milton Glaser.
New ideas can come by way of experimenting with tools and methods. Some designers explore ideas
using pencil and paper.[12]Others use many different mark-making tools and resources from computers to

sculpture as a means of inspiring creativity. One of the key features of graphic design is that it makes a
tool out of appropriate image selection in order to possibly convey meaning. [13]

Computers and the creative process[edit]

There is some debate whether computers enhance the creative process of graphic design. [14] Rapid
production from the computer allows many designers to explore multiple ideas quickly with more detail
than what could be achieved by traditional hand-rendering orpaste-up on paper, moving the designer
through the creative process more quickly.[15] However, being faced with limitless choices does not help
isolate the best design solution and can lead to endless iterations with no clear design outcome.
A graphic designer may use sketches to explore multiple or complex ideas quickly [16] without the
distractions and complications of software.[citation needed] Hand-rendered comps are often used to get
approval for an idea execution before a designer invests time to produce finished visuals on a computer
or in paste-up. The same thumbnail sketches or rough drafts on paper may be used to rapidly refine and
produce the idea on the computer in a hybrid process. This hybrid process is especially useful
in logo design[17] where a software learning curve may detract from a creative thought process. The
traditional-design/computer-production hybrid process may be used for freeing one's creativity in page
layout or image development as well.[citation needed] In the early days of computer publishing, many
"traditional" graphic designers relied on computer-savvy production artists to produce their ideas from
sketches, without needing to learn the computer skills themselves. However, this practice has been
increasingly less common since the advent of desktop publishing over 30 years ago. The use of
computers and graphics software is now taught in most graphic design courses.
Nearly all of the popular and "industry standard" software programs used for graphic design since the
early 1990s are products of Adobe Systems Incorporated. They are Adobe Photoshop (a raster-based
program for photo editing), Adobe Illustrator (a vector-based program for drawing), Adobe InDesign (a
page layout program), and Adobe Dreamweaver (for Web page design). Another major page layout tool
is QuarkXpress (a product of Quark, Inc., a separate company from Adobe).
Both QuarkXpress and Adobe InDesign are often used in the final stage of the electronic design process.
Raster images may have been edited in Adobe Photoshop, logos and illustrations in Adobe Illustrator, and
the final product assembled in one of the major page layout programs. Most graphic designers entering
the field since about 1990 are expected to be proficient in at least one or two of these programs.

Crowdsourcing in graphic design[edit]

Main article: Crowdsourcing creative work
Jeff Howe of Wired Magazine first used the term "Crowdsourcing" in his 2006 article, "The Rise of
Crowdsourcing."[18][19] The phrase "crowdsourcing creative work" (CCW) was conceived at the Workshop
on Crowdsourcing and Human Computation[20] at CHI 2011.[21]Creative work spans creative domains such
as graphic design, crowdsourcing architecture, apparel design, writing, illustration. Tasks may be
assigned to individuals or a group and may be categorized as convergent or divergent. An example of a
divergent task is generating a large number of designs for a poster. An example of a convergent task is
selecting one poster design.

Occupations[edit]
Main article: Graphic design occupations

Graphic design career paths cover all ends of the creative spectrum and often overlap. The main job
responsibility of a Graphic Designer is the arrangement of visual elements in some type of media. The
main job titles within the industry can vary and are often country specific. They can include graphic
designer, art director, creative director, animator and the entry level production artist. Depending on the
industry served, the responsibilities may have different titles such as "DTP Associate" or "Graphic Artist",
but despite changes in title, graphic design principles remain consistent. The responsibilities may come
from, or lead to, specialized skills such as illustration,photography, animation or interactive design.
Today's graduating graphic design students are normally exposed to all of these areas of graphic design
and urged to become familiar with all of them as well in order to be competitive.
Graphic designers can work in a variety of environments. Whilst many will work within companies devoted
specifically to the industry, such as design consultancies or branding agencies, others may work within
publishing, marketing or other communications companies. Increasingly, especially since the introduction
of personal computers to the industry, many graphic designers have found themselves working within
non-design oriented organizations, as in-house designers. Graphic designers may also work as free-lance
designers, working on their own terms, prices, ideas, etc.
A graphic designer reports to the art director, creative director or senior media creative. As a designer
becomes more senior, they may spend less time designing media and more time leading and directing
other designers on broader creative activities, such as branddevelopment and corporate
identity development. They are often expected to interact more directly with clients, for example taking
and interpreting briefs.

See also[edit]
Visual arts
portal

Wikimedia Commons has

media related to Graphic
design.

Related disciplines[edit]

Animation

Desktop publishing

Landscape Architecture

Architecture

Digital illustration

Marketing communications

Art direction

Environmental graphic

Motion graphic design

Communication design

New Media

Concept art

Technical illustration

Copywriting

Technical writing

Creative direction

Typography

design

Industrial design

Information design

Instructional design

Design

Interface design

Web graphic design

First Things First 2000

Material culture

Newspaper

Paper

Pen

Professional web designers

Style guide

Value

Visualization

Related topics[edit]

Aesthetics

Adobe Photoshop

Color theory

Composition (visual
arts)

manifesto

Graphic art software

Graphic design occupations

Graphics

Computer graphics

Information graphics

Design education

List of graphic design

institutions

Design principles and

elements

Drawing

European Design

List of notable graphic

designers

Logotype

Awards

Typography
Typography (from the Greek words (typos) = form and (graphe) = writing) is the art and
technique of arranging type in order to make language visible. The arrangement of type involves the
selection of typefaces, point size, line length, leading (line spacing), adjusting the spaces between groups
of letters (tracking) and adjusting the space between pairs of letters (kerning[2]). Type design is a closely
related craft, which some consider distinct and others a part of typography; most typographers do not
design typefaces, and some type designers do not consider themselves typographers. [3][4] In modern
times, typography has been put into motionin film, television and online broadcaststo add emotion to
mass communication.[5]
Typography is performed by typesetters, compositors, typographers, graphic designers, art directors,
comic book artists, graffiti artists, clerical workers, and anyone else who arranges type for a product. Until
the Digital Age, typography was a specialized occupation. Digitization opened up typography to new
generations of visual designers and lay users, and David Jury states that "typography is now something
everybody does."[6]

Contents
[hide]

1 History

2 Scope

3 Text typography

3.1 Color
4 Readability and legibility

4.1 Evolution of typography

4.2 Experimental typography

5 Display typography

5.1 Advertising

5.2 Inscriptional and architectural lettering

6 See also

6.1 Supporting organizations

7 Notes

8 References

9 External links

History[edit]
Main articles: History of Western typography, History of typography in East Asia, and Movable type

Printing press, 16th century in Germany

Typography traces its origins to the first punches and dies used to make seals and currencyin ancient
times. The uneven spacing of the impressions on brick stamps found in theMesopotamian cities
of Uruk and Larsa, dating from the 2nd millennium BC, may have been evidence of type where the reuse
of identical characters were applied to create cuneiform text. [7] Babylonian cylinder seals were used to
create an impression on a surface by rolling the seal on wet clay.[8] Typography was also realized in
the Phaistos Disc, an enigmaticMinoan print item from Crete, Greece, which dates between 1850 and
1600 BC.[9][10][11] It has been proposed that Roman lead pipe inscriptions were created by movable type
printing,[12][13][14] but German typographer Herbert Brekle recently dismissed this view.[15]
The essential criterion of type identity was met by medieval print artifacts such as the LatinPruefening
Abbey inscription of 1119 that was created by the same technique as the Phaistos disc. [16][17][18][19] The
silver altarpiece of patriarch Pellegrinus II (11951204) in the cathedral of Cividale was printed with
individual letter punches.[20][21][22] The same printing technique can apparently be found in 10th to 12th
century Byzantine reliquaries.[23][21] Individual letter tiles where the words are formed by assembling single
letter tiles in the desired order were reasonably widespread in medieval Northern Europe. [24][25]
Typography with movable type was invented in 11th-century China by Bi Sheng (9901051) during
the Song Dynasty.[26] His movable type system was manufactured from ceramic materials, and clay type
printing continued to be practiced in China until the Qing Dynasty. Wang Zhen was one of the pioneers of
wooden movable type. Although the wooden type was more durable under the mechanical rigors of
handling, repeated printing wore the character faces down, and the types could only be replaced by
carving new pieces.[27] Metal type was first invented in Korea during the Goryeo Dynasty around
1230. Hua Sui introduced bronze type printing to China in 1490 AD. However, the diffusion of both
movable-type systems was limited and the technology did not spread beyond East Asia. [28]
Modern movable type, along with the mechanical printing press, is most often attributed to the
goldsmith Johannes Gutenberg, who independently invented the technology in mid-15th century
Germany.[29][30][31][32] His type pieces from a lead-based alloy suited printing purposes so well that the alloy
is still used today.[33] Gutenberg developed specialized techniques for casting and combining cheap
copies of letterpunches in the vast quantities required to print multiple copies of texts. [34] This technical
breakthrough was instrumental in starting the Printing Revolution and printing the world's first book (with
movable type) the Gutenberg Bible.
Computer technology revolutionized typography in the 20th century. Personal computers in the 1980s like
the Macintosh allowed type designers to create types digitally using commercial graphic design software.
Digital technology also enabled designers to create more experimental typefaces, alongside the practical
fonts of traditional typography. Designs for typefaces could be created faster with the new technology, and
for more specific functions.[8] The cost for developing typefaces was drastically lowered, becoming widely
available to the masses. The change has been called the "democratization of type" and has given new
designers more opportunities to enter the field.[35]

Scope[edit]
In contemporary use, the practice and study of typography is very broad, covering all aspects of letter
design and application. These include:

Typesetting and type design

Handwriting and calligraphy

Display typography (described below)

Clothing

Maps[36]

Labels on maps

Vehicle instrument panels

As a component of industrial designtype on household appliances, pens and wristwatches, for

example

As a component in modern poetry (see, for example, the poetry of E. E. Cummings)

Since digitization, typography has spread to a wider ranger of applications, appearing on web
pages, LCD mobile phone screens, and hand-held video games.
Traditional typography follows four principles: repetition, contrast, proximity,[disambiguation needed] and alignment.
[citation needed]

Text typography[edit]

Caslon, William, Roman typefaces(specimen).

In traditional typography, text is composed to create a readable, coherent, and visually satisfying whole
that works invisibly, without the awareness of the reader. Even distribution of typeset material, with a
minimum of distractions and anomalies, is aimed at producing clarity and transparency.
Choice of typeface(s) is the primary aspect of text typographyprose fiction, non-fiction, editorial,
educational, religious, scientific, spiritual and commercial writing all have differing characteristics and
requirements of appropriate typefaces and fonts. For historic material established text typefaces are
frequently chosen according to a scheme of historical genreacquired by a long process of accretion, with
considerable overlap between historical periods.
Contemporary books are more likely to be set with state-of-the-art seriffed "text romans" or "book romans"
with design values echoing present-day design arts, which are closely based on traditional models such
as those of Nicolas Jenson, Francesco Griffo (a punchcutter who created the model for Aldine typefaces),
and Claude Garamond. With their more specialized requirements, newspapers and magazines rely on
compact, tightly fitted seriffed text fonts specially designed for the task, which offer maximum flexibility,
readability and efficient use of page space. Sans serif text fonts are often used for introductory
paragraphs, incidental text and whole short articles. A current fashion is to pair sans-serif type for
headings with a high-performance seriffed font of matching style for the text of an article.
Typography is modulated by orthography and linguistics, word structures, word
frequencies, morphology, phonetic constructs and linguistic syntax. Typography is also subject to specific
cultural conventions. For example, in French it is customary to insert a non-breaking space before
a colon (:) or semicolon (;) in a sentence, while in English it is not.

Color[edit]
Main article: Type color
In typography, color is the overall density of the ink on the page, determined mainly by the typeface, but
also by the word spacing,leading and depth of the margins.[37] Text layout, tone or color of the set text, and
the interplay of text with the white space of the page in combination with other graphic elements impart a
"feel" or "resonance" to the subject matter. With printed media typographers are also concerned with
binding margins, paper selection and printing methods when determining the correct color of the page.

Readability and legibility[edit]

This section may need to be rewritten entirely to comply with
Wikipedia's quality standards. You can help. The discussion page may contain
suggestions. (November 2012)
Legibility is primarily the concern of the typeface designer, to ensure that each individual character or
glyph is unambiguous and distinguishable from all other characters in the font. Legibility is also in part the
concern of the typographer to select a typeface with appropriate clarity of design for the intended use at
the intended size. An example of a well-known design, Brush Script, contains a number of illegible letters,
since many of the characters can be easily misread especially if seen out of textual context.

Readability is primarily the concern of the typographer or information designer. It is the intended result of
the complete process of presentation of textual material in order to communicate meaning as
unambiguously as possible. A reader should be assisted in navigating around the information with ease,
by optimal inter-letter, inter-word and particularly inter-line spacing, coupled with appropriate line length
and position on the page, careful editorial chunking and choice of the text architecture of titles, folios,
and reference links.

Text typeset in Iowan Old Style roman, italics and small caps, optimized at approximately 10 words per line, typeface sized
at 14points on 1.4 leading, with 0.2points extra tracking. Extract of an essay by Oscar Wilde The English Renaissance of
Art c.1882.

The two concepts are distinguished by Walter Tracy in Letters of Credit: these two aspects of a type are
fundamental to its effectiveness. Because the common meaning of legible is readable there are
those even some professionally involved in typography who think that the term legibility is all that is
needed in any discussion on the effectiveness of types. However, legibility and readability are separate,
though connected aspects of type. Properly understood the two terms can help to describe the
character and function of type more precisely than legibility alone. In typography we need to draw the
definition of legibility to mean the quality of being decipherable and recognisable so that we can
say, for example, that the lowercaseh in a particular old style italic is not legible in small sizes because its
in-turned leg makes it look like the letter b; or a figure 3 in a classified advertisement is too similar to the
8. In display sizes, legibility ceases to be a serious matter; a character that causes uncertainty at
8 point size is plain enough at 24 point.[38]
Note that the above applies to people with 20/20 vision at appropriate reading distance and under optimal
lighting. The analogy of an opticians chart, testing for visual acuity and independent of meaning, is useful
to indicate the scope of the concept of legibility.

In typography if the columns of a newspaper or magazine or the pages of a book can be read for many
minutes at a time without strain or difficulty, then we can say the type has good readability. The term
describes the quality of visual comfort an important requirement in the comprehension of long stretches
of text but, paradoxically, not so important in such things as telephone directories or air-line time-tables,
where the reader is not reading continuously but searching for a single item of information. The difference
in the two aspects of visual effectiveness is illustrated by the familiar argument on the suitability of sansserif types for text setting. The characters in a particular sans-serif face may be perfectly legible in
themselves, but no one would think of setting a popular novel in it because its readability is low. [39]
Legibility refers to perception and readability refers to comprehension. [39] Typographers aim to achieve
excellence in both.
"The typeface chosen should be legible. That is, it should be read without effort. Sometimes legibility is
simply a matter of type size; more often, however, it is a matter of typeface design. In general, typefaces
that are true to the basic letterforms are more legible than typefaces that have been condensed,
expanded, embellished, or abstracted.
However, even a legible typeface can become unreadable through poor setting and placement, just as a
less legible typeface can be made more readable through good design. [40]
Studies of both legibility and readability have examined a wide range of factors including type size and
type design. For example, comparing serif vs. sans-serif type, roman type vs. oblique type and italic
type, line length, line spacing, color contrast, the design of right-hand edge (for example, justification,
straight right hand edge) vs. ranged left, and whether text is hyphenated.
Legibility research has been published since the late nineteenth century. Although there are often
commonalities and agreement on many topics, others often create poignant areas of conflict and variation
of opinion. For example, no one has provided a conclusive answer as to which font, serifed or sans serif,
provides the most legibility according to Alex Poole.[41]
Other topics such as justified vs unjustified type, use of hyphens, and proper fonts for people with reading
difficulties such as dyslexia, have continued to be subjects of debate. Websites such as Hgrebdes, [42] Ban
Comic Sans,[43] UK National Literacy Trust,[44] and Mark Simsonson Studio[45] have raised debating
opinions on the above subjects and many more each presenting a thorough and well-organized position.
Legibility is usually measured through speed of reading, with comprehension scores used to check for
effectiveness (that is, not a rushed or careless read). For example, Miles Tinker, who published numerous
studies from the 1930s to the 1960s, used a speed of reading test that required participants to spot
incongruous words as an effectiveness filter.
The Readability of Print Unit at the Royal College of Art under Professor Herbert Spencer with Brian Coe
and Linda Reynolds[46] did important work in this area and was one of the centres that revealed the
importance of the saccadic rhythm of eye movement for readabilityin particular, the ability to take in
(i.e., recognise the meaning of groups of) around three words at once and the physiognomy of the eye,
which means the eye tires if the line required more than 3 or 4 of these saccadic jumps. More than this is
found to introduce strain and errors in reading (e.g. Doubling).

These days, legibility research tends to be limited to critical issues, or the testing of specific design
solutions (for example, when new typefaces are developed). Examples of critical issues
include typefaces for people with visual impairment, and typefaces for highway signs, or for other
conditions where legibility may make a key difference.
Much of the legibility research literature is somewhat atheoreticalvarious factors were tested individually
or in combination (inevitably so, as the different factors are interdependent), but many tests were carried
out in the absence of a model of reading or visual perception. Some typographers believe that the overall
word shape (Bouma) is very important in readability, and that the theory of parallel letterwise recognition
is either wrong, less important, or not the entire picture.
Studies distinguishing between Bouma recognition and parallel letterwise recognition with regard to how
people actually recognize words when they read, have favored parallel letterwise recognition, which is
widely accepted by cognitive psychologists.[citation needed]
Some commonly agreed findings of legibility research include: [citation needed]

Text set in lower case is more legible than text set all in upper case (capitals), presumably
because lower case letter structures and word shapes are more distinctive.
Extenders (ascenders, descenders and other projecting parts) increase salience (prominence).

Regular upright type (roman type) is found to be more legible than italic type.

Contrast, without dazzling brightness, has also been found to be important, with black on
yellow/cream being most effective.

Positive images (e.g. black on white) are easier to read than negative or reversed (e.g. white on
black). However even this commonly accepted practice has some exceptions, for example in some
cases of disability.[44]

The upper portions of letters play a stronger part than the lower portions in the recognition
process.

Text typeset using LaTeX digital typesetting software

Readability can also be compromised by letter-spacing, word spacing, or leading that is too tight or too
loose. It can be improved when generous vertical space separates lines of text, making it easier for the

eye to distinguish one line from the next, or previous line. Poorly designed fonts and those that are too
tightly or loosely fitted can also result in poor legibility.
Typography is an element of all printed material. Periodical publications,
especiallynewspapers and magazines, use typographical elements to achieve an attractive, distinctive
appearance, to aid readers in navigating the publication, and in some cases for dramatic effect. By
formulating a style guide, a periodical standardizes on a relatively small collection of typefaces, each used
for specific elements within the publication, and makes consistent use of type sizes, italic, boldface, large
and small capital letters, colors, and other typographic features. Some publications, such as The
Guardian and The Economist, go so far as to commission a type designer to create bespoke (custom
tailored) typefaces for their exclusive use.
Different periodical publications design their publications, including their typography, to achieve a
particular tone or style. For example,USA Today uses a bold, colorful, and comparatively modern style
through their use of a variety of typefaces and colors; type sizes vary widely, and the newspaper's name
is placed on a colored background. In contrast, The New York Times uses a more traditional approach,
with fewer colors, less typeface variation, and more columns.
Especially on the front page of newspapers and on magazine covers, headlines are often set in larger
display typefaces to attract attention, and are placed near the masthead.

Evolution of typography[edit]
The design of typography has developed alongside the development of typesetting systems.[47]

Experimental typography[edit]
Experimental typography is defined as the unconventional and more artistic approach to setting
type. Francis Picabia was a Dadapioneer in the early 20th Century. David Carson is often associated with
this movement, particularly for his work in Ray Gun magazine in the 1990s. His work caused an uproar in
the design community due to his abandonment of standards in typesetting practices, layout, and design.
Experimental typography places emphasis on communicating emotion, rather than on legibility.

Display typography[edit]

19th century wanted poster for John Wilkes Booth (the assassin of U.S. PresidentAbraham Lincoln) printed with lead and
woodcut type, and incorporating photography.

Display typography is a potent element in graphic design, where there is less concern for readability and
more potential for using type in an artistic manner. Type is combined withnegative space, graphic
elements and pictures, forming relationships and dialog between words and images.
Color and size of type elements are much more prevalent than in text typography. Most display
typography exploits type at larger sizes, where the details of letter design are magnified. Color is used for
its emotional effect in conveying the tone and nature of subject matter.
Display typography encompasses:

Book covers

Typographic logos and wordmarks

Packaging and labeling

Graffiti

Inscriptional and architectural lettering

Poster design and other large scale lettering signage such as signage and billboards

Business communications and advertising

Kinetic typography in motion pictures and television, vending machine displays, online,
and computer screen displays

Advertising[edit]
Typography has long been a vital part of promotional material and advertising. Designers often use
typography to set a theme and mood in an advertisement; for example using bold, large text to convey a
particular message to the reader.[48] Type is often used to draw attention to a particular advertisement,
combined with efficient use of color, shapes and images. [49] Today, typography in advertising often reflects
a company's brand. Fonts used in advertisements convey different messages to the reader, classical
fonts are for a strong personality, while more modern fonts are for a cleaner, neutral look. Bold fonts are
used for making statements and attracting attention. Digital technology in the 20th and 21st centuries has
enabled the creation of typefaces for advertising that are more experimental than traditional typefaces. [35]

Inscriptional and architectural lettering[edit]

See also: Epigraphy

A print advertisement for theEncyclopdia Britannica from a 1913 issue of National Geographic

The history of inscriptional lettering is intimately tied to the history of writing, the evolution of letterforms
and the craft of the hand. The widespread use of the computer and various etching
and sandblasting techniques today has made the hand carved monument a rarity, and the number
of letter-carvers left in the USA continues to dwindle.
For monumental lettering to be effective it must be considered carefully in its context. Proportions of
letters need to be altered as their size and distance from the viewer increases. An expert letterer gains
understanding of these nuances through much practice and observation of their craft. Letters drawn by
hand and for a specific project have the possibility of being richly specific and profoundly beautiful in the
hand of a master. Each can also take up to an hour to carve, [citation needed] so it is no wonder that the
automated sandblasting process has become the industry standard.
To create a sandblasted letter, a rubber mat is laser cut from a computer file and glued to the stone. The
sand then bites a coarse groove or channel into the exposed surface. Unfortunately, many of the
computer applications that create these files and interface with the laser cutter do not have many

typefaces available, and often have inferior versions of typefaces that are available. [citation needed]What can
now be done in minutes, however, lacks the striking architecture and geometry of the chisel-cut letter that
allows light to play across its distinct interior planes. [citation needed]

See also[edit]

Justification (typesetting)

Kerning

List of type designers

Punctuation

Typeface

Typesetting

Symbols Comprehensive list of typographical symbols