Teachers' theories in

grammar teaching
Simon Borg

Teachers'
theories

In recent years, educational research has revealed the powerful

influence of teachers' theories on their instructional decisions. These
theories often consist of implicit personal understandings of teaching
and learning which teachers develop through educational and professional experiences in their lives. With specific reference to ELT, insight
into teachers' theories has been provided by studies such as Burns
(1992), who focused on the teaching of writing, and Woods (1996), who
examined teachers' planning processes. This research, too, has revealed
strong links between teachers' theories and their classroom practice.

Theories in
grammar teaching

Teachers' theories are particularly useful in enabling teachers to cope in

instructional contexts which are ill-defined. In ELT, grammar teaching
clearly constitutes such an ill-defined domain: the role of formal
instruction itself has been a perennial area of debate, and more than
20 years of research have failed to yield firm guidelines for grammar
teaching methodology (see Ellis 1994). The study of how teachers make
sense of the many uncertainties that surround grammar teaching is thus
fruitful terrain for examining the nature of teachers' theories in ELT.

A study

I recently conducted such a study with five teachers of English as a

foreign language in Malta, whom I observed teaching, and interviewed
about the grammar teaching practices in their lessons. Given the
practical orientation of teachers' theories, these five teachers were
encouraged to make explicit the theories underlying their work by
commenting on specific instructional events in their lessons, for example,
rather than byfillingout a questionnaire, or talking about their theories
without any reference to their actual practices.
This study provides the basis of the remainder of this paper. I will first
outline and discuss two teachers' understandings of two respective issues
in formal instruction. On the basis of these examples, which illustrate the
nature of teachers' theories in grammar teaching, I then consider the
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This paper considers how research into teachers' theories in English language teaching (ELT) can enhance our understanding of instruction, and
provide the basis of effective teacher development (TD) work. The nature
of teachers' theories is illustrated with examples from classroom research
on grammar teaching. A TD strategy through which teachers examine the
theories underlying their own work in teaching grammar is also outlined,
together with materials to assist teachers in implementing this strategy.

implications of such theories for research and TD in ELT. In the final

part of the paper I outline a TD strategy through which teachers can
research the theories underlying their own grammar teaching practices.
The role of formal
instruction

I'm not entirely convinced that any focus on accuracy in the classroom
has any effect on students' fluency in general. I'm trying not to
exclude the possibility, perhaps the probability, that formal language
focus at some point gets transferred into language which is acquired
by the student ... I don't necessarily believe that it's going to help
them. I've done this present perfect umpteen times with a million
people. I still believe that nothing I've ever done in a classroom
consciously with students, language focus, has actually helped them to"
acquire the present perfect, for example.
Despite Eric's views here, grammar work was an intrinsic aspect of his
teaching, and through our discussions of his work, he articulated a clear
rationale for his position. This can be summarized as follows:
Students expect grammar work. Formal instruction addresses these
expectations, and eases the concerns students would develop in the
absence of such work.
Grammar work based on the errors students make during fluency
activities validates such activities in the students' eyes, and encourages
initially reluctant students to accept these activities more enthusiastically.
Students like to be made aware of their errors. Grammar teaching
creates this awareness, which also improves students' ability to
monitor and self-correct their use of language.
Grammar work allows for variation in lesson pace and, within the
context of high-energy, interactive learning, provides students with
some quiet, reflective time.
An awareness of patterns in English grammar facilitates students'
understanding of the way the language works.
Making students aware of parallels and contrasts between English
grammar and that of their first language often allows them to
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The first issue in teaching grammar I want to consider here concerns the
role which such work actually plays in second and foreign language
learning. Eric's 1 work provides insight into teachers' theories about this
issue. In his work with intermediate learners, he included opportunities
for formal instruction in every lesson. His dominant strategy was to take
note of students' errors during oral fluency activities, and to feed these
notes back to the class for subsequent analysis, discussion, and selfcorrection. In discussing grammar, he also encouraged students to
compare English grammar with that of their first language. 2 He generally
provided oral practice activities following the analysis of grammar. In
investigating the personal theories underlying these practices, I asked
Eric what contribution he felt formal instruction made to his work:

understand the grammar under study more rapidly. It also makes

students aware of the source of foreign language errors caused by first
language interference.
Grammar practice consolidates students' understanding of grammar
and provides the teacher with diagnostic information about their needs.

Discovery and A second issue in formal instruction that has attracted much research is
exposition whether grammar is best learnt through a process of discovery, or
whether expository teaching provides better results (e.g. Shaffer 1989).
Tina's work provides insight into a teacher's perspective on this issue. In
teaching advanced students, she utilized grammar discovery activities
from Hall and Shepheard (1991); however, she also delivered mini
lectures on aspects of grammar such as the syntax of multi-word verbs.
In our discussions of her work, she identified a number of reasons for
this pedagogical variability. These are summarized in Figure 1 below.
Figure 1: Discovery and
exposition in teaching
grammar

Own learning style

Tina finds discovery
work personally
rewarding.

Formal training
Promoted inductive methods
in both content and process.

Learning
Discovery work is more
effective than expository
teaching.

Language learning
Not all grammar
warrants and/or is
amenable to discovery
work.

Classroom
practice
Discovery
and
exposition

Students
Expect expository formal
instruction, and resent
absence of such work.

Contextual factors
Discovery work is timeconsuming.
Planning time is limited.

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Traditionally, the role of formal instruction in ELT has been assessed in

terms of the contribution it makes to developing students' ability to use
the language for communication. Eric's theory, however, illustrates that
teachers' decisions in grammar teaching are not solely influenced by
such considerations. He believed that analysing and practising grammar
helped students make better sense of the workings of the language, but
did not feel such work improved their ability to use the target grammar.
Rather, grammar work for Eric mainly fulfilled what he called a
'packaging' function: it showed students that he was aware of their
expectations and concerns, and hence created positive attitudes in them
towards all aspects of his teaching.

From her experiences as a learner, as well as from her professional

training, Tina believed that learning by discovery work was more
effective than learning by being told. However, she also felt that
students expected some expository work, and that not all grammar lent
itself to or warranted the time and effort involved in discovery. Thus,
she approached the present perfect simple through discovery, but gave
a mini lecture on the syntactic properties of multi-word verbs. She
explained how these different grammar areas merited different
strategies as follows:

In addition, Tina's decision to opt for expository work was often shaped
by contextual factors: discovery work consumed much valuable classroom time, and she did not always think this was justified, especially in
the students' eyes. Discovery work also called for more planning on her
part, for which time was not always available.
Tina's decisions about discovery and exposition in grammar teaching
were thus influenced by a set of interacting thoughts about pedagogical
ideals, instructional content, students, and context. Insight into these
factors greatly clarifies our understanding of this teacher's work. In
particular, it enables us to make sense of the presence in her teaching of
what had traditionally been mutually exclusive instructional strategies.
Grammar teaching emerges clearly here as a complex decision-making
process, rather than the unthinking application of a best method.
Implications

The examples I have discussed here illustrate only two of a range of

problematic questions teachers must deal with in teaching grammar.
However, these examples clearly indicate that an awareness of teachers'
theories can enhance our understanding of the nature of formal
instruction. This has two implications, for research and TD in ELT
respectively:
1 The psychological bases of grammar teaching merit further research.
Despite the recent growth of studies of teachers' theories in ELT,
formal instruction has received little attention (see, however, Borg
1998, Mitchell, Brumfit, and Hooper 1994). Data about teachers'
practices and theories are needed, particularly by teacher educators,
who at present typically introduce trainees to pedagogical options in
grammar teaching without being able to illustrate when, how, and
why teachers in real classrooms draw upon these options. Research
into teachers' theories addresses this problem by providing teacher

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... the use of the present perfect, where a fairly complex thinking and
selection procedure is involved. The ideas are quite difficult to grasp
and lend themselves well to discovery activities. 'Is this the present
perfect or past simple?' is a choice students are going to have to make
fairly often, whereas 'What type of phrasal verb is this?' isn't so
important. They [multi-word verbs] were very simple, I thought, and I
thought that it would have been a complete waste of time to have
done it in any other way.

educators with detailed 'authentic' accounts of teacher thinking and

action.
2 A second implication here is that given the impact of teachers'
theories on their work, as well as contemporary concerns with the
role of reflection in TD, becoming aware of their personal theories is
clearly central to teachers' growth as professionals. Teachers can
thus benefit from TD initiatives that stimulate this process of
awareness-raising, and in the rest of this paper I outline such an
initiative, with specific reference to grammar teaching.
The strategy I describe here consists of three stages: (a) describing
classroom practices, (b) making explicit the rationales for these
practices, and (c) evaluating these rationales. Teachers may work
through these stages individually or they may engage in co-operative TD
work in which colleagues support each other in the investigative
processes I describe here.

Describing
classroom practice

Teachers wishing to explore their personal theories in grammar teaching

must start by obtaining descriptive data about their work. The options
available to teachers for doing so are. well-documented (e.g. Richards
and Lockhart 1994) and I need not repeat them here; I simply want to
stress that teachers' theories, as a form of practical knowledge, cannot be
examined without reference to what actually goes on in the classroom.
However, familiarity with their own practices, and the proceduralized
nature of much professional behaviour may impair teachers' ability to
discern anything noteworthy in these descriptions of their work. In such
cases, teachers' reflective efforts can be enhanced by an awareness of the
kinds of questions they might apply to their data. A list of such questions
is presented in Appendix 1.
There are two points to make regarding the use of this schedule:
1 I became aware of and explored these questions through my work
with five teachers over some 75 hours of observations and 15 hours
of interviews. Individual teachers, then, should not expect to
investigate all of these issues on the basis of one or two grammar
lessons. Rather, they should, through recurrent phases of data
collection and analysis, focus on those issues that are of interest and/
or relevance to their teaching situation.
2 An obvious point, but one worth restating, is that in answering these
questions teachers must distinguish between their actual practices
and what they believe they do. David, another teacher in my study,
was adamant that he never used students' first language; it was only
when I gave him transcripts of his lessons that he realized how often
he actually did. Thus it is vital that teachers' focus here be on
establishing, with factual support, their actions in teaching grammar.

Identifying a
rationale

When teachers have described what they do during formal instruction,

they need to consider the rationale for their practices. The basic
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Exploring
teachers' theories

question here is why? Why do my grammar lessons always follow the

same format? Why do I regularly tell students not to worry about their
grammar errors? Why did I provide plenty of practice in one lesson, but
very little in another? Such questions encourage teachers to consider the
influence on their decisions in grammar work of a wide range of factors.
To assist teachers in examining these factors, I present the task in
Appendix 2. Both the sample reasons and the list of underlying
influences identified here are taken from my study.

Evaluating theories

Thefinalstage in the TD strategy I am outlining here is the evaluation of

teachers' theories. Appendix 3 aims to clarify the nature of this
challenging task for teachers in two ways: (a) it reassures them that their
goal is not to establish whether their theories are right or wrong (we lack
the indisputable knowledge of language learning which would permit
such judgements, anyway); and (b) it outlines, with specific reference to
grammar teaching, the kinds of evaluative questions teachers may apply
to the thinking behind their work. Using examples from my study, I will
briefly illustrate how such questions can facilitate teachers' evaluations
of their work.
Have I articulated clear reasons for my instructional decisions?

Martha, who regularly assigned controlled grammar practice, was

unable to explicate her reasons for doing so beyond saying that it is
'better to have some kind of practice than no practice at all'. Her reasons
for conducting such practice, therefore, were not well-developed. In
evaluating their personal theories, teachers can benefit by identifying
aspects of their thinking which reflect this kind of uncertainty or
vagueness, and make them the focus of further TD work.
Are there any inconsistencies in the views I have articulated?
Teachers should examine their views for evidence of inconsistency (e.g.
contradictory beliefs) and, where this is found, seek to probe the issues
involved in order to reach a deeper, more coherent understanding of
their position. Tina's beliefs in the value of both discovery and
expository learning, for example, presented an initially paradoxical
position that only m a d e sense in the light of a deeper analysis of the
range of factors which influenced her thinking. Instances of seemingly
irreconcilable contradictions which teachers identify in their views will
provide a particularly important focus for further reflection.
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The task aims to facilitate teachers' reflections in two ways: (a) it

provides examples of the kinds of statements about their work teachers
should be aiming to develop, and (b) it highlights a range of assumptions
and perceptions which underlie the reasons teachers give for their
decisions in teaching grammar. An awareness of these potential, often
tacit, influences on their thinking and teaching may thus enable teachers
to account more effectively for their own practices. Teachers may extend
this task by constructing schematic representations, such as the one I
presented in Figure 1, which illustrate the way their decisions in teaching
grammar are interactively shaped by different underlying influences.

Are there alternative positions I can consider?

Effective reflection also calls for the open-minded consideration of ideas
that are not part of our current thinking. Therefore, in evaluating their
theories, teachers should consider why these do not allow for certain
instructional options. Hanna, for example, hardly ever volunteered
grammatical terminology in her work; written grammar practice also
figured minimally in the classes given by all five teachers. Teachers who
examine what they do not do may come to expand their current
instructional repertoire by incorporating strategies they had previously
dismissed, perhaps without sufficient consideration. Considering alternatives in this way can also be beneficial when teachers feel that
contextual factors beyond their control (e.g. prescribed coursebooks)
preclude them from teaching in a manner they would prefer. In such
cases, the evaluation of their theories calls on teachers to (a) honestly
examine whether this perceived impact is as inevitable as it appears to
be, and (b) to consider instructional adjustments, no matter how slight,
which will allow them to teach in a manner more in tune with their
pedagogical ideals.
Conclusion

Although illustrated with specific reference to grammar teaching, the

ideas I have presented here are relevant to our field in general.
Continued research on teachers' theories can enrich our understandings
of all aspects of ELT. In addition, TD work informed by such research
can enable teachers to explore their own theories, and to examine the
many experiential, psychological, and contextual factors which shape
their practices. TD initiatives such as these, grounded in the study of
actual classroom practices, are likely to be particularly sensitive to
teachers' needs, credible in teachers' eyes, and effective in encouraging
teachers to reflect on their work. Relating research and TD in this
manner also clearly forges stronger links between these two facets of
ELT.
Received June 1998

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What influences have promoted the development of these views?

Eric had initially been trained never to use grammatical terminology.
However, as a result of further professional education and classroom
experience he had radically changed his views on this issue. Examining
the sources of their theories adds to teachers' awareness of their
professional development, and may also indicate key episodes in thenpast which influencesometimes negativelytheir current practices.
My work with David illustrates this point: he kept grammar work to a
minimum mainly to avoid the recurrence of a traumatic situation early in
his career, where one of his students had asked him a grammar question
he was unable to answer. Bringing this factor out into the open
encouraged David to consider ways of improving his own knowledge of
grammar, and hence his confidence in teaching it.

Notes
1 Pseudonyms are used throughout here. As
always, my thanks to the teachers who
participated in this study.
2 All the teachers in this study worked with
students from Western European countries.
3 Starting from 'Language is a ... make sense of
and moving clockwise, the corresponding
assumptions/perceptions here are d, c, a, b, g,
f, e, i, and h.

Mitchell, R., C. Brumfit, and J. Hooper. 1994.

'Perceptions of language and language learning
in English and foreign language classrooms' in
M. Hughes (ed.).
Richards, J. C. and C. Lockhart. 1994. Reflective
Teaching in Second Language Classrooms.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Shaffer, C. 1989. 'A comparison of inductive and
deductive approaches to teaching foreign languages'. The Modern Language Journal 73/4:

References
Borg, S. 1998. 'Teachers' pedagogical systems and
grammar teaching: A qualitative study'. TESOL
Quarterly 32/1: 9-38.
Burns, A. 1992. 'Teacher beliefs and their
influence on classroom practice'. Prospect 7/3:
56-66.
Ellis, R. 1994. The Study of Second Language
Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Hall, N. and J. Shepheard. 1991. The AntiGrammar Grammar Book. London: Longman.
Hughes, M. (ed.). 1994 Perceptions of Teaching
and Learning. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

Woods, D. 1996. Teacher Cognition in Language

Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.

395^03.

Simon Borg

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164

The author
Simon Borg is a lecturer in TESOL at the School
of Education, University of Leeds. He has also
worked as an EFL teacher, and teacher educator
in Malta, and New Zealand. His current research
interests are teacher cognition, grammar teaching,
and the relationship between research and teacher
education in ELT.
E-mail:<[email protected]>

Appendix 1

Step 1
How do you teach grammar?
The following questions are based on a study of the decisions
teachers make in teaching grammar. These questions may help you
to think about the decisions you make, and enable you to describe
more effectively your own approach to grammar work.
Content
What language points do I focus on in grammar work?
How much time do I dedicate to grammar teaching?

Lesson structure
Do I sequence grammar teaching activities in any particular
way(s)?
Within the context of a whole lesson, at what stage(s) does
grammar work occur?
Strategies
Do I tell students we are doing grammar work, or do I keep it
implicit?
To what extent do I explain grammar? How? When?
Do I refer to the students' first language in teaching grammar?
To what extent do I encourage students to discover things for
themselves? How?
Do I encourage students to become aware of grammar rules?
How? When?
How much grammatical terminology do I/my materials use in
teaching grammar?
Do I provide students with opportunities to use grammar? How?
When?
Outcomes
Do the students have opportunities to keep a record of the
grammar I cover?
Do I check students' understanding of grammar? How? When?
Questions about grammar
What kinds of questions about grammar do I ask the students?
How do I respond to students' answers to these questions?
Do I encourage students to ask questions about grammar?
How do I respond to such questions?
Grammar errors
How do I deal with students' spoken and written grammatical
errors during accuracy and fluency work?

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Materials
What are the sources of the grammar materials I use?

Appendix 2

Step 2

Why do you teach grammar the way you do?

Here are some reasons teachers actually gave for their decisions in
teaching grammar.
'Language is a chaotic
mass of detail which
grammar enables students
to make sense of.'

'I choose grammar practice

activities which focus on both
the form and the meaning of
the grammar under study.'

'Students often feel comfortable

with, and like to know,
grammatical terminology.This
needs to be respected.'
Reasons for \
decisions in I
grammar /
teaching /
'I'd like to do more
discovery work, but suitable
materials for advanced students
are not readily available.'

'I never interrupt students

when they make errors
because it stops them from
developing their fluency.'

'I avoid written grammar practice

because it's not my job to do
things students can work on
alone, without a teacher.'

'I refrain from spoonfeeding

students because they learn
more from what they discover
for themselves.'

'I generally prefer discovery

work, but when students seem
tired, I'm willing to be a bit
more directive.'

Underlying each of these reasons is a particular assumption about and/

or perception of L2 teaching and learning. These are listed below. Can
you match each one with its corresponding reason?3
Teachers' assumptions about and perceptions of
(a) their role in the classroom
(b) learning in general
(c) their own knowledge about grammar
(d) the nature of language
(e) constraints on their work (e.g. lack of resources)
(f) promoting and hindering language learning
(g) students' moods and level of understanding at any time in the
lesson
(h) grammar teaching activities
(i) students' characteristics (e.g. expectations, preferences)
Now analyse the data you have collected about your work, and consider
the reasons for your approach to grammar. In doing so, examine the
assumptions about and perceptions of teaching and learning that
underlie your views. Use the issues listed here as a starting point.
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'I normally bounce students'

questions about grammar back
to the class, but when I'm unsure
about the answers to these
questions, I tend not to.'

Appendix 3

Step 3
Evaluating your views
Evaluating your reasons for your approach to teaching grammar
does not mean deciding whether these are right or wrong. Rather, it
asks you to consider issues such as the following:
Have I articulated clear reasons for my instructional decisions?
Are there any aspects of my work in teaching grammar I have not
been able to explain well? If so, what can I do to clarify my
understanding of the issue(s) involved?

What influences have promoted the development of my current

views about grammar teaching? Any particular educational or
professional experiences?
Are there alternative positions I can consider? Can I explore the
potential in teaching grammar of instructional strategies which I
currently ignore?

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Are there any inconsistencies in the views I have articulated? If

so, are there any factors influencing my work of which I am not
yet aware, and which I need to examine in more depth?