Power System Analysis

Fundamentals of Power Systems (EEL 3216)



basic models of power apparatus,



simple systems


transformers, synchronous machines, transmission lines

one feeder radial to single load

What more is there?



large interconnected systems



why have large interconnected systems?



multiple loads; multiple generators

reliability; economics

analysis of the large system




flow of power and currents;

control and stability of the system
proper handling of fault conditions; economic operation

Power Systems I

Modern Power Systems

Power Producer


generation station



Transmission Company



HV transmission lines
switching stations



prime mover & generator

step-up transformer

circuit breakers
transformers

Distribution Utility


distribution substations


step-down transformers

MV distribution feeders


distribution transformers

Power Systems I

Network Layout

HV Networks


Large quantities of power

shipped over great distances
Sharing of resources



MV Networks



Local distribution of power

Numerous systems



Improved reliability
Economics of large scale

Economics of simplicity
Autonomous operation

Loads



Industrial & Commercial

Residential

Power Systems I

System Control

Network Protection


Switchgear







instrumentation transformers
circuit breakers
disconnect switches
fuses
lightning arrestors
protective relays

Energy Management
Systems


Energy Control Center




computer control
SCADA - Supervisory Control
And Data Acquisition

Power Systems I

Computer Analysis

Practical power systems





must be safe
reliable
economical

System Analysis





for system planning

for system operations
requires component modeling
types of analysis




transmission line performance

power flow analysis
economic generation
scheduling
fault and stability studies

Power Systems I

Chapter 2
AC Power

FAMU-FSU College of Engineering

Single-Phase Power Consumption

i(t)

v (t ) = Vm cos( t + v )
i (t ) = I m cos( t + i )

p (t ) = v (t ) i (t ) = Vm I m cos( t + v ) cos( t + i )

v(t)

cos A cos B = 12 cos( A B ) + 12 cos( A + B )

p (t ) = 12 Vm I m {cos( v i ) + cos(2 t + v + i )}

= v i Vm = 2 V

Im = 2 I

p (t ) = V I cos {1 + cos 2(t + v )}+ V I sin sin 2(t + v )

energy flow into
the circuit
Power Systems I

energy borrowed and

returned by the circuit

Average Active (Real) Power

p(t ) = V I {1 + cos 2( t + v )}cos + V I sin 2( t + v )sin
1
P=
2

=V I

p(t ) dt

{1 + cos 2( t + )}cos + sin 2( t + )sin dt

v

cos( t ) dt = 0

P = V I cos
pf = cos =
Power Systems I

P
V I

sin ( t ) dt = 0

Apparent Power
P = V I cos
S=V I
p(t ) = V I {1 + cos 2( t + v )}cos + V I sin 2( t + v )sin
pR (t ) = V I {1 + cos 2( t + v )}cos = P {1 + cos 2( t + v )}
p X (t ) = V I sin 2( t + v )sin = S sin sin 2( t + v )

Power Systems I

Reactive Power
p X (t ) = V I sin sin 2(t + v ) = S sin sin 2(t + v )
Q S sin = V I sin

p X (t ) = Q sin 2(t + v )

for a pure resistor




for a purely inductive circuit




the impedance angle is zero, power factor is unity

apparent power and real power are equal
the current lags the voltage by 90, average power is zero
no transformation of energy

for a purely capacitive circuit



the current leads the voltage by 90, average power is zero

Power Systems I

AC Power
Example
the supply voltage is given by v(t) = 480 cos t
the load is inductive with impedance Z = 1.2060
determine the expression for the instantaneous current i(t) and
instantaneous power p(t)
plot v(t), i(t), p(t), pR(t), pX(t) over an interval of 0 to 2




Power Systems I

Complex Power

Real Power, P


Reactive Power, Q


RMS based - thermally equivalent to DC power

Oscillating power into and out of the load because of its reactive
element (L or C).
Positive value for inductive load (lagging pf)

Complex Power, S

V I * = V I ( v i ) = V I = S
S = V I cos + j V I sin = P + jQ
S = P2 + Q2
Power Systems I

Complex Power
V
v

I
i

Leading Power Factor

Lagging Power Factor

Q
S

Power Systems I

The Complex Power Balance

From the conservation of energy



Real power supplied by the source is equal to the sum of the real
powers absorbed by the load and the real losses in the system
Reactive power must also be balanced


The balance is between the sum of leading and the sum of lagging
reactive power producing elements

The total complex power delivered to the loads in parallel is the

sum of the complex powers delivered to each

0 = Pgen Ploads Plosses

0 = Qleading + Qcaps Qlagging Qind
0 = S gen Sloads Slosses
Power Systems I

Complex Power

Example


in the circuit below, find the power absorbed by each load and
the total complex power
find the capacitance of the capacitor to be connected across the
loads to improve the overall power factor to 0.9 lagging

V
1200 V

I1
Z1=60+j0

Power Systems I

I2

I3

Z2=6+j12 Z3=30-j30

Complex Power Flow

Z = R+j X =|Z|

Consider the following circuit



For the assumed direction

of current

V1 = V1 1

V1

I12

V2 = V2 2

V1 1 V2 2 V1
V2
I12 =
=
( 1 )
( 2 )
Z
Z
Z


The complex power

V1

V2
( 2 )
S12 = V1 I = V1 1 ( 1 )
Z
Z

*
12

Power Systems I

V1
V1 V2
=

( + 1 2 )
Z
Z

V2

Complex Power Flow



The real and reactive power at the sending end

2

V1
V1 V2
P12 =
cos
cos( + 1 2 )
Z
Z
2

V1
V1 V2
Q12 =
sin
sin ( + 1 2 )
Z
Z


Transmission lines have small resistance compared to the

reactance. Often, it is assumed R = 0 (Z = X90)

V1 V2
P12 =
sin ( 1 2 )
X

Power Systems I

V1
Q12 =
X

[V

V2 cos( 1 2 ) ]

Complex Power Flow

For a typical power system with small R / X ratio, the

follow observations are made


Small changes in 1 or 2 will have significant effect on the real

power flow
Small changes in voltage magnitude will not have appreciable
effect on the real power flow
Assuming no resistance, the theoretical
V1 V2
maximum power (static transmission
Pmax =
capacity) occurs when the angular
X
difference, , is 90 and is given by:
For maintaining stability, the power system operates with small
load angle
The reactive power flow is determined by the magnitude
difference of the terminal voltages

Power Systems I

Three-Phase Power

Balanced three-phase power




Assumes balanced loads

Assumes voltage and currents with phases that have 120
separation

P3 = 3 V p I p cos = 3 VLL I L cos

Q3 = 3 V p I p sin = 3 VLL I L sin
S3 = 3 V p I p = 3 VLL I L

Power Systems I

Chapter 3
Power Apparatus Modeling

FAMU-FSU College of Engineering

System Modeling

Systems are represented on a per-phase basis



A single-phase representation is used for a balanced system



Symmetrical components are used for unbalanced systems



the system is modeled as one phase of a wye-connected network

unbalance systems may be caused by: generation, network
components, loads, or unusual operating conditions such as faults

The per-unit system of measurements is used

Review of basic network component models






generators
transformers
loads
transmission lines

Power Systems I

Generator Models

Generator may be modeled in three different ways



Power Injection Model - the real, P, and reactive, Q, power of the

generator is specified at the node that the generator is connected


either the voltage or injected current is specified at the connected

node, allowing the other quantity to be determined

Thevenin Model - induced AC voltage, E, behind the synchronous

reactance, Xd
E
Xd Node

Norton Model - injected AC current, IG, in parallel with the

synchronous reactance

IG

Xd
Power Systems I

Node

Transformer Model

Equivalent circuit of a two winding transformer

R1

V1

X1

E1
Rc

Power Systems I

R2

N1 : N2

Xm

E2

X2

V2

Transformer Model

Approximate circuit referred to the primary

REQ1

V1

Rc

Power Systems I

Xm

XEQ1

N1
V2 =
V2
N2

Load Models

Models are selected based on both the type of analysis

and the load characteristics
Constant impedance, Zload


Constant current, Iload



Load is made up of R, L, and C elements connected to a network

node and the ground (or neutral point of the system)
The load has a constant current magnitude I, and a constant
power factor, independent of the nodal voltage
Also considered as a current injection into the network

Constant power, Sload



The load has a constant real, P, and reactive, Q, power

component independent of nodal voltage or current injection
Also considered as a negative power injection into the network

Power Systems I

Per Unit System

Almost all power system analyses are performed in perunits

x
( engr. unit )

x per unit ( pu ) =

engineering ( actual )

xbase ( engr. unit )

x%
=
100

Per unit system for power systems




Based on a per-phase, wye-connect, three-phase system

3-phase power base, S3


Line-to-line voltage base, VLL






common power base is 100 MVA

voltage base is usually selected
from the equipment rated voltage

Phase current base, IL

Phase impedance base, Z

Power Systems I

Z base

I Lbase =

S3 base
3 VLLbase

2
2
(
(
VLLbase )
VLN base )
=
=

S3 base

S1 base

Per Unit System

Equipment impedances are frequently given in per units

or percentages of the impedance base


The impedance base for equipment is derived from the rated

power and the rated voltage
When modeling equipment in a system, the per unit impedance
must be converted so that the equipment and the system are on
a common base

Z old
pu
Z


new
pu

old
Z
Sbase
= old = Z old 2
Z base
(Vbase )

new
base
new 2
base

(V )

(
V )

old 2
base
old
base

new
Z pu

old
pu

=Z

old
pu

new
Z
Sbase
= new = Z new 2
Z base
(Vbase )

S
S

new
base
old
base

V

V

old
base
new
base

It is normal for the voltage bases to be the same: Z

Power Systems I

new
pu

=Z

old
pu

new
Sbase
old
Sbase

Per Unit System

The advantages of the per unit system for analysis




Gives a clear idea of relative magnitudes of various quantities

The per-unit impedance of equipment of the same general type
based upon their own ratings fall in a narrow range regardless of
the rating of equipment.


The per-unit impedance, voltages, and currents of transformers

are the same regardless of whether they are referred to the
primary or the secondary side.



Whereas their impedances in ohms vary greatly with the ratings.

Different voltage levels disappear across the entire system.

The system reduces to a system of simple impedances

The circuit laws are valid in per-unit systems, and the power and
voltages equations are simplified since the factors of 3 and 3
are eliminated in the per-unit system

Power Systems I

Per Unit System

Example



the one-line diagram of a three-phase power system is shown

use a common base of 100 MVA and 22 kV at the generator



draw an impedance diagram with all impedances marked in per-unit

the manufacturers data for each apparatus is given as follows
G:
 T1:
 L1:
 T2:
 T3:
 L2:
 T4:
 M:
 Ld:


Power Systems I

90 MVA
50 MVA
48.4 ohms
40 MVA
40 MVA
65.43 ohms
40 MVA
66.5 MVA
57 MVA

22 kV
22/220 kV

18%
10%

220/11 kV
22/110 kV

6%
6.4%

G
T1
L1

110/11 kV
10.45 kV
10.45 kV

8%
18.5%
0.6 pf lag

T3
L2

T2

T4

Ld

Transmission Lines
l

Overhead Conductor
Overhead Spacer Cable
Underground Cable
Three-Conductor Cable
Service Cables

Power Systems I

Overhead Conductors
l

ACSR
Aluminum Conductor with
inner Steel Reinforced strands
ACAR
Aluminum Conductor with
inner Al allow Reinforced
strands
ACSR/AW
Aluminum Conductor with
inner Alumoweld Steel
Reiforced strands
Aluminum - current carrying
member
Steel - structural support

Power Systems I

Overhead Cable
l

Where conductor close

proximity is required
Insulating jacket
surrounds each conductor
Plastic spacers keep
conductors from coming in
contact with one another

Power Systems I

Cables

Power Systems I

Cables
l

Underground
transmission and
distribution cables
Semiconducting material
surrounds the conductor
to grade the electric field
Plastic jacket provides
insulation and protection
Neutral strands for an
outer shell for protection
and return currents

Power Systems I

Transmission Line Parameters

l

Line resistance
u

dc resistance

ac resistance
n
n

skin effect
at 60 Hz:

l
Rdc =
A
Rac = 1.02 Rdc

= conductor resistivity
l = conductor length
A = conductor crosssectional area

Temperature effects
u

increased resistance at conductor temperature rises

wiring is rated for 65C, 75C, or 90C
T + t new
ambient temperature is 20C

Power Systems I

Rnew = Rold

T + told

TAl = 228C

Review of Magnetics and Inductance

Amperes circuital law

F = H d l = ie

H=

Integral of the scalar

product of a closed path
ie
and the magnetic field
equals the encircled current
Magnetic Flux
Integral of the
flux density that
is normal to a
defined area
Power Systems I

H
A

B=

B = H

A=

= B da
A

Review of Magnetics and Inductance

Flux Linkage
N

= i
i =1

Inductance

L=
I
B da H da

=
=
=
I

Power Systems I

Inductance of a Single Conductor

l

Conditions:
u

infinite straight wire is an approximation of a

reasonably long wire

Assumptions:
u

Image the wire to close at +/- infinity, establishing a

kind of one-turn coil with the return path at infinity
Straight infinitely long wire of radius r
Uniform current density in the wire. Total current is Ix
Flux lines form concentric circles (i.e. H is tangential)
Angular symmetry - it suffices to consider Hx

Power Systems I

Inductance of a Single Conductor

l

General:

2x

dl = I x

Ix
H=
2 x

Case 1: Points inside of the conductor (x < r)

Ix
I
=
r 2 x2

Hx =

0 I
I

=
x
x
B
x
2
2
2 r
2 r

x2
0 I 3
0 I
x dx
xdx dx = 2 d x =
d x = Bx dx =
2
4
2 r
2 r
r

0 I r 3
0 I
x dx =
int = dx =
4
2 r 0
8
0
r

Power Systems I

0
Lint =
= 0.5 10 7
8

Inductance of a Single Conductor

l

Case 2: Points outside of the conductor (x > r)

0 I
I x = I Bx = 0 H x =
2 x
I
I
d x = Bx dx = 0 dx dx = d x = 0 dx
2 x
2 x
D2

ext = dx =
D1

Power Systems I

0 I
2

0 I D2
1
d
x
=
ln
D x
D1
2
1

D2

Lext = 2 10 7 ln

D2
D1

Inductance of a Single-Phase Line

l

conductors of radii r1 and r2, separated by a distance D

L1( ext ) = 2 10 7 ln

D
r1

r1

L1 = L1(int ) + L1( ext ) = 0.5 10 7 + 2 10 7 ln

L1 = 2 10 ln 1 4 + ln D

r1e
r1 = r2
L1 = L2 = L

r2

D
r1

r = re 1 4 = DS

D
D
D

7
7

L = 2 10 ln 1 4 = 2 10 ln = 2 10 ln
re
r
DS
7

Power Systems I

Flux Linkage - Self and Mutual Inductances

From the 2 conductor case:

1 = L11 I1 + L12 I 2
2 = L21 I1 + L22 I 2
L11 = 2 10

1 = L11 I1 L12 I1
I1 = I 2
2 = L21 I 2 + L22 I 2

1
ln L22 = 2 10 7
r1

L12 = L21 = 2 10 7 (ln D ) = 2 10 7

Power Systems I

1
ln
r2
1
ln
D

Total Inductance
General Case:

I1 + I 2 + L + I i + L + I n = 0
n

i = Lii I i + Lij I j

ji

j =1

i = 2 10 7

Power Systems I

1
1
I i ln + I j

r
D
=
1
j
i
ij

ji

Inductance of Three-Phase Lines

l

Symmetrical spacing

Ia

I a + Ib + Ic = 0
1
1
1

a = 2 10 I a ln + I b ln + I c ln
r
D
D

1
1

a = 2 10 7 I a ln I a ln
r
D

D
7
a = 2 10 I a ln
r
D
L = 0.2 ln
DS

Power Systems I

D
D

Ic

Ib

Inductance of Three-Phase Lines

l

Asymmetrical spacing

1
1
1

+ I c ln
a = 2 10 I a ln + I b ln
r
D12
D13

1
1
1

+ I c ln
b = 2 10 7 I a ln + I b ln

r
D21
D23

1
1
1

+ I c ln
c = 2 10 7 I a ln + I b ln
r
D31
D32

= LI

Ia

1
ln
r
1
L = 2 10 7 ln
D21
1

Power Systems I
D31

1
D12
1
ln
r
1
D32

ln

D13
1
ln
D23
1
ln
r
ln

D12
D31
D23

Ic

Ib

Transposition
l

The practice of equilateral arrangement of phases is not

convenient
u

horizontal or vertical configurations are most popular

Symmetry is lost - unbalanced conditions

restore balanced conditions by the method of

transposition of lines
u

Average inductance of each phase will be the same

position
a
1
b
2
c
3
u

a
b

c
a

b
c

c
a

Each phase occupies each position for the same fraction of the
total length of the line

Power Systems I

Review of Electric Fields

Gausss law

q e = D da

Electric field

D=E
Electric field

v12 = vD1 vD2 = E dl

D2

D1

Capacitance

q =Cv
Power Systems I

Gaussian Surface

Infinite Straight Wire

v12 =

D2

D1

v12 (q1) =

q
D2
q
ln
dx =
2 0 x
2 0 D1

q1
D
ln
2 0 r

h
R

q2
r
v21(q 2 ) =
ln
2 0 D
q1
D
q2
r
ln +
ln
v12 = v12(q1) + v21(q 2 ) =
2 0 r 2 0 D
q
D
ln
v12 =
0 r
Power Systems I

Infinite wire
of radius r

q
C=
v
2
C=
D
ln
r

Three-Phase Capacitance
l

Equilateral spacing
a
C
C

C=

Power Systems I

GMD = geometeric mean distance

between conductors
conductor radius
r=

0.0389
GMD
log10
r

per mile per phase

Example
Calculate the resistance, inductive reactance, and capacitive
reactance per phase and rated current carrying capacity for
the overhead line shown. Assume the line operates at 60 Hz

GMD = 3 d12 d 23 d13 = 3 (45.6 ) (88) (45.6 )

44 in

44 in

12 in

= 56.8 in = 4.73 ft
Z a = (0.3263) + j 0.2794

(60) log

60
= 0.326 + j 0.639 / mi

conductor
R: 0.3263 /mile
GMR: 0.0244 ft
Dia.:
0.720 in

r = 12 dia =
C=

1
2

(0.720 in ) 121 = 0.03 ft

0.0389
= 0.177
log10 (4.73 0.03)

X C = 1 (2 60 0.177
Power Systems I

4.73

10
0.0244

)PLSKV

) = 149.9

mi

Conductor Bundling
l

Commonly used to reduce the electric field strength at the

conductor surface
Used on overhead lines above 230 kV
Conductors are connected in parallel
Typical bundled conductor configurations

D14

D13

D13

D12

D12

2 conductors

3 conductors

Power Systems I

D12
4 conductors

Conductor Bundling
l

The use of bundled conductors effects the impedance of

the line, the GMR , the GMD , and the equivalent radius
GMD : the distance between the center of each bundle is
used
GMR :
n

GMR = n GMR D1i

i=2

Equivalent radius
n

r = n r D1i
i=2

Power Systems I

Example
Calculate the resistance, inductive reactance, and capacitive
reactance of the overhead line shown. Assume the line
operates at 60 Hz
20 in
20 in

10 ft

30 ft

Power Systems I

conductor
R: 0.1204 /mile
GMR: 0.0403 ft
Dia.:
1.196 in

Example
R = 14 0.1204 = 0.0301 / mi
GMD = 3 D12 D23 D13 = 3 (31.6 ) (60 )(31.6 ) = 39.15 ft
GMR = 4 (0.0403) (1.67 )(1.414 ) (1.67 ) = 0.7178 ft
Z a = (0.0301) + j 0.2794

(60) log

60
= 0.0301 + j 0.485 / mi

39.15

10
0.7178

(1.196 in ) 121 = 0.0498 ft

r = 4 (0.0498) (1.67 ) (1.414 ) (1.67 ) = 0.7568 ft
r = 12 dia =

1
2

0.0389
C=
= 0.0227
log10 (39.15 0.7568)
X C = 1 (2 60 0.177

Power Systems I

) = 116.85

)PLSKV

mi

Transmission Line Modeling

l

Transmission lines are represented by an equivalent

circuit with parameters on a per-phase basis
u

All lines are made up of distributed series inductance and

resistance, and shunt capacitance and conductance
u

Voltages are expressed as phase-to-neutral

Currents are expressed for one phase
The three phase system is reduced to an equivalent single-phase

Line parameters: R, L, C, & G

Three types of models

u

depend on the length and the voltage level

short, medium, and long length line models

Power Systems I

ABCD Two-Port Network

l

All transmission line models may be described as a twoport network

The ABCD two-port network is the most common
representation
The network is described by the four constants: A, B, C, &
D
Network equations:
u

circuit equations

VS = A VR + B I R
I S = C VR + D I R

matrix form

Power Systems I

VS A B VR
I = C D I
R
S

Short Transmission Line Model

l

The short transmission line model may be used when

u

Modeling of the transmission line parameters

u

The line length is less than 50 miles (80 km), or

The line voltage is not over 69 kV
The shunt capacitance and conductance are ignored
The line resistance and reactance are treated as lumped
parameters

Circuit of the short model

RL
VS
Power Systems I

XL
VR

Short Transmission Line Model

l

Circuit analysis of the short line model

IS

IR
Z=R+jL

Gen.
VS

VR

IS = IR
VS = VR + I R ( R + j s L)
= VR + I R Z
Power Systems I

Load

Two-Port Representation
l

Circuit Equations:

VS = VR + Z line I R
IS = IR

Matrix representation:

ABCD values:

VS 1 Z line VR
I = 0 1 I
R
S
A=1
B = Z line
C =0
D = A=1

Power Systems I

Short Transmission Line Example

l

40 km, 220 kV transmission line has per phase

u

R = 0.15 /km

L = 1.3263 mH/km

Find V, S, V.R., and at the sending end of the line for

u

381 MVA load at 0.8 lagging pf at 220 kV

Z = (r + j L ) l = 0.15 + j 2 60 1.3263 10 3 40
Z = 6 + j 20
220,0000
VR =
= 127,0000
3
S R ( 3 ) = 381 cos 1 0.8 = 38136.9 = 304.8 + j 228.6 MVA

Power Systems I

Short Transmission Line Example

IR =

S R* ( 3 )
3 VR*

381 106 36.9

= 1000 36.9 A
=
3 127,0000

VS = VR + Z I R = 127,0000 + (6 + j 20)(1000 36.9)

= 144,3304.93
VS LL = 3 VS = 250 kV

S S (3 ) = 3 VS I S* = 3 (144,3304.93)(1000 36.9)
= 322.8 + j 288.6 = 43341.8 MVA
250 - 220
304.8
100% = 13.6% =
100% = 94.4%
VR% =
220
322.8
Power Systems I

Medium Transmission Line Model

l

The medium transmission line model may be used when

u

Modeling of the transmission line parameters

u

The line length is greater than 50 miles (80 km)

The line length is less than 150 miles (250 km)
Half of the shunt capacitance is considered to be lumped at each
end of the line
The line resistance and reactance are treated as lumped
parameters

RL

Circuit model:

VS
Power Systems I

YC/2

XL

YC/2

VR

Medium Transmission Line Model

l

Circuit analysis of the short line model

IS

IR
Z=R+jL

Gen.
VS

YC

YC

(
)
)V + Z I
= (1 +
= (I + V ) + V
)V + (1 +
= Y (1 +

VR

VS = VR + Z line I R + Y2C VR
Z line YC
2

IS
Power Systems I

YC
2

Z line YC
4

line R

YC
2

Z line YC
2

)I

Load

Two-Port Representation
l

Circuit Equations:

(
)
)V + Z I
= (1 +
= (I + V ) + V
)V + (1 +
= Y (1 +

VS = VR + Z line I R + Y2C VR
Z line YC
2

IS

YC
2

Matrix representation:

ABCD values:

Power Systems I

line R

YC
2

Z line YC
4

VS 1 + Z line2 YC
I =
Z line YC
Y
1
+
S C
4

A = 1+
C = YC 1 +

Z line YC
2
Z line YC
4

Z line YC
2

)I

Z line VR

Z line YC
1 + 2 IR

B = Z line
D = 1 + Zline2 YC

Medium Transmission Line Example

l

130 km, 345 kV transmission line has per phase

u

R = 0.036 /km

L = 0.80 mH/km

C = 0.0112 uF/km

Find V and S at the sending end of the line for

u

270 MVA load at 0.8 lagging pf at 325 kV

Z = (r + j L ) l = 0.036 + j 2 60 0.8 10 3 130

= 4.68 + j 39.2

Y = ( j C ) l = j 2 60 0.0112 10 6 130 = j 0.549 siemens

325,0000
VR =
= 187,6000
3
S R (3 ) = 270 cos 1 0.8 = 27036.9 = 216 + j162 MVA

Power Systems I

Medium Transmission Line Example

IR =

S R* (3 )
3 VR*

270 106 36.9

=
= 480 36.9 A
3 187,6000

0.989 + j 0.001284
4.68 + j 39.2

ABCD =

7
4
3
.
53
10
5
.
46
10
0
.
989
0
.
001284

+
j
j

VS = A VR + B I R = (187,6000)(0.989 + j 0.001284 ) +

(480 36.9)(4.68 + j39.2)

= 199,1604.02

I S = C VR + D I R = (187,6000) 3.53 10 7 + j 5.46 10 4 +

(480 36.9)(0.989 + j 0.001284)

= 421.5 25.58
Power Systems I

Medium Transmission Line Example

VS LL = 3 VS = 345 kV

S S (3 ) = 3 VS I S* = 3 (199,1604.02)(421 25.58)
= 218.9 + j124.2 MVA pf = 0.87
VR ( NL ) VR ( FL )
VS ( FL ) / A VR ( FL )
VR% =
100% =
100%
VR ( FL )
VR ( FL )
=

345 0.989 + j 0.001284 - 325

Power Systems I

325

100% = 7.3%

Long Transmission Line Model

l

The long transmission line model are used when

u

The line length is greater than 150 miles (250 km)

Modeling of the transmission line parameters

u

Accuracy obtained by using distributed parameters

The series impedance per unit length is z
The shunt admittance per unit length is y

Power Systems I

Long Transmission Line Model

IS
VS

z x

I(x + x)
V(x + x)

y x

y x
x

IR

I(x)

VR

V(x)
x

V ( x + x) = V ( x) + z x I ( x)
I ( x + x) = I ( x) + y x V ( x + x)
V ( x + x) V ( x)
I ( x + x) I ( x)
= z I ( x)
= y V ( x + x)
x
x
dV ( x)
dI ( x)
limit as x 0
= z I ( x) limit as x 0
= y V ( x)
dx
dx
Power Systems I

Long Transmission Line Model

IS

IR
I+I

Gen.
VS

V+V

V
x

VR

Load

d 2V ( x)
dI ( x)
d 2 I ( x)
dV ( x)
=z
=y
2
2
dx
dx
dx
dx
d 2V ( x)
d 2 I ( x)
= z ( y V ( x) )
= y ( z I ( x) )
2
2
dx
dx
2

= z y propagation constant
Power Systems I

Long Transmission Line Model

d 2V ( x)
2
V ( x)

=
2
dx
V = A1 e x + A2 e x

= + j = z y =

(r + jL )(g + jC )

1 dV ( x)
I ( x) =
= A1 e x A2 e x = yz A1 e x A2 e x
z dx
z
1
Zc = z y
I ( x) =
A1 e x A2 e x characteristic impedance
Zc

@x=0
Power Systems I

VR + I R Z c
A1 =
2

VR I R Z c
A2 =
2

Long Transmission Line Model

VR + Z c I R x y z VR Z c I R x y z
V ( x) =
e
e
+
2
2
V Z +I
V Z I
I ( x) = R c R e x y z R c R e x y z
2
2
V ( x) =
I ( x) =

ex

yz

1 e
Zc

+ ex
2

x yz

e
2

yz

VR + Z c

x y z

VR +

ex
e

yz

x yz

(
1
I ( x) =
sinh (x y z )V + cosh (x
Z

ex
2
+e
2

Power Systems I

e e
sinh =
2

yz

IR

x y z

)
y z)I

IR

V ( x) = cosh x y z VR + Z c sinh x y z I R
R

Hyperbolic Functions

e + e
cosh =
2

Two-Port Representation
let x l
VS = cosh ( l ) VR + Z c sinh ( l ) I R
1
IS =
sinh ( l ) VR + cosh ( l ) I R
Zc

cosh ( l ) Z c sinh ( l )

ABCD = 1
sinh ( l ) cosh ( l )

Zc

= zy

Power Systems I

Zc =

z
y

Pi-Model of a Long Transmission Line

l

Represent a long transmission line as a pi-model for

circuit analysis
Z
The circuit:

VS

Y/2

Y/2

VR

Find the values for Z and Y

VS = 1 + Z 2Y VR + Z I R

ZY
ZY

I S = Y 1 + 4 VR + 1 + 2 I R

Z = Z c sinh ( l )

Y 1
cosh ( l ) 1 1
l
tanh
= (cosh ( l ) 1) =
=

Z c sinh ( l ) Z c
2 Z
2

Power Systems I

Long Transmission Line Example

l

250 km, 500 kV transmission line has per phase

u

z = 0.045 + j 0.4 /km

Y = j 4. 0 uS/km

Find ABCD for a pi model of the long transmission line

Zc =

0.045 + j 0.4
z
=
= 316.7 - j17.76
6
4 10
y

= zy = (0.045 + j 0.4 )(4 10 6 ) = 7.104 10 5 + j 0.001267

Z = Z c sinh ( l ) = 10.88 + j 98.36
Y 1
l
tanh
=
= j 0.001008
2 Zc
2
Power Systems I

Long Transmission Line Example

Z = 10.88 + j 98.36
Y
= j 0.001008
2

A = D = 1 + Z 2Y = 0.9504 + j 0.0055

B = Z = 10.88 + j 98.36

C = Y 1 + Z 4Y = j 0.00100

Power Systems I

The Bus Admittance Matrix

l

The matrix equation for relating the nodal voltages to the

currents that flow into and out of a network using the
admittance values of circuit branches

Iinj = Ybus Vnode

Ik Vk
Network

Used to form the network model of an interconnected

power system
u

Nodes represent substation bus bars

Branches represent transmission lines and transformers
Injected currents are the flows from generator and loads

Power Systems I

The Bus Admittance Matrix

l

Constructing the Bus Admittance Matrix (or the Y bus

matrix)
u

form the nodal solution based upon Kirchhoffs current law

I k inj = yk 0 Vk + yk 1 (Vk V1 ) + yk 2 (Vk V2 ) + K + ykn (Vk Vn )

u

impedances are converted to admittances

1
1
yij =
=
zij rij + j xij

Power Systems I

Matrix Formation Example

generator 1
z = j1.0

generator 2
z = j0.8
line 12
z = j0.4

1
line 13
z = j0.2

2
line 23
z = j0.2

V2

j1.0

j0.8

j0.4

j0.2

j0.2

3
line 34
z = j0.08

4
Network Diagram
Power Systems I

V1

j0.08
4
Impedance Diagram

Matrix Formation Example

I1

y10= -j1.0

I2

y20= -j1.25
1

2
y12 = -j2.5
y13= -j5 y23= -j5
3
y34 = -j12.5
4

Admittance Diagram
Power Systems I

KCL Equations

I1 = y10V1 + y12 (V1 V2 ) + y13 (V1 V3 )

I 2 = y20V2 + y21 (V2 V1 ) + y23 (V2 V3 )

0 = y31 (V3 V1 ) + y32 (V3 V2 ) + y34 (V3 V4 )

0 = y43 (V4 V3 )

Matrix Formation Example

Rearranging the KCL Equations
I1 = ( y10 + y12 + y13 )V1 y12V2 y13V3

I 2 = y21V1 + ( y20 + y21 + y23 )V2 y23V3

0 = y31V1 y32V2 + ( y31 + y32 + y34 )V3 y34V4

0 = y43V3 + y43V4

Matrix Formation of the Equations

I1 ( y10 + y12 + y13 )
I
y21
2 =
y31
0

0
0
Power Systems I

y12
( y20 + y21 + y23 )
y32
0

y13
y23

( y31 + y32 + y34 )

y43

0 V1
0 V2

y34 V3

y43 V4

Matrix Formation Example

Completed Matrix Equation
Y11 = ( y10 + y12 + y13 ) = j8.50
Y23 = Y32 = y23 = j5.00
Y12 = Y21 = y12 = j 2.50
Y33 = ( y31 + y32 + y34 ) = j 22.50
Y13 = Y31 = y13 = j5.00
Y34 = Y43 = y34 = j12.50
Y22 = ( y20 + y21 + y23 ) = j8.75
Y44 = y34 = j12.50
0 V1
j5.00
I1 j8.50 j 2.50
I j 2.50 j8.75
V
5
.
00
0
j
2 =
2
j5.00 j 22.50
j12.50 V3
0 j5.00

0
0
12
.
50
12
.
50
0
j
j

V4
Power Systems I

Y-Bus Matrix Building Rules

l

Square matrix with dimensions equal to the number of

buses
Convert all network impedances into admittances
n
Diagonal elements:

Yii = yij

ji

j =0

Off-diagonal elements:

Yij = Y ji = yij

Matrix is symmetrical along the leading diagonal

Power Systems I

Example
Line
g1
g2
L1
L2
L3
L4
L5
L6

System Data
Start End X value
1
0
1.00
5
0
1.25
1
2
0.40
1
3
0.50
2
3
0.25
2
5
0.20
3
4
0.125
4
5
0.50

Power Systems I

Tap-Changing Transformers
l

The tap-changing transform gives some control of the

power network by changing the voltages and current
magnitudes and angles by small amounts
u

The flow of real power along a network branch is controlled by

the angular difference of the terminal voltages
The flow of reactive power along a network branch is controlled
by the magnitude difference of the terminal voltages
Real and reactive powers can be adjusted by voltage-regulating
transformers and by phase-shifting transformers

bus i

1:a

bus j
a can be a
complex number

Power Systems I

Modeling of Tap-Changers
u

the off-nominal tap ratio is given as 1:a

the nominal turns-ratio (N1/N2) was addressed with the
conversion of the network to per unit
the transformer is modeled as two elements joined together at a
fictitious bus x

Vi

Ii

yt

Ij

Vx
1:a

basic circuit equations:

Vx = 1a V j
Power Systems I

I i = a* I j

I i = yt (Vi Vx )

Vj

Modeling of Tap-Changers
l

Making substitutions

Vx = 1a V j

I i = yt (Vi 1a V j )

I i = yt (Vi Vx )

I i = a* I j
I j = a1* I i
yt
yt
yt
1
I j = * (Vi a V j ) = * Vi + 2 V j
a
a
a
Power Systems I

YBus Formation of Tap-Changers

l

Matrix formation

yt
I i = {yt }Vi + V j
a
y
yt
I j = * Vi + t2 V j
a
a
I i yt
I = y a *
j t
Power Systems I

yt a Vi
2
yt a V j

Pi-Circuit Model of Tap-Changers

l

Valid for real values of a

Taking the y-bus formation, break the diagonal elements
into two components
u

the off-diagonal element represent the impedance across the two

buses
the remainder form the shunt element
non-tap side

i
(a - 1) yt / a
Power Systems I

yt / a

tap side

j
(1 - a) yt / a2

Power Flow Solution

l

The utility wants to know the voltage profile

u

the nodal voltages for a given load and generation schedule

Types of network buses

u

load bus
n

generator bus
n

known real (P) and reactive (Q) power injections

known real (P) power injection and the voltage magnitude (V)

slack bus (swing bus)

n
n
n

known voltage magnitude (V) and voltage angle ()

must have one generator as the slack bus
takes up the power slack due to losses in the network

Power Systems I

Power Flow Equations

l

KCL

I i = yi 0Vi + yi1 (Vi V1 ) + yi 2 (Vi V2 ) + L + yin (Vi Vn )

= ( yi 0 + yi1 + yi 2 + L + yin )Vi yi1V1 yi 2V2 L yinVn

n

j =0

j =1

= Vi yij yijV j
l

ji

Power Law

Pi + jQi = V I

*
i i

Pi jQi
Ii =
Vi*

n
n
Pi jQi
= Vi yij yijV j
*
Vi
j =1
j =0

Power Systems I

ji

Gauss-Seidel Method
l

A non-linear algebraic equation solver

u

method of successive displacements

iterative steps:
n

take a function and rearrange it into the form x = g(x)

{there are several possible arrangements}
make an an initial estimate of the variable x: x[0] = initial value
find an iterative improvement of x[k], that is: x[k+1] = g( x[k] )
a solution is reached when the difference between two iterations is
less than a specified accuracy: x[k+1] - x[k]

acceleration factors
n
n

can improve the rate of convergence: > 1

modified step: the improvement is found as

x[k+1] = x[k] + ( g( x[k] ) - x[k] )

Power Systems I

Gauss-Seidel Example
l

Find the root of the equation: f(x) = x3 - 6x2 + 9x - 4 = 0

u

Step 1. Cast the equation into the g(x) form.

9 x = x3 + 6x2 + 4
x = 19 x 3 + 69 x 2 + 94 = g ( x )

Power Systems I

Gauss-Seidel Example
u

Step 2. Starting with an initial guess of x[0] = 2, several iterations

are performed.

x[1] = g ( x[ 0 ] = 2) = 19 (2)3 + 96 (2) 2 + 94 = 2.2222

x[ 2 ] = g ( x[1] = 2.2222) = 19 (2.2222)3 + 96 (2.2222) 2 + 94 = 2.5173
x[3] = g ( x[ 2 ] = 2.5173) = 19 (2.5173)3 + 96 (2.5173) 2 + 94 = 2.8966
x[ 4 ] = 3.3376
x[5] = 3.7398
x[ 6 ] = 3.9568
x[ 7 ] = 3.9988
x[8] = 4.0000
Power Systems I

Gauss-Seidel Example
Matlab Results
4.5
3

g(x) =-1/9x +6/9x +4/9

4
3.5
3

Iterations

2.5

x = g(x)

Initial Value

2
1.5
1

Solution Points

0.5
0
0

0.5

1.5

2.5
x

Power Systems I

3.5

4.5

Gauss-Seidel Example
l

Find the root of the equation: f(x) = x3 - 6x2 + 9x - 4 = 0 with

an acceleration factor of 1.25
u

Starting with an initial guess of x[0] = 2.

x[ 0 ] = 2
g (2) = 19 (2) 3 + 69 (2) 2 + 94 = 2.2222
x[1] = 2 + 1.25 [2.2222 2] = 2.2778

g (2.2778) = 19 (2.2778) 3 + 96 (2.2778) 2 + 94 = 2.5902

x[ 2 ] = 2.2778 + 1.25 [2.5902 2.2778] = 2.6683
Power Systems I

Gauss-Seidel Example
u

Additional iterations

x[3] = 3.0801
x[ 4 ] = 3.1831
x[5] = 3.7238
x[ 6 ] = 4.0084
x[ 7 ] = 3.9978
x[8] = 4.0005

Power Systems I

Gauss-Seidel Example
Matlab Results
4.5
3

g(x) = -1/9x +6/9x +4/9

4
3.5
3

Iterations

2.5

x = g(x)

Initial Value

2
1.5
1

Solution Points

0.5
0
0

0.5

1.5

2.5

Power Systems I

with acceleration factor: 1.25

3.5

4.5

Gauss-Seidel for a System of Equations

l

Consider a system of n equations

f1 ( x1 , x2 , L , xn ) = c1

f 2 ( x1 , x2 , L , xn ) = c2
M

f n ( x1 , x2 , L , xn ) = cn
l

Rearrange each equation for one of the variables

x1 = c1 + g1 ( x1 , x2 , L , xn )

x2 = c2 + g 2 ( x1 , x2 , L , xn )
M

xn = cn + g n ( x1 , x2 , L , xn )
Power Systems I

Gauss-Seidel for a System of Equations

l

steps
u

assume an approximate solution for the independent variables

(x[ ], x[ ],L, x[ ] )
0
1

0
n

find the results in a new approximate solution

(x[

k +1]

0
2

, x2[k +1] , L , xn[k +1]

in the Gauss-Seidel method, the updated values of the variables

calculated in the preceding equations are used immediately in
the solution of the subsequent equations

Power Systems I

The Power Flow Equation

l

The equation

Pi + jQi = V I

*
i i

Pi jQi
Ii =
Vi*

n
n
Pi jQi
= Vi yij yijV j
*
Vi
j =1
j =0
l

ji

The Gauss-Siedel form

Vi =

Pi jQi n
+ yijV j
*
Vi
j =1
n

y
j =0

Power Systems I

ij

j i Vi[ k +1] =

Pi jQi n
[k ]
+
y
V

ij j
Vi*[ k ]
j =1
n

y
j =0

ij

ji

Power Injections
l

Rewriting the power equation to find P and Q

n
n

[k +1]
[k ]
[k ]
* [k ]
Pi
= Vi Vi yij yij V j

j =0
j =1

n
n

* [k ]
[k +1]
[k ]
[k ]
Qi = Vi Vi yij yij V j

j =0
j =1

ji
ji

the real and reactive powers are scheduled for the load buses
that is, they remain fixed
the currents and powers are expressed as going into the bus
n
n
n

for generation the powers are positive

for loads the powers are negative
the scheduled power is the sum of the generation and load powers

Power Systems I

Solution by Gauss-Seidel
l

The complete set of equations become:

Vi [k +1] =

Pi [sch ] jQi[sch ] n
[k ]
+
y
V

ij
j
Vi*[k ]
j =1
n

y
j =0

ji

ij

n
n

* [k ]
[k +1]
[k ]
[k ]
= Vi Vi yij yij V j
Pi

j =0
j =1

n
n

* [k ]
[k +1]
[k ]
[k ]
Qi = Vi Vi yij yij V j

j =0
j =1

Power Systems I

ji
ji

Solution by Gauss-Seidel
l

Rewriting the equations in terms of the Y-Bus

n
Pi [sch ] jQi[sch ]
[k ]

Y
V

ij
j
* [k ]
Vi
j =1, j i
[k +1]
=
Vi
Yii

n
* [k ] [k ]
[k +1]
[k ]
= Vi Vi Yii + Yij V j
Pi

j
1
=

j
i

Qi[k +1] = Vi*[k ] Vi [k ]Yii + Yij V j[k ]

j =1

j
i

Power Systems I

Solution by Gauss-Seidel
l

System characteristics
u

Since both components (V & ) are specified for the slack bus,
there are 2(n - 1) equations which must be solved iteratively
For the load buses, the real and reactive powers are known:
scheduled
n
n
n

the voltage magnitude and angle must be estimated

in per unit, the nominal voltage magnitude is 1 pu
the angles are generally close together, so an initial value of 0
degrees is appropriate

Power Systems I

Solution by Gauss-Seidel
u

For the generator buses, the real power and voltage magnitude
are known
n
n

the real power is scheduled

the reactive power is computed based on the estimated voltage
values
the voltage is computed by Gauss-Seidel, only the imaginary part is
kept
the complex voltage is found from the magnitude and the iterative
imaginary part
[ k +1]
i

Power Systems I

= Vi

[ sch ] 2

fi

[ k +1] 2

Vi = ei + j f i

Example
l

Using the Gauss-Seidel method, determine the phasor

values of the voltage at the load buses 2 and 3, accurate
to 2 decimal places
V1 = 1.050

0.02 + j0.04

2.566 pu
1.102 pu

0.0125 + j0.025
1.386 pu
0.01 + j0.03

Power Systems I

0.452 pu

The Power Flow Solution

l

Most common and important tool in power system

analysis
u
u
u

also known as the Load Flow solution

used for planning and controlling a system
assumptions: balanced condition and single phase analysis

Problem:
u
u
u

determine the voltage magnitude and phase angle at each bus

determine the active and reactive power flow in each line
each bus has four state variables:
n
n
n
n

voltage magnitude
voltage phase angle
real power injection
reactive power injection

Power Systems I

The Power Flow Solution

u

Each bus has two of the four state variables defined or given

Types of buses:
u

Slack bus (swing bus)

n
n

Regulated bus (generator bus, P-V bus)

n
n
n

voltage magnitude and angle are specified, reference bus

solution: active and reactive power injections
models generation-station buses
real power and voltage magnitude are specified
solution: reactive power injection and voltage angle

Load bus (P-Q bus)

n
n
n

models load-center buses

active and reactive powers are specified (negative values for loads)
solution: voltage magnitude and angle

Power Systems I

Newton-Raphson PF Solution
l

Quadratic convergence
u

More efficient for large networks

u

mathematically superior to Guass-Seidel method

number of iterations required for solution is independent of
system size

The Newton-Raphson equations are cast in natural power

system form
u

solving for voltage magnitude and angle, given real and reactive
power injections

Power Systems I

Newton-Raphson Method
l

A method of successive approximation using Taylors

expansion
u

Consider the function: f(x) = c, where x is unknown

Let x[0] be an initial estimate, then x[0] is a small deviation from
the correct solution

f x[0 ] + x[ 0] = c
u

Expand the left-hand side into a Taylors series about x[0] yeilds

( )

f x[0]

Power Systems I

df [0 ]
+ x +
dx

d
f [ 0] 2
1
x
+ L =c
2
2
dx

Newton-Raphson Method
u

Assuming the error, x[0], is small, the higher-order terms are

neglected, resulting in

( )

f x
u

[0]

df [0 ]
+ x c
dx

where

( )

c[ 0 ] = c f x[0 ]
u

rearranging the equations

[0]

c
x[ 0] =
df

dx

x[1] = x[0 ] + x[ 0]

Power Systems I

[0]

df [ 0]
x
dx

Example
l

Find the root of the equation: f(x) = x3 - 6x2 + 9x - 4 = 0

Power Systems I

Newton-Raphson Method
50

40

30

20

10
3

f(x) = x -6x +9x-4

0

-10
0

Power Systems I

3
x

Power Flow Equations

l

KCL for current injection

n

j =1

j =1

I i = Yij V j = Yij V j ij + j
l

Real and reactive power injection

Pi j Qi = Vi* I i
l

Substituting for Ii yields:

Pi j Qi = (Vi ) Yij V j ij + j
n

j =1

Power Systems I

Power Flow Equations

l

Divide into real and reactive parts

Pi = Vi V j Yij cos(ij i + j )
n

j =1

Qi =

V
j =1

Power Systems I

V j Yij sin (ij i + j )

Newton-Raphson Formation
l

Cast power equations into iterative form

Pi[ k ] = Vi[ k ] V j[ k ] Yij cos ij i[ k ] + [j k ]

j =1

Qi[ k ] =
l

j =1

Vi[ k ] V j[ k ] Yij sin ij i[ k ] + [j k ]

Matrix function formation of the system of equations

Pinjsch
c = sch

Qinj

Power Systems I

[k ]

[ k ]
= [k ]

( )

f x

[k ]

( )

( )

Pinj x[ k ]
=
[k ]
Q
x

inj

Newton-Raphson Formation
l

General formation of the equation to find a solution

c = f (xsolution )

The iterative equation

x[ 0] = initial estimate of xsolution

[ k + 1]

( )
( )

[k ]

c
f
x
= x[ k ] +
df x[ k ]

dx

The Jacobian - the first derivative of a set of functions

( )

df x[ k ]

dx

Power Systems I

a matrix of all combinatorial pairs

The Jacobian Matrix

df (x )

dx

P
P

V
P
Q = Q
V
Q

P1

P1
1

M
M

P
Pn 1 n1 1

= Q1
Q1 1
M M

Qn m

Qn m

1

Power Systems I

L
O
L
L
O
L

P1
n 1

M
Pn 1
n 1
Q1
n 1

M
Qn m
n 1

P1
V1

M O
Pn 1
V1
Q1
V1

L
L

M O
Qn m
L
V1

M
M

Pn 1
n 1
Vn m

Q1
V1
Vn m
M
M

Qn m
Vn m

Vn m
P1
Vn m

Jacobian Terms
l

Real power w.r.t. the voltage angle

Pi
= Vi V j Yij sin (ij i + j )
i j i

Pi
= Vi V j Yij sin (ij i + j ) i j
j
l

Real power w.r.t. the voltage magnitude

Pi
= 2 Vi Yii cosii +
Vi

V
ji

Yij cos(ij i + j )

Pi
= Vi Yij cos(ij i + j ) i j
V j
Power Systems I

Jacobian Terms
l

Reactive power w.r.t. the voltage angle

Qi
= Vi V j Yij cos(ij i + j )
i
ji

Qi
= Vi V j Yij cos(ij i + j ) i j
j
l

Reactive power w.r.t. the voltage magnitude

Qi
= 2 Vi Yii sin ii +
Vi

V
ji

Yij sin (ij i + j )

Qi
= Vi Yij sin (ij i + j ) i j
V j
Power Systems I

Iteration process
l

Power mismatch or power residuals

u

difference in schedule to calculated power

Pi

= Pi

[k ]

sch

Pi

[k ]

Qi[ k ] = Qisch Qi[ k ]

l

New estimates for the voltages

[ k + 1]
i

= +
[k ]
i

[k ]
i

Vi[ k + 1] = Vi[ k ] + Vi[ k ]

Power Systems I

Bus Type and the Jacobian Formation

l

Slack Bus / Swing Bus

u

one generator bus must be selected and defined as the voltage

and angular reference
n
n
n

Generator Bus
n
n
n

The voltage and angle are known for this bus

The angle is arbitrarily selected as zero degrees
bus is not included in the Jacobian matrix formation
have known terminal voltage and real (actual) power injection
the bus voltage angle and reactive power injection are computed
bus is included in the real power parts of the Jacobian matrix

Load Bus
n
n

have known real and reactive power injections

bus is fully included in the Jacobian matrix

Power Systems I

Newton-Raphson Steps
1. Set flat start
u
u

For load buses, set voltages equal to the slack bus or 1.00
For generator buses, set the angles equal the slack bus or 0

2. Calculate power mismatch

u

u
u

For load buses, calculate P and Q injections using the known and
estimated system voltages
For generator buses, calculate P injections
Obtain the power mismatches, P and Q

3. Form the Jacobian matrix

u

Use the various equations for the partial derivatives w.r.t. the
voltage angles and magnitudes

Power Systems I

Newton-Raphson Steps
4. Find the matrix solution (choose a or b)
u

a. inverse the Jacobian matrix and multiply by the mismatch

power
b. perform gaussian elimination on the Jacobian matrix with the b
vector equal to the mismatch power

compute and V
5. Find new estimates for the voltage magnitude and angle
6. Repeat the process until the mismatch (residuals) are
less than the specified accuracy

Pi[ k ]
Qi[ k ]
Power Systems I

Line Flows and Losses

l

After solving for bus voltages and angles, power flows

and losses on the network branches are calculated
u
u

Transmission lines and transformers are network branches

The direction of positive current flow are defined as follows for a
branch element (demonstrated on a medium length line)
Power flow is defined for each end of the branch
n

Example: the power leaving bus i and flowing to bus j

Bus i

Iij Vi

IL
Ii0
yi0

Power Systems I

Bus j

yij

Vj Iji
Ij0
yj0

Line Flows and Losses

current and power flows:
i j
l

j i

I ij = I L + I i 0 = yij (Vi V j )+ yi 0 Vi

I ji = I L + I j 0 = yij (V j Vi )+ y j 0 V j

Sij = Vi I ij* = Vi 2 ( yij + yi 0 ) Vi yij* V j* S ji = V j I *ji = V j2 ( yij + y j 0 ) V j yij* Vi *

*

power loss:

S Loss ij = Sij + S ji

Bus i

Iij Vi

IL
Ii0
yi0

Power Systems I

Bus j

yij

Vj Iji
Ij0
yj0

Example
l

Using N-R method, find the

phasor voltages at buses 2
and 3
Find the slack bus real
and reactive power
Calculate line flows
j0.02
and line losses
u

100 MVA base

j0.04
j0.025
2

3
138.6 MW
45.2 MVAR

Power Systems I

Slack Bus
V1 = 1.050

256.6 MW
110.2 MVAR

Example
l

Using the Newton-Raphson PF,

find the power flow solution
1
0.01 + j0.03

y12 = 10 j 20 pu
y13 = 10 j 30 pu
y23 = 16 j 32 pu

Power Systems I

0.02 + j0.04
0.0125 + j0.025
2

3
|V3| = 1.04
200 MW

400 + j 250
S =
= 4.0 j 2.5 pu
100
200
P3sch =
= 2.0 pu
100
sch
2

Slack Bus
V1 = 1.050

400 MW
250 MVAR

Example
Ybus

20 j 50 10 + j 20 10 + j 30
= 10 + j 20 26 j52 16 + j 32

10 + j 30 16 + j 32 26 j 62

31.61.89
53.9 1.90 22.4 2.03
= 22.4 2.03 58.1 1.11 35.8 2.03 angles are in radians

35.8 2.03 67.2 1.17

31.61.89

P2 = V2 V1 Y21 cos(21 2 + 1 )+ V2 Y22 cos(22 )+ V2 V3 Y23 cos(23 2 + 3 )

2

P3 = V3 V1 Y31 cos(31 3 + 1 )+ V3 V2 Y32 cos(32 3 + 2 )+ V3 Y33 cos(33 )

2

Q2 = V2 V1 Y21 sin (21 2 + 1 ) V2 Y22 sin (22 ) V2 V3 Y23 sin (23 2 + 3 )

2

Power Systems I

Example
2

x = 3

V2

P2 (2 , 3 ,V2 )

f (x )= P3 (2 , 3 ,V2 )

Q2 (2 , 3 ,V2 )

V 1.05 22.3 cos(2.03 )+ V 2 58.1 cos( 1.11)+ V 1.04 35.8 cos(2.03 + )

21
2
2
2
3
2

2
= V3 1.05 31.6 cos(1.89 3 )+ 1.04 V2 35.8 cos(2.03 3 + 2 )+ 1.04 67.2 cos( 1.17 )

2
(
)
(
)
(
)

V
1
.
05
22
.
3
sin
2
.
03
V
58
.
1
sin
1
.
11
V
1
.
04
35
.
8
sin
2
.
03
2
2
2
2
2
3

P2sch
P2

c = P3 = c f (x )= P3sch

Q2sch

Q2

Power Systems I

P2 (2 , 3 ,V2 ) 4.0

P
(
,
,
V
)
2
.
0
3
2
3
2

2.5
Q2 (2 , 3 ,V2 )

P2 (2 , 3 ,V2 )

P
V
(
,
,
)
3 2 3 2

Q2 (2 , 3 ,V2 )

Example
P2
=
2

j =1, j 2

V j Y2 j sin (2 j 2 + j )

= V2 V1 Y21 sin(21 2 )+ V2 V3 Y23 sin (23 2 + 3 )

= V2 1.05 22.4 sin(2.03 2 )+ V2 1.04 35.8 sin (2.03 2 + 3 )

P2
= V2 V3 Y23 sin(23 2 + 3 )= V2 1.04 35.8 sin(2.03 2 + 3 )
3
P2
= 2 V2 Y22 cos(22 )+
V2

j =1, j 2

Y2 j cos(2 j 2 + j )

= 2 V2 Y22 cos(22 )+ V2 Y21 cos(21 2 + 1 )+ V2 Y23 cos(23 2 + 3 )

= 2 V2 58.1 cos(2.03)+ 1.05 22.4 cos(2.03 2 )
+ 1.04 35.8 cos(2.03 2 + 3 )

Power Systems I

Example
P3
= V3 V2 Y32 sin (32 3 + 2 )= 1.04 V2 35.8 sin (2.03 2 + 3 )
2
P3
=
3

j =1, j 3

V j Y3 j sin (3 j 3 + j )

= V3 V1 Y31 sin (31 3 + 1 )+ V3 V2 Y32 sin (32 3 + 2 )

= 1.04 1.05 31.6 sin (1.89 3 )+ 1.04 V2 35.8 sin (2.03 3 + 2 )

P3
= V3 Y32 cos(32 3 + 2 )= 1.04 35.8 cos(2.03 2 + 3 )
V2

Power Systems I

Example
Q2
=
2

j =1, j 2

V j Y2 j cos(2 j 2 + j )

= V2 V1 Y21 cos(21 2 + 1 )+ V2 V3 Y23 cos(23 2 + 3 )

= V2 1.05 22.4 cos(2.03 2 )+ V2 1.04 35.8 cos(2.03 2 + 3 )

Q2
= V2 V3 Y23 cos(23 2 + 3 )= V2 1.04 35.8 cos(2.03 2 + 3 )
3
Q2
= 2 V2 Y22 sin (22 )
V2

j =1, j 2

Y2 j sin (2 j 2 + j )

= 2 V2 Y22 sin (22 ) V1 Y21 sin (21 2 + 1 ) V3 Y23 sin (23 2 + 3 )

= 2 V2 58.1 sin ( 1.11) 1.05 22.4 sin (2.03 2 )
1.04 35.8 sin (2.03 2 + 3 )

Power Systems I

Example
x [ k + 1] = x [ k ] + J 1 c[ k ]
[ k + 1]

2

= 3
V2

[k ]

2
P2 2 P2 3 P2 V2 P2

= 3 + P3 2 P3 3 P3 V2 P3

V2

Q2

Q2 2 Q2 3 Q2 V2

Power Systems I

[k ]

Newton-Raphson PF Example
P2sch
0.0

x [ 0 ] = 0.0 c[ 0 ] = P3sch

sch

1
.
0
Q

2
x[ 0 ] = J 1c[ 0 ]
x [ 0 ]

x [1]

P2[ 0 ] 4.0
[0]

2
.
0
=
P
3

[0]
Q2

2.5

1.14 2.86
0.562 = 1.438

2.28

0.22

2[ 0 ] 54.28 33.28 24.86 1 2.86 0.04526

[ 0]
= 3 = 33.28 66.04 16.64 1.438 = 0.00772

[
0
]
V2
49.72

0.22

0.02655

27.14 16.64

2[1] 0.0 + ( 0.04526) 0.04526

= 3[1] = 0.0 + ( 0.00772 ) = 0.00772

[
1
]
V2

0.9734

1.0 + ( 0.02655)

Power Systems I

Newton-Raphson PF Example

x [1]

P2sch
0.04526

= 0.00772 c[1] = P3sch

Q2sch

0.9734

P2[1] 4.0
[1]

=
2
.
0
P
3

[1]
Q2

2.5
1

x [1]

51.72 31.77 21.30

= 32.98 65.66 15.38

48.10

28.54 17.40

3.901 0.099
1.978 = 0.0217

2.449

0.051

0.099 0.001795
0.0217 = 0.000985

0.051

0.001767

2[ 2 ] 0.04526 + ( 0.001795) 0.04706

[2]
[2]
x = 3 = 0.00772 + ( 0.000985) = 0.00870

[
2
]
V2

0.9717

0.9734 + ( 0.001767)
Power Systems I

Newton-Raphson PF Example
x [2]

P2sch
0.04706

= 0.00870 c[ 2 ] = P3sch

sch

0
.
9717
Q

P2[1] 4.0
[1]

=
2
.
0
P
3

[1]
Q2

2.5
1

x [ 2 ]

x [ 3]

51.60 31.69 21.14

= 32.93 65.60 15.35

47.95

28.55 17.40

3.999 0.0002
1.999 = 0.00004

2.499

0.0001

0.000216 0.000038
0.000038 = 0.000002

0.000143

0.000004

2[ 3] 0.04706 + ( 0.000038) 0.04706

= 3[ 3] = 0.00870 + ( 0.000002) = 0.008705

[
3
]
V2

0.97168

0.9717 + ( 0.000004)

Power Systems I

Newton-Raphson PF Example
P2sch
0.04706

x [ 3] = 0.008705 c[ 2 ] = P3sch

Q2sch

0.97168

max = 2.5 10 4

P2[1] 4.0
[1]

P
2
.
0
=
3

[1]
Q2

2.5

4.0 0.0000
2.0 = 0.0000

2.5

0.0000

P1 = V1 Y11 cos(11 )+ V1 V2 Y12 cos(12 1 + 2 )+ V1 V3 Y13 cos(13 1 + 3 )

2

Q1 = V1 Y11 sin (11 ) V1 V2 Y12 sin (12 1 + 2 ) V1 V3 Y13 sin (13 1 + 3 )

2

Q3 = V3 V1 Y31 sin (31 3 + 1 ) V3 V2 Y32 sin (32 3 + 2 ) V3 Y33 sin (33 )

2

P1 = 2.1842 pu
Q1 = 1.4085 pu
Q3 = 1.4617 pu
Power Systems I

Fast Decoupled Power Flow

l

Transmission lines and transformers have high X/R ratios

u

Real power change, P

n
n

Reactive power changes, Q

n
n

is less sensitive to changes in the voltage magnitude, |V|

is more sensitive to changes in the phase angle,
is less sensitive to changes in the phase angle ,
is more sensitive to changes in the voltage magnitude, |V|

Jacobian submatrices JQd and JPV tend to be much smaller in

magnitude compared to JPd and JQV

Jacobian submatrices JQd and JPV can be set to zero

P

P
=
J

=
J
0

= P
Q

0
J

Q
=
J

V
=

QV
V V
QV

Power Systems I

Fast Decoupled Power Flow

l

JPV elements

Pi
= Vi Yij cos(ij i + j )
V j
ij 90 i j
Pi
Vi Yij cos(90)= 0.0
V j

JQd elements

Qi
= Vi V j Yij cos(ij i + j )
j
ij 90 i j
Qi
Vi V j Yij cos(90)= 0.0
j

Power Systems I

Fast Decoupled Power Flow

l

The matrix equation is separated into two decoupled

equations
u

requires considerably less time to solve compared to the full

Newton-Raphson method
JPd and JQV submatrices can be further simplified to eliminate the
need for recomputing of the submatrices during each iteration
n
n
n
n

some terms in each element are relatively small and can be

eliminated
the remaining equations consist of constant terms and one variable
term
the one variable term can be moved and coupled with the change in
power variable
the result is a Jacobian matrix with constant term elements

Power Systems I

Jacobian JPd Diagonal Terms

n
Pi
= Vi V j Yij sin (ij i + j )
i j =1
ji

= Vi Yii sin (ii )+

2

VV
j =1

Pi
2
= Vi Yii sin (ii ) Qi
i
Yii sin (ii )= Bii
Vi Vi
2

Power Systems I

Bii > > Qi

Yij sin (ij i + j )

Qi =

VV
j =1

Pi
2
= Vi Bii
i

Pi
= Vi Bii
i

Yij sin (ij i + j )

Jacobian JPd Off-diagonal Terms

Pi
= Vi V j Yij sin (ij i + j )
j
j i 0
Pi
= Vi V j Yij sin (ij )
i

Yij sin (ij )= Bij

Pi
= Vi Bij
i

Power Systems I

V j 1

Jacobian JQV Diagonal Terms

Qi
= 2 Vi Yii sin (ii )
Vi

V
j =1
j i

Yij sin (ij i + j )

n
Qi
1
= Vi Yii sin (ii ) Vi Vi V j Yij sin (ij i + j )
Vi
j =1

Qi
1
= Vi Yii sin (ii )+ Vi Qi
Vi
Yii sin (ii )= Bii

Power Systems I

Bii > > Qi

Qi =

VV
i

j =1

Qi
= Vi Bii
Vi

Yij sin (ij i + j )

Jacobian JQV Off-diagonal Terms

Qi
= Vi Yij sin (ij i + j )
V j
j i 0
Qi
= Vi Yij sin (ij )
V j

Yij sin (ij )= Bij

Qi
= Vi Bij
V j

Power Systems I

Fast Decoupled Power Flow

l

Individual power change equations in JPd and JQV

n

Pi = Vi Bij j

n
Pi
= Bij j
Vi
j =1

n
Qi
= Bij V j
Vi
j =1

j =1
n

Qi = Vi Bij V j
j =1

Matrix equation for JPd and JQV

P
= B

Vi
Q

= B
V
Vi
Power Systems I

P
V

] 1
B
= [

]
B
V = [
V
1

Example
l

Using the fast decoupled PF,

find the power flow solution
1
0.01 + j0.03

y12 = 10 j 20 pu
y13 = 10 j 30 pu
y23 = 16 j 32 pu

Power Systems I

0.02 + j0.04
0.0125 + j0.025
2

3
|V3| = 1.04
200 MW

400 + j 250
S =
= 4.0 j 2.5 pu
100
200
P3sch =
= 2.0 pu
100
sch
2

Slack Bus
V1 = 1.050

400 MW
250 MVAR

Example
52 32
B
=

32
62

0.028182 0.014545
1
[B
] =

0
.
014545
0
.
023636

B
=[
52]

[B
] 1 = [ 0.019231]

Power Systems I

Example
Initial values:

V [ 0]
First iteration:

1.05 0

=
1
.
00

1.00 0

P2sch 4.0
2[ k ]
0.0

x [ k ] = [ k ] x [ 0 ] = 0.0
y = P3sch =
2
.
0
3

[k ]
Q2sch

2
.
5
V

1.0

2
Pinj 2 (x ) Pinj i = Vi V j Yij cos(ij i + j )

j =1
f (x )= Pinj 3 (x )
n
Qinj 2 (x ) Qinj i = Vi V j Yij sin (ij i + j )

j =1

Power Systems I

Example
V2 2 Y22 cos(22 )+ V2 V1 Y21 cos(21 2 + 1 )+ V2 V3 Y23 cos(23 2 + 3 )
2

V Y cos(33 )+ V3 V1 Y31 cos(31 3 + 1 )+ V3 V2 Y32 cos(32 3 + 2 )

f ( x )= 3 2 33
V Y sin ( ) V V Y sin ( + ) V V Y sin ( + )
22
2 1 21
21
2
1
2 3 23
23
2
3
2 22

V2 2 58.1 cos( 1.11)+ V2 1.05 22.4 cos(2.03 2 )+ V2 1.04 35.8 cos(2.03 2 + 3 )

2
(
)
(
)
(
)
1
.
04
67
.
2
cos
1
.
17
1
.
04
1
.
05
31
.
6
cos
1
.
89

1
.
04
V
35
.
8
cos
2
.
03

+
3
2
3
2
=
V 2 58.1 sin ( 1.11) V 1.05 22.4 sin (2.03 ) V 1.04 35.8 sin (2.03 + )
2
2
2
2
2
3

Power Systems I

Example
P2sch

y [ 0 ] = P3sch
Q2sch

P2[ 0] 4.0
[ 0]

P
=
2
.
0
3

[ 0]
Q2

2.5

1.14 2.86
0.562 = 1.438

2.28

0.22

2[ 0 ] 0.028182 0.014545 2.86 1.0 0.06048

=
[0] =

0
.
014545
0
.
023636
1
.
438
1
.
04
0
.
00891

[ V ]= [0.019231][ 0.22 1.0]= [ 0.004231]

[0]
2

2[1] = 0.0 + ( 0.06048)= 0.06048

3[1] = 0.0 + ( 0.00891)= 0.00891

V2[1] = 1.0 + ( 0.004231)= 0.995769

Power Systems I

Example
Remaining iterations:
Iter
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

2
-0.060482
-0.056496
-0.044194
-0.044802
-0.047665
-0.047614
-0.046936
-0.046928
-0.047087
-0.047094

Power Systems I

3
-0.008909
-0.007952
-0.008690
-0.008986
-0.008713
-0.008645
-0.008702
-0.008720
-0.008707
-0.008702

|V2|
0.995769
0.965274
0.965711
0.972985
0.973116
0.971414
0.971333
0.971732
0.971762
0.971669

P2
-2.860000
0.175895
0.640309
-0.021395
-0.153368
0.000520
0.035980
0.000948
-0.008442
-0.000470

P3
1.438400
-0.070951
-0.457039
0.001195
0.112899
0.002610
-0.026190
-0.001411
0.006133
0.000510

Q2
-0.220000
-1.579042
0.021948
0.365249
0.006657
-0.086136
-0.004067
0.020119
0.001558
-0.004688

Economic Dispatch
l

In practice and in power flow analysis, there are many

choices for setting the operating points of generators
u

in the power flow analysis, generator buses are specified by

P and |V|
generation capacity is more than load demand - generators can
produce more than the customers can consume
n

there are many solution combinations for scheduling generation

in practice, power plants are not located at the same distance

from the load centers
power plants use different types of fuel, which vary in cost from
time to time

For interconnected systems, the objective is to find the

real and reactive power scheduling so as to minimize
some operating cost or cost function

Power Systems I

Optimization
l

General cost function: f ( x1 , x2 ,L, xn ) = C

Unconstrained parameter optimization, from calculus:
u

the first derivative of f vanishes at a local extrema

d
u

dx

for f to be a local minimum, the second derivative must be

positive at the point of the local extrema

d2
dx

f (x ) = 0

f (x ) > 0

for a set of parameters, the gradient of f vanishes at a local

extrema and to be a local minimum, the Hessian must be a
positive definite matrix (i.e. positive eigenvalues)

f f
f
f
= 0
,
,L,
= 0 i = 1,L, n or f =
xn
xi
x1 x2

Power Systems I

Optimization
l

The Hessian matrix

2 f ( x1 L xi L xn )
H ij =
xi x j

a symmetrical matrix
contains the second derivatives of the function f
for f to be a minimum, the Hessian matrix must be positive
definite

x T Hx > 0 x 0
u

this condition also requires that all the eigenvalues of the

Hessian matrix evaluated at the extrema to be positive

0 < eigen i [H(x1 L x j L xn )] i = 1,L, n

Power Systems I

Example
l

Find the minimum of

f (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = x1 + 2 x2 + 3x3 + x1 x2 + x2 x3 8 x1 16 x2 32 x3 + 110

2

evaluating the first derivatives to zero results in

f
= 2 x1 + x2 8 = 0
x1

f
= x1 + 4 x2 + x3 16 = 0 or
x2
f
= x2 + 6 x3 32 = 0
x3

Power Systems I

2 1 0 x1 8
1 4 1 x = 16
2

0 1 6 x3 32

x1 3
x = 2
2
x3 5

Example
u

evaluating the second derivatives and forming the Hessian matrix

2 1 0
H ( x ) = 1 4 1

0 1 6
u

using the MATLAB function eig(H), the eigenvalues are found

2 1 0 1.55 0
eigen 1 4 1 = 4.0 > 0

0 1 6 6.45 0
u

the eigenvalues are all greater than zero, so its a minimum point

Power Systems I

Equality Constraints in Optimization

l

This type of problem arises when there are functional

dependencies among the parameters to be found
The problem
u

minimize the cost function

subject to the equality constraints

f (x1 L x j L xn )

gi (x1 L x j L xn ) = 0 i = 1,L, k

Such problems may be solved by the Lagrange muliplier

method

Power Systems I

Equality Constraints in Optimization

l

Lagrange Multiplier method

u

introduce k-dimensional vector for the undetermined quantities

k

L = f + i gi

New cost function

i =1

The necessary conditions for finding the local minimum

k
L
f
gi
=
+ i
=0
xi xi i =1 xi

L
= gi = 0
i
Power Systems I

Example
l

Use the Lagrange multiplier method to determine the

minimum distance from the origin of the x-y plane to a
circle described by

(x 8)2 + ( y 6)2 = 25 or
2
2
g ( x, y ) = ( x 8) + ( y 6) 25

The minimum distance is obtained by minimizing the distance

squared

f ( x, y ) = x 2 + y 2

Power Systems I

Example
f ( x, y ) = x 2 + y 2

g ( x, y ) = ( x 8) + ( y 6 ) 25 = 0
2

L = f + g = x 2 + y 2 + ( x 8) + ( y 6 ) 25
L
= 2 x + (2 x 16 ) = 0 or 2 x ( + 1) = 16
x
L
= 2 y + (2 y 12 ) = 0 or 2 y ( + 1) = 12
y
L
2
2
= ( x 8) + ( y 6 ) 25 = 0

Power Systems I

Example
u

eliminating from the first two equations

16 12
3
=
y= x
2x
2y
4

substituting for y in the third equation yields

2

3
(x 8) + x 6 25 = 0

4
25 2
x 25 x + 75 = 0 x = 4 & x = 12
16
extrema : (4,3), = 1 and (12,9 ), = 3
x=4
min
y=3
2

Power Systems I

Iterative Techniques
l

In many problems, a direct solution using Lagrange

multiplier method is not possible
u

The equations are solved iteratively

Newton-Raphson method is superior
One possible way of casting the last example into an iterative
process:
n

rewrite the first two equations in terms of

8
x=
+1
n
n

6
y=
+1

f ( ) = 100
+ 75 = 0
+ 200
+1
+1
2

substitute the first two equations into the third equation

the third equation is non-linear and in terms of a single variable,
[k ]

[k +1]
[k ]
[k ]

[k ] =
[k ]

Power Systems I

( )

Iterative Techniques
u

Starting with an estimated value of , a new value is found in the

direction of steepest descent
The process is repeated until the error,f() is less than a
specified accuracy
This algorithm is known as the gradient method
Numerical results of previous example, starting with a initial value
= 0.4
iter
f
J

x
y
1
26.02 -72.89 0.357 0.400 2.286 1.713
2
7.393 -36.87 0.201 0.757 3.447 2.585
3
1.097 -26.66 0.041 0.958 3.913 2.935
4
0.034 -25.05 0.001 0.999 3.997 2.998
5
0.000 -25.00 0.000 1.000 4.000 3.000

Power Systems I

Operating Costs
l

Factors influencing the minimum cost of power

generation
u

The most efficient generator in the system does not

guarantee minimum costs
u

operating efficiency of prime mover and generator

fuel costs
transmission losses

may be located in an area with high fuel costs

may be located far from the load centers and transmission losses
are high

The problem is to determine generation at different plants

to minimize the total operating costs

Power Systems I

Operating Costs
l

Generator heat rate curves lead to the fuel cost curves

Heat-Rate Curve
fuel
input,
Btu/hr

Fuel-Cost Curve
cost
Ci,
$/hr

Pi, MW
Pi, MW
The fuel cost is commonly express as a quadratic function

Ci = i + i Pi + i Pi 2
u

The derivative is known as the incremental fuel cost

dCi
Power Systems I

dPi

= i + 2 i Pi

Economic Dispatch
l

The simplest problem is when system losses and

generator limits are neglected
u

minimize the objective or cost function over all plants

a quadratic cost function is used for each plant
n gen

n gen

i =1

i =1

Ctotal = Ci = i + i Pi + i Pi 2
u

the total demand is equal to the sum of the generators output;

the equality constrant
n gen

P = P
i =1

Power Systems I

Demand

Economic Dispatch
l

A typical approach using the Lagrange multipliers

L = Ctotal

n gen

+ PDemand Pi
i =1

L Ctotal
=
+ (0 1) = 0
Pi
Pi
n gen

Ctotal = Ci
i =1

Ctotal dCi
=
= i = 1,K, ng
Pi
dPi

dCi
=
= i + 2 i Pi
dPi
Power Systems I

Ctotal
=
Pi

Economic Dispatch
u

the second condition for optimal dispatch

n gen

dL
= PDemand Pi = 0
d
i =1

n gen

P = P
i =1

Demand

rearranging and combining the equations to solve for

Pi =

i
2 i
i
PDemand +
i =1 2 i
=
n
1

i =1 2 i
n gen

i
= PDemand

2 i
i =1
n gen

Power Systems I

gen

Example
l

Neglecting system losses and generator limits, find the

optimal dispatch and the total cost in $/hr for the three
generators and the given load demand

C1 = 500 + 5.3P1 + 0.004 P12 [$ / MWhr ]

C2 = 400 + 5.5 P2 + 0.006 P22
C3 = 200 + 5.8 P3 + 0.009 P32
PDemand = 800 MW

Power Systems I

Example
i
PDemand +
.3
.5
.8
+ 0.5012
+ 05.018
800 + 0.5008
i =1 2 i
=
= $8.5 / MWhr
=
n
1
1
1
1
0.008 + 0.012 + 0.018

i =1 2 i
8.5 5.3
P1 =
= 400 MW
2(0.004 )
i
8.5 5.5i
Pi =
P2 =
= 250 MW
2 i
2(0.006 )
8.5 5.8
P3 =
= 150 MW
2(0.009 )
PDemand = 800 = 400 + 250 + 150
n gen

gen

Power Systems I

Example
Fuel Cost Curves

10.5
10

$/MWh

9.5
9
8.5
8
7.5
7
0

Power Systems I

200

400

600
P , MW

800

1000

1200

Example
u

Solve again using iterative methods

y = f ( ) = PD f ( )

i
f ( ) =
2 i

x = [k +1] = [k ] + [k ]
1
f
= dPi
=

2 i
[k ]

Power Systems I

f ( )

[k ]

[k ]

PD f ( )
=
1
1
1
+
+
2 1 2 2 2 3

Example
[0 ]

i
[0 ]
= 6.0 f ( ) =
2 i
[0 ] 6.0 5.3
[0 ] 6.0 5.5
P1 =
= 87.5 P2 =
= 41.7
2(0.004 )
2(0.006 )
[0 ] 6.0 5.8
P3 =
= 11.1 f = 800 (87.5 + 41.7 + 11.1)
2(0.009)
[0 ]

[0 ]

f ( )

[0 ]

[0 ]

(659.7)
= 1
= 2.5
1
1
2 (0.004 ) + 2 (0.006 ) + 2 (0.009 )

[1] = 6.0 + 2.5 = 8.5
Power Systems I

Example
[1] i
= 8.5 f ( ) =
2 i
[1] 8.5 5.3
[1] 8.5 5.5
P1 =
= 400 P2 =
= 250
2(0.004 )
2(0.006 )
[1] 8.5 5.8
P3 =
= 150 f = 800 (400 + 250 + 150)
2(0.009 )
[1]

[1]

[1]

f ( )

[1]

[1]

[2 ] = 8.5 + 0 = 8.5
Power Systems I

( 0)
1
2 (0.004 )

1
2 (0.006 )

1
2 (0.009 )

=0

Inequality Constraints in Optimization

l

Practical problems contain inequality as well as equality

constraints
Minimize the cost function f x1 , x2 , L xn

subject to the equality constraints

gi ( x1 , x2 ,L xn ) = 0
u

i = 1, 2,L, k

and the inequality constraints

u j ( x1 , x2 , L xn ) 0

j = 1,2, L , m

The Lagrange multiplier is extended to include the

inequality constraints by introducing the m-dimensional
vector of undetermined quantities

Power Systems I

Kuhn-Tucker Method
l

The unconstrained cost function becomes

L = f + i gi + j u j
i

The resulting necessary conditions for contrained local

minima of L are the following

= 0 l = 1,L, n

= gi = 0 i = 1,L, k
xl
i
L
= u j 0 j = 1,L, m j u j = 0 & j > 0 j = 1,L, m
j

Power Systems I

Example
l

Use the Kuhn-Tucker method to determine the minimum

distance from the origin of the x-y plane to a circle
described by

(x 8)2 + ( y 6)2 = 25 or
2
2
g ( x, y ) = ( x 8) + ( y 6 ) 25
constrained by

u ( x, y ) = 2 x + y 12
u

The minimum distance is

obtained by minimizing the
distance squared

f ( x, y ) = x 2 + y 2
Power Systems I

Example
f ( x, y ) = x 2 + y 2 g ( x, y ) = ( x 8) + ( y 6 ) 25 = 0
u ( x, y ) = 2 x + y 12
2

The cost function

L = f + g + u

= x 2 + y 2 + ( x 8) + ( y 6 ) 25 + [2 x + y 12]
2

The resulting necessary conditions for constrained local minima of L

L
L
= 2 x + 2 ( x 8) + 2 = 0
= 2 y + 2 ( y 6 ) + = 0
x
y
L
L
2
2
= ( x 8) + ( y 6) 25 = 0
= 2 x + y 12 = 0

Power Systems I

Example
u

eliminating from the first two equations

16 12
3
=
y= x
2x
2y
4

substituting for y in the third equation yields

2

3
(x 8) + x 6 25 = 0

4
25 2
x 25 x + 75 = 0 x = 4 & x = 12
16
extrema : (4,3), = 1 and (12,9 ), = 3
x=4
min
y=3
2

Power Systems I

Economic Dispatch with Generator Limits

l

The power output of any generator should not exceed its

rating nor be below the value for stable boiler operation
u

The problem is to find the real power generation for each

plant such that cost are minimized, subject to:
u

Generators have a minimum and maximum real power output

limits

Meeting load demand - equality constraints

Constrained by the generator limits - inequality constraints

The Kuhn-Tucker conditions

dCi dPi =

Pi (min) < Pi < Pi (max)

dCi dPi

Pi = Pi (max)

dCi dPi

Pi = Pi (min)

Power Systems I

Example
l

Neglecting system losses, find the optimal dispatch and

the total cost in $/hr for the three generators and the
given load demand and generation limits

C1 = 500 + 5.3P1 + 0.004 P12 [$ / MWhr ]

C2 = 400 + 5.5P2 + 0.006 P22
C3 = 200 + 5.8P3 + 0.009 P32
200 P1 450
150 P2 350
100 P3 225
PDemand = 975 MW
Power Systems I

Example
i
PDemand +
.3
.5
.8
+ 0.5012
+ 05.018
800 + 0.5008
i =1 2 i
=
= $8.5 / MWhr
=
n
1
1
1
1
0.008 + 0.012 + 0.018

i =1 2 i
8.5 5.3
P1 =
= 400 MW
2(0.004 )
i
8.5 5.5i
Pi =

P2 =
= 250 MW
2(0.006 )
2 i
8.5 5.8
P3 =
= 150 MW
2(0.009 )
PDemand = 800 MW = 400 + 250 + 150 MW
n gen

gen

Power Systems I

Example
l

Solve using iterative methods

u

[1] = 6.0
[1] 6.0 5.3
= 87.5
P1 =
2(0.004 )
[1] 6.0 5.8
= 11.1
P3 =
2(0.009 )

initial guess

[1]

P2 =

6 .0 5 .5
= 41.7
2(0.006)

P [1] = 975 (87.5 + 41.7 + 11.1) = 834.7

[1]
P

[1] =
[1] =
(P )

(834.7)
= 3.1632
1
1
1
2 (0.004 ) + 2 (0.006 ) + 2 (0.009 )

[2 ] = 6.0 + 3.1632 = 9.1632

Power Systems I

Example
9.16 5.3
= 483
2(0.004 )
[2 ] 9.16 5.8
= 187
P3 =
2(0.009 )
[2 ]

[2 ] = 9.1632
P2

[2 ]

P1 =

9.16 5.5
=
= 305
2(0.006)

P [2 ] = 975 ( 483 + 305 + 187) = 0

[2 ]

P1 = 483 > 450max

P1

[ FIXED ]

= 450max

P [2 ] = 975 ( 450 + 305 + 187) = 33

[2 ]

P
[2 ] =
[2 ] =
(P )

(33)
= 0.2368
1
1
2 (0.006 ) + 2 (0.009 )

[3] = 9.1632 + 0.2368 = 9.4

Power Systems I

Example
[3]

= 9.4
[3] 9.4 5.5
P2 =
= 325
2(0.006)

[ FIXED ]
1

[3]

P3 =

P [3] = 975 ( 450 + 325 + 200) = 0

[3]

150 P2 = 325 350

= 450

9.4 5.8
= 200
2(0.009 )

[3]

100 P3 = 200 225

Ctotal = 500 + 5.3(450) + 0.004(450)

2
(
)
(
)
+ 400 + 5.5 325 + 0.006 325
2
+ 200 + 5.8(200) + 0.009(200) = 8,236.25 $ / hr

Power Systems I

Economic Dispatch including Losses

l

For large interconnected system where power is

transmitted over long distances with low load density
areas
u

transmission line losses are a major factor

losses affect the optimum dispatch of generation

One common practice for including the effect of

transmission losses is to express the total transmission
loss as a quadratic function of the generator power
n gen n gen
outputs
u

simplest form:

PL = Pi Bij Pj
i =1 j =1

Krons loss formula:

Power Systems I

n gen n gen

n gen

i =1 j =1

j =1

PL = Pi Bij Pj + B0 j Pj + B00

Economic Dispatch including Losses

l

Bij are called the loss coefficients

u

they are assumed to be constant

reasonable accuracy is expected when actual operating
conditions are close to the base case conditions used to compute
the coefficients

The economic dispatch problem is to minimize the overall

generation cost, C, which is a function of plant output
Constraints:
u

the generation equals the total load demand plus transmission

losses
each plant output is within the upper and lower generation limits inequality constraints

Power Systems I

Economic Dispatch including Losses

n gen

n gen

f : Ctotal = Ci = i + i Pi + i Pi
i =1

n gen

g:

P = P
i

i =1

demand

i =1

+ Plosses

u : Pi (min ) Pi Pi ( max ) i = 1,L, ngen

The resulting optimization equation

L = Ctotal

n gen

ngen
+ Pdemand + Plosses Pi + i ( max ) (Pi ( max ) Pi )
i =1

i =1

n gen

+ i (min ) (Pi Pi (min ) )

i =1

Pi < Pi (max ) : i (max) = 0

Power Systems I

Pi > Pi (min ) : i (min) = 0

Economic Dispatch including Losses

l

The minimum of the unconstrained function is found

when:
L
=0
Pi

L
=0

L
= Pi Pi (max) = 0
i (max)
L
= Pi Pi (min) = 0
i (min)
Power Systems I

Economic Dispatch including Losses

l

When generator limits are not violated:

L
Ctotal
PL
=0=
+ 0 +
1
Pi
Pi
Pi

dCi
Ctotal

C1 + C2 + L + Cngen =
=
dPi
Pi
Pi

dCi
dCi
dCi
1
PL

= Li
=
+
=
dPi
dPi
Pi 1 PL Pi dPi
L
= 0 = PD + PL Pi

i =1
n gen

Power Systems I

n gen

Pi = PD + PL
i =1

The Penalty Factor

l

The incremental transmission loss equation becomes the

penalty factor

Li =

1
PL
1
Pi

The effect of transmission losses introduces a penalty factor that

depends on the location of the plant
The minimum cost is obtained when the incremental cost of each
plant multiplied by its penalty factor is the same for all plants

Power Systems I

The Penalty Factor

n gen n gen

n gen

i =1 j =1

j =1

PL = Pi Bij Pj + B0 j Pj + B00
gen
PL
= 2 Bij Pj + B0i
Pi
j =1

dCi
= i + 2 i P
dPi

dCi
PL
=
+
= i + 2 i Pi + 2 Bij Pj + B0i
dPi
Pi
j =1
n gen

Rearrange the equation

i
1
+ Bii Pi + Bij Pj = 2 1 B0i

j =1
n gen

j i

Power Systems I

The Penalty Factor

l

Extending the equation to all plants results in the

following linear equations (in matrix form)

1
+ B11

B21

M
B
n1

or
EP=D
Power Systems I

B12

2
+ B22 L

M
O
L
Bn 2

1 B01
B1n

P1

B2 n P2 = 1 1 B02 2

M 2
M

n
P
n

+ Bnn n
1 B0 n

Economic Dispatch including Losses

l

To find the optimal dispatch for an estimated value of [1]

u

The simultaneous linear equation is solved, E P = D

Then the iterative process is continued using the gradient method
If an approximate loss formula is used
n gen

PL = Bii Pi 2
i =1

the solution of the simultaneous equations reduces to

i
=
2
[k ]
2( i + Bii )
[k ]

Pi

[k ]

Power Systems I

i + Bii i
Pi

2
k
[
]
i =1
i =1
2( i + Bii )
n gen

n gen

Example
l

Find the optimal dispatch and the total cost in $/hr

u

fuel costs and plant output limits

C1 = 200 + 7.0 P1 + 0.008P12 [$ / hr ] 10 P1 85 MW

C2 = 180 + 6.3P2 + 0.009 P22
C3 = 140 + 6.8P3 + 0.007 P32
u

10 P2 80
10 P3 70

real power loss and total load demand

Ploss = 0.000218 P12 + 0.000228 P22 + 0.000179 P32

PDemand = 150 MW

Power Systems I

Example
First iteration with initial guess at 8.0

[ k ] i
= 8.0
Pi =
2
2( i + [ k ] Bii )
8.0 7.0
[1]
P1 =
= 51.3
2
2(0.008 + 8.0 0.000218)
8.0 6.3
P2[1] =
= 78.5
2
2(0.009 + 8.0 0.000228)
8.0 6.8
[1]
P3 =
= 71.2
2
2(0.007 + 8.0 0.000179 )
[0]

[k ]

Ploss = 0.000218(51.3) + 0.000228(78.5) + 0.000179(71.2 )

2

Ploss = 2.886
Power Systems I

Example
P[ k ] = PD + PL[ k ] (P1[ k ] + P2[ k ] + P3[ k ] )

Newton-Raphson

P[1] = 150 + 2.9 (51.3 + 78.5 + 71.2 ) = 48.1

i + Bii i
=
J
the Jacobian
2
[k ]
i =1 2 ( i + Bii )
0.008 + 0.000218 7.0
0.009 + 0.000228 6.3
+
J [1] =
+
2
2
2(0.008 + 8.0 0.000218) 2(0.009 + 8.0 0.000228)
0.007 + 0.000179 6.8
= 152.5
2
2(0.007 + 8.0 0.000179 )
48.1
[1] =
= 0.316
the improvement
152.5
[ 2 ] = [1] + [1] = 8.0 0.316 = 7.684
Pi
=

i =1
3

[k ]

Power Systems I

[k ]

Example
Second iteration

[k ]
i

Pi [ k ] =
[ 2 ] = 7.684
2
[k ]
2( i + Bii )
7.684 7.0
[2]
P1 =
= 35.4
2
2(0.008 + 7.684 0.000218)
7.684 6.3
[2]
P2 =
= 64.4
2
2(0.009 + 7.684 0.000228)
7.684 6.8
[2]
P3 =
= 52.8
2
2(0.007 + 7.684 0.000179 )

2
2
2
(
)
(
)
(
)
Ploss = 0.000218 35.4 + 0.000228 64.4 + 0.000179 52.8

Ploss = 1.717
Power Systems I

Example
P[ k ] = PD + PL[ k ] (P1[ k ] + P2[ k ] + P3[ k ] )

Newton-Raphson

P[ 2 ] = 150 + 1.7 (35.4 + 64.4 + 52.8) = 0.84

i + Bii i
=
J
the Jacobian
2
[k ]
i =1 2 ( i + Bii )
0.008 + 0.000218 7.0
0.009 + 0.000228 6.3
+
J [2] =
+
2
2
2(0.008 + 7.68 0.000218) 2(0.009 + 7.68 0.000228)
0.007 + 0.000179 6.8
= 154.6
2
2(0.007 + 7.68 0.000179 )
0.84
[ 2 ] =
= 0.00543
the improvement
154.6
[ 3] = [ 2 ] + [ 2 ] = 7.684 0.0.00543 = 7.679
Pi
=

i =1
3

[k ]

Power Systems I

[k ]

Example
Third iteration

[k ]
i

Pi [ k ] =
[ 3] = 7.679
2
[k ]
2( i + Bii )
7.679 7.0
P1[ 3] =
= 35.09
2
2(0.008 + 7.679 0.000218)
7.679 6.3
[ 3]
P2 =
= 64.14
2
2(0.009 + 7.679 0.000228)
7.679 6.8
[ 3]
P3 =
= 52.48
2
2(0.007 + 7.679 0.000179 )

Ploss = 0.000218(35.09 ) + 0.000228(64.14 ) + 0.000179(52.48)

2

Ploss = 1.699
Power Systems I

Example
P[ k ] = PD + PL[ k ] (P1[ k ] + P2[ k ] + P3[ k ] )

Newton-Raphson

P[ 3] = 150 + 1.697 (35.09 + 64.14 + 52.48) = 0.0174

i + Bii i
=
J
the Jacobian
2
[k ]
i =1 2 ( i + Bii )
0.008 + 0.000218 7.0
0.009 + 0.000228 6.3
+
J [ 3] =
+
2
2
2(0.008 + 7.679 0.000218) 2(0.009 + 7.679 0.000228)
0.007 + 0.000179 6.8
= 154.6
2
2(0.007 + 7.679 0.000179 )
0.0174
[ 3] =
= 0.000113
the improvement
154.6
[ 4 ] = [ 3] + [ 3] = 7.684 0.0.000113 = 7.6789
Pi
=

i =1
3

[k ]

Power Systems I

[k ]

Example
Forth iteration

[k ]
i

Pi [ k ] =
[ 4 ] = 7.6789
2
[k ]
2( i + Bii )
7.6789 7.0
P1[ 3] =
= 35.09
2
2(0.008 + 7.6789 0.000218)
7.6789 6.3
[ 3]
P2 =
= 64.13
2
2(0.009 + 7.6789 0.000228)
7.6789 6.8
[ 3]
P3 =
= 52.47
2
2(0.007 + 7.6789 0.000179 )

Ploss = 0.000218(35.09 ) + 0.000228(64.13) + 0.000179(52.47 )

2

Ploss = 1.699
Power Systems I

Example
P[ k ] = PD + PL[ k ] (P1[ k ] + P2[ k ] + P3[ k ] )

P[ 2 ] = 150 + 1.699 (35.09 + 64.13 + 52.47 ) = 0.0

Ctotal = 200 + 7.0(35.09 ) + 0.008(35.09 )

+ 180 + 6.3(64.13) + 0.009(64.13)

+ 140 + 6.8(52.47 ) + 0.007(52.47 )

= 1592.65 $ / hr

Power Systems I

Chapter 8: Transient Analysis of

Synchronous Machines

FAMU-FSU College of Engineering

Synchronous Machines

Steady state modeling





rotor mmf and stator mmf are stationary with respect to each other
flux linkage with the rotor are invariant with time
no voltages are induced on the rotor circuits

Transient modeling





flux linkage changes

with time
differential equations
have time-varying
coefficients
Parks transformation
dynamic behavior


(c) Feb 2004

IG
XS
emf

RA
VT

sub-transient period, transient period, and steady-state period

Power Systems I

Transient Analysis

Transient analysis will be applied in the dynamic study of

generators
Generators experience dynamic behavior during



switching load
faults

Consider the transient behavior of an RL circuit with a

switched voltage source
R
t=0
L

i(t)

V(t)

(c) Feb 2004

Power Systems I

Transient Analysis

The voltage source is sinusoidal: v (t ) = Vm sin ( t + )

The KVL equation are:

d i (t )
0 = Vm sin ( t + ) R i (t ) L
dt
i (t ) = I m sin ( t + ) I m e t sin ( )
R
Vm
L
where : I m =
, = ,
Z
R
1 L
= tan
,
V(t)
R

t=0
L

i(t)

and Z = R 2 + 2 L2
(c) Feb 2004

Power Systems I

Example

Solve for the time-domain solution of the current



for a faulted generator having the following characteristics

R = 0.125
L = 10 mH
v(t) = 151 sin (377 t + )
which will give
(a) zero dc offset current,
(b) maximum dc offset current

(c) Feb 2004

Power Systems I

Example
Z = 0.125 + j (377 )(0.01) = 0.125 + j 3.77 = 3.77288.1
151
0.01
=
= 40 A
= 0.08 s
Im =
3.772
0.125
i (t ) = 40 sin(377 t + 88.1) 40 e t 0.08 sin( 88.1)
(a) Let = 88.1 i (t ) = 40 sin (377 t )
(b) Let = (88.1 90) = 1.9

i (t ) = 40 sin (377 t 90) 40 e t 0.08 sin( 90)

= 40 cos(377 t ) + 40 e t 0.08

(c) Feb 2004

Power Systems I

Example
40

(a) zero dc
offset current
i(t)

20
0
-20
-40
0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

t, sec
80
60
40
i(t)

(b) maximum dc
offset current

20
0
-20
-40

0.05

0.1

0.15
t, sec

(c) Feb 2004

Power Systems I

Transient Analysis

Synchronous Machines


Models and analysis were previously developed for steady state

behaviors





rotor and stator magnetic fields are stationary with respect to each
other
the flux linkage in the rotor circuit are constant in time
the per phase equivalent circuit becomes a constant generated emf
in series with a simple impedance

Under transient conditions (time varying) the above assumptions

are no longer valid




(c) Feb 2004

changing stator current are reflected in a dynamic flux linkage

changing flux linkage induces transient currents in the rotor
transient rotor currents in turn react with the stator and the induced
voltages
Power Systems I

Synchronous Machine Model

The synchronous machine consist of:





three ac stator windings mounted on the stator

one field winding mounted on the rotor
two fictitious windings which model short-circuited paths of the
damper windings

When modeling, the following are assumed:



a synchronously rotating reference frame with a speed of

the reference frame is along the axis of phase a at time zero

For transient analysis of an ideal synchronous machine



The machine is represented as a group of magnetically coupled

rotating circuits with inductances which depend on the angular
position of the rotor

(c) Feb 2004

Power Systems I

Synchronous Machine Model

Reference Axis

Quadrature Axis

Direct Axis

b
Q

m = t + +

D
F
Q

F
D

Physical Layout
(c) Feb 2004

Power Systems I

10

Synchronous Machine Model

r

rF
VF

ia
ic

LF
Laa

rD

Lcc

LD

LQ

Lbb

in

Schematic of mutually
coupled circuits
ib

(c) Feb 2004

Power Systems I

11

Synchronous Machine Model

The KVL equations for the model

(c) Feb 2004

0
0

0
0

0
0

0 rF
0 0

0
rD

0 ia
a

0 ib

b
0 ic d c

0 iF dt F
D
0 iD


rQ iQ
Q

0 i abc d

R FDQ i FDQ dt

Power Systems I

FDQ

r 0
va
0 r
v

b
0 0
vc

= 0 0

vF
0 0
0

0 0
0
v abc
R abc
v = 0
FDQ

abc

12

Synchronous Machine Model

The magnetic inductance equations

LaD
LbD
LcD
LFD
LDD
LQD

LaQ ia
LbQ ib

LcQ ic

LFQ iF
LDQ iD

LQQ iQ

a Laa Lab Lac LaF

L
Lbb Lbc LbF
b ba
c Lca Lcb Lcc LcF
=
F LFa LFb LFc LFF
D LDa LDb LDc LDF

Q LQa LQb LQc LQF
abc L SS L SR i abc

= L
i
L
RR FDQ
FDQ RS

(c) Feb 2004

Power Systems I

13

Salient Pole Machines

Rotors have two types of construction




Cylindrical
Salient

The cylindrical rotor has an evenly

spaced air gap and a constant
self-inductance
The Salient has a non-uniform air
gap and a self-inductance that varies
periodically


Cylindrical

maximum inductance when the direct axis

coincides with the stator coil magnetic axis
minimum inductance when the quadrature axis
coincides with the stator coil magnetic axis

Salient
(c) Feb 2004

Power Systems I

14

Salient Pole Machines

The salient pole machine can be represented by cosines

of second harmonics


Stator quantities

Laa = LS + Lm cos 2

Lbb = LS + Lm cos 2( 23 )
Lcc = LS + Lm cos 2( + 23 )

Lab = Lba = M S Lm cos 2( + 16 )

Lbc = Lcb = M S Lm cos 2( 12 )

Lca = Lac = M S Lm cos 2( + 56 )

(c) Feb 2004

Power Systems I

15

Salient Pole Machines



Rotor quantities - All the rotor self inductances are constant since
the effects of the stator slots are negligible

LFF = LF
LDD = LD
LQQ = LQ
LFD = LDF = M R
LFQ = LQF = 0
LDQ = LQD = 0

(c) Feb 2004

Power Systems I

16

Salient Pole Machines



Mutual inductance between the stator and rotor circuits

LaF = M F cos 2

LbF = M F cos 2( 23 )
LcF = M F cos 2( + 23 )
LaD = M D cos 2

LaQ = M Q sin 2

LbD = M D cos 2( 23 ) LbQ = M Q sin 2( 23 )

LcD = M D cos 2( + 23 ) LcQ = M Q sin 2( + 23 )

(c) Feb 2004

Power Systems I

17

Park Transformation

Changes the abc frame of reference to the dq0 frame of

reference


Voltages and currents on the stator are changed to equivalent

values based on the rotors frame of reference

The transformation is based on the two-axis theory



the electrical quantities are projections onto three new axes:





direct axis - along the direct axis of the rotor field winding
quadrature axis - tangent to the direct axis of the rotor field winding
zero axis - a stationary axis

1 2
2
P=
cos

3
sin

(c) Feb 2004

cos( 23 )
sin ( 23 )

2
cos( + 3 )
sin ( + 23 )

Power Systems I

18

Park Transformation

The Park transformation for current

ia

2
2
cos( 3 ) cos( + 3 ) ib

2
2
sin ( 3 ) sin ( + 3 ) ic
Similarly applied to all electrical quantities
i 0 dq = P i abc
i0

id =
iq

1 2
2
cos

3
sin

0 dq

(c) Feb 2004

=P

in matrix notation

v 0 dq = P v abc

abc

Power Systems I

19

Park Transformation

The Park transformation matix is orthogonal:

1
2
1
T
1
P =P =

3
1

2
2
2

cos
sin

2
2
cos( 3 ) sin ( 3 )
cos( + 23 ) sin ( + 23 )

Applying the Park transformation to the generator

(c) Feb 2004

Power Systems I

20

Park Transformation
Transforming the time-varying inductance to obtain a
rotor frame of reference

FDQ

P 0
= 0 I
FDQ
33

0 dq

abc

P 1 0 0 dq
or

0
I
FDQ
33 FDQ

P 1 0 0 dq L SS L SR P 1 0 i 0 dq

i
= L

L
I
0
I
0
RR
RS
33 FDQ
33 FDQ

0 dq P 0 L SS L SR P 1 0 i 0 dq
i

= 0 I L

L
0
I
FDQ
RR
33 RS
33 FDQ

abc

(c) Feb 2004

Power Systems I

21

Park Transformation

Resulting inductance matrix

0
0
Ls 2 M s

0
Ls + M s + 23 Lm
0

0
0
Ls + M s 23 Lm

3
0
MF
0
2

0
0
2 MD

3
0
0

2 MQ

(c) Feb 2004

Power Systems I

0
3
2

MF
0

0
3
2

MD
0

LF

MR

MR

LD

3
2 MQ

0
0

LQ
0

22

Park Transformation

Applying the transformation to the machine model KVL

vabc Rabc 0 iabc d abc

v = 0 R i
dt
FDQ FDQ
FDQ
FDQ
P1 0 v0dq Rabc 0 P1 0 i0dq d P1 0

v = 0 R
i

dt
0
0
0
I
I
I
FDQ
33 FDQ
33 FDQ
33

FDQ

(c) Feb 2004

Power Systems I

FDQ
0dq

v0dq P 0 Rabc 0 P1 0 i0dq P 0 d P1 0

i 0 I

v = 0 I 0 R
dt
0
I
0
I
FDQ
33
33 FDQ
33
FDQ 33

v0dq Rabc 0 i0dq P dtd P1 0 0dq d 0dq

v = 0 R i

dt
0
I
FDQ
FDQ
FDQ
FDQ
FDQ
33

0dq

23

Park Transformation

Evaluate the expression

P dtd P 1

P dtd P 1
1 2
1 2
1 2 0
sin
cos

= 23 cos cos( 23 ) cos( + 23 ) 0 sin ( 23 ) cos( 23 )

sin sin ( 23 ) sin ( + 23 ) 0 sin ( + 23 ) cos( + 23 )

0 0 0
= 0 0 1

0 1 0

(c) Feb 2004

Power Systems I

24

Park Transformation

Substituting the original terms into the transformation

0
0
r 0
v0
0 r Lq
0
vd

v
0 Ld r 23 M F
q

=
rF
0
0 0
vF
0 0
0
0
0
0 0
0
0
0

0
0
0
L0
3
0
Ld
0
2 MF

Lq
0
0
0

LF
0 23 M F
0

MR
0
0 23 M D

3
0
0
MQ
0
2

(c) Feb 2004

0
0
3
2

MD

0
rD
0
0
3
2MD
0
MR
LD
0

Power Systems I

i0
23 M Q id

0 iq
0 iF
0 iD
rQ iQ
0

0
i
0 i0

d
3

iq
2 MQ d

0 dt iF

0 iD
iQ
LQ
25

Park Transformation

Observations


The transformation has constant coefficients provided that the

speed is assumed to be constant
The first equation (the zero sequence) is not coupled to the other
equations, and it can be treated separately
While the transformation technique is a mathematical process, it
gives insight into the internal phenomena of the rotor and the
effects of transients

(c) Feb 2004

Power Systems I

26

Balanced 3-Phase Short Circuit

Consider a synchronous generator operating at 60 Hz

with constant excitation
Examine the impact on the stator currents when a threephase short circuit is applied to the generator terminals


The initial currents

Park
ia (0+ ) = ib (0+ ) = ic (0+ ) = 0
i0 (0+ ) = id (0+ ) = iq (0+ ) = 0

VF
iF (0 ) =
rF
+

The voltage after applying the fault

Park
va = vb = vc = 0
v0 = vd = vq = 0

(c) Feb 2004

Power Systems I

Balanced 3-Phase Short Circuit

Rearranging the equation and neglecting the zero

sequence term
r
Lq 23 M Q id
0
0
vd
0
vF
rF
0
0
0 iF

0 = 0
0
rD
0
0 iD

v
3
3
Ld 2 M F 2 M D r
0 iq
q
0
iQ
0
0
0
0
r
Q

3
3
Ld
0
0
2 MF
2 MD
3
id
MR
0
0 iF
2 M F LF
d

iD
23 M D M R
LD
0
0

dt

i
3
q
Lq
0
0
0
2 MQ
iQ
3
0

LQ
0
0
2 MQ

(c) Feb 2004

Power Systems I

Balanced 3-Phase Short Circuit

In matrix form (or state space form) the equation can be

rewritten
d
v = Ri L i
dt
d
i = L1Ri L1v
dt


Using the Laplace transform or integrating the equation results in

i abc = P 1 i 0 dq
ia = id cos + iq sin

ib = id cos( 23 ) + iq sin ( 23 )

ic = id cos( + 23 ) + iq sin ( + 23 )
(c) Feb 2004

Power Systems I

Example

Consider a 500 MVA, 30 kV generator with no load and a

constant excitation voltage of 400 V. A three-phase short
circuit occurs at the terminals. Obtain the transient
waveforms for the current in each phase and the field
winding

(c) Feb 2004

Power Systems I

Example
Generator Parameters

Ld = 0.0072 H
LD = 0.0068 H
M D = 0.0054 H
r = 0.0020

Lq = 0.0070 H
LQ = 0.0016 H
M Q = 0.0026 H
rQ = 0.0150

rD = 0.0150

LF = 2.500 H
M F = 0.100 H
M R = 0.125 H
rF = 0.4000
L0 = 0.0010 H

VF = 400 V

( )
i (0 ) = i (0 ) = i (0 ) = 0

iF 0 + = VF rF = 400 0.4 = 1000 A

+

(c) Feb 2004

Power Systems I

Example
1.5

x 10

Three-phas e s hort circuit ia, delta = 0

ia, A

0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
0

(c) Feb 2004

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4
t, s ec

Power Systems I

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

Example
2.5

x 10

Thre e -pha s e s hort c irc uit ib, de lta = 0

ib, A

1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
0

(c) Feb 2004

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4
t, s e c

Power Systems I

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

Example
0.5

x 10

Three-phas e s hort circuit ic, delta = 0

i c, A

-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
-2.5
0

(c) Feb 2004

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4
t, s ec

Power Systems I

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

Example
Three-phas e s hort circuit iF, delta = 0
7000
6000

iF, A

5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0

(c) Feb 2004

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4
t, s ec

Power Systems I

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

Simplified Machine Model

For steady-state operation, generators are represented

with a constant emf behind a synchronous reactance, XS


For salient-pole rotors, there is a direct axis and quadrature axis

reactances

Under transient conditions, the machine reactance

changes due to the effect of the armature (transformer)
reaction and eddy currents in the damping circuits
For analysis it is useful to imagine the synchronous
reactance as three components





direct axis sub-transient reactance

direct axis transient reactance
direct axis steady-state reactance
these transient reactances have an associated time-constant

(c) Feb 2004

Power Systems I

10

Simplified Machine Model

Model visualization





Consider the field and damper windings as the secondaries of a

transformer (or the rotor of an induction motor)
The stator is the primary winding
For steady state conditions (synchronous speed) there is no
transformer action, which can be modeled as an open circuit on
the secondary side of the transformer
For dynamic conditions, the speed is not synchronous, and the
field and damper windings look like short-circuited secondaries

(c) Feb 2004

Power Systems I

11

Simplified Machine Model

The direct axis sub-transient reactance



circuit model

Xl
Xad


equations

time constant
is very small,
around 0.035s
(c) Feb 2004

Xf

1
1

X d = X l +
+
+
X

X
X
ad
f
kd

X kd

d =

1
1

+
+
+

X
X
X
ad
f
l

Rk

Power Systems I

Xkd

damper
winding
reactance
and
resistance

12

Simplified Machine Model

The direct axis transient reactance



circuit model

Xl
Xad


Xf

equations

X d = X l +
+
X

X
ad
f

time constant
is in the order
of 1s to 2s
(c) Feb 2004

1
1

+
X f +
X ad X l

d =
Rf
Power Systems I

field
winding
reactance
and
resistance

13

Simplified Machine Model

The direct axis steady-state reactance



circuit model

Xl
Xad


equation

X d = X l + X ad


equivalent circuit for the steady state

(c) Feb 2004

Power Systems I

14

Simplified Machine Model

Similar models are used for the quadrature axis:

 quadrature axis sub-transient reactance, Xq"


quadrature axis transient reactance, Xq'

quadrature axis steady-state reactance, Xq

For an unloaded generator, the stator current following

the occurrance of a short-circuit on the terminals:

1
1 t d 1
1 t d
1
e
e
iac (t ) = 2 E0

+
sin ( t + )
Xd
X d X d
X d X d

(c) Feb 2004

Power Systems I

15

Simplified Machine Model

Example


a three-phase, 60 Hz machine has the stator windings initially

open-circuited, and the field current adjusted so that the terminal
voltage is at rated value (i.e., 1.0 pu)
The machine has the following time constants:
Xd" = 0.15 pu
td" = 0.035 sec
Xd' = 0.40 pu
td' = 1.0 sec
Xd = 1.20 pu
Determine the subtransient, transient, and steady state shortcircuit currents

(c) Feb 2004

Power Systems I

16

Simplified Machine Model

E0
1.0
I d =
=
= 6.666 pu
X d 0.15
I d =

E0 1.0
=
= 2.5 pu
X d 0.4

E0 1.0
Id =
=
= 0.8333 pu
X d 1.2

(c) Feb 2004

Power Systems I

17

Stator DC Current Component

The expression for the stator current for the simplified

machine model does not include the effects of the
decaying exponential unidirectional current
The dc component is a function of the machines rotor
position, which is indicated by when the short-circuit is
applied at t = 0


The time constant associated with the decay of the dc component

is known as the armature short circuit time constant, a

a =

X d + X q
2 Ra

Typical time constants range around 0.05 to 0.17 seconds

(c) Feb 2004

Power Systems I

Stator DC Current Component



A generator has three windings separated by 120; each phase

will have a different dc component depending on the point of the
voltage cycle at which the short circuit occurs

I dc a


E0
(sin ) e t a
= 2
X d

Combining the ac and dc components using superpositioning

results in

1
1 t d 1
1 t d
1
e
e
iac (t ) = 2 E0

+
sin ( t + )
Xd
X d X d
X d X d
E0
(sin ) e t a
+ 2
X d
(c) Feb 2004

Power Systems I

Determining the Transient Constants

The generator transient constants can be estimated by

analyzing the current waveforms of a fault applied at the
generator terminals


The current waveform must not have any dc components - i.e.

the fault was applied at a voltage peak

Data preparation



No-load / open circuit terminal voltage of the generator

The current waveform is divided into three periods


(c) Feb 2004

the subtransient period - first few cycles where the current

decreases rapidly
the transient period - 1 to 2 cycles where the current has a
moderate decay
the steady-state period

Power Systems I

Determining the Transient Constants

Method


First, determine the synchronous reactance, using the current

value where the waveform envelope becomes constant

1
Id =
I d (max)
2


E0
Xd =
Id

Second, using the part of the envelope between the subtransient

time period and the steady state time period



(c) Feb 2004

the steady state current is subtracted from the transient current

the logarithmic curve of the envelope is plotted with respect to linear
time as a straight line
the y-intercept and the slope are obtained from the graph

Power Systems I

Determining the Transient Constants

i = (I d I d ) e t d
ln i = ln (I d I d ) t d = c m t
I d = e c + I d

X d =

E0
I d

d =

1
m

1.0

ln i
0.5
p.u.

0.0
0.005
(c) Feb 2004

Power Systems I

0.02
t

0.045
5

Determining the Transient Constants



Third, using the first two cycles of the fault current envelope


the steady state and transient currents are subtracted from the
subtransient current
the logarithmic curve of the envelope is plotted with respect to linear
time as a straight line
the y-intercept and the slope are obtained from the graph

i = (I d I d ) e t d
ln i = ln (I d I d ) t d = c m t
I d = e c + I d

(c) Feb 2004

X d =

E0
I d

d =

Power Systems I

1
m

Determining the Transient Constants

1.5

c"

1.0
ln i
p.u.

m"

c'
0.5
m'

0.0
0.000
(c) Feb 2004

0.02
t
Power Systems I

0.045
7

Determining the Transient Constants

Example


A generator operating at no load, is set to deliver a terminal

voltage of 1.0 pu
The generator is subjected to a fault on the terminals when phase
a is at a voltage peak
Peak values of the current are recorded at the following times:






0.0042 s :
0.0208 s :
0.3208 s :
0.3375 s :
5.0000 s :

I = 8.7569
I = 6.7363
I = 2.8893
I = 2.8608
I = 1.1785

Determine the reactances and time constants

(c) Feb 2004

Power Systems I

Effects of Load Current

Pre-fault load currents supplied by the generator affect

the generators behavior during a fault
Two methodologies may be used in the solution process
for balanced 3-phase faults



Use of internal voltages behind the generator reactances

Using Thevenins theorem and superposition with load currents

(c) Feb 2004

Power Systems I

Effects of Load Current

Internal Voltages behind the generator reactances



When there is a prefault load current, three internal voltages are

calculated




E" = the voltage behind the subtransient reactance

E' = the voltage behind the transient reactance
E = the voltage behind the synchronous reactance

The internal voltages are calculated using the voltage drop

equation with the load current

E = VT + j xd I L
E = VT + j xd I L
E = VT + j xd I L
(c) Feb 2004

Power Systems I

10

Effects of Load Current

Example


A 220 kV, 100 MVA, 0.8 lagging pf load is connected to a 13.8 kV

generator through a j0.20 pu generator step-up transformer.
The generator parameters are:
Xd = 1.0 pu
Xd' = 0.25 pu

Xd" = 0.12 pu

A short circuit occurs at the load terminals.

Find the generator transient current including the load current.
Use the method of internal voltages.

(c) Feb 2004

Power Systems I

11

Effects of Load Current

S L = 100 MVA

= (+) cos 1 0.8 = 36.9

S L = 10036.9

S Base = 100 MVA

VL = 2200 V

VBase = 220 V

10036.9
= 1.036.9 pu
100
2200
= 1.00
VL =
220

SL =

S L* 1.0 36.9
= 1.0 36.9
IL = * =
1.00
VL
E = VL + I L ( j X d + j X xfmr ) = 1.00 + (1.0 36.9)( j 0.25 + j 0.20 )
= 1.27 + j 0.36 = 1.3215.8
1.3215.8
E
=
= 2.93 74.2
If =
j X d + j X xfmr
j 0.25 + j 0.20
(c) Feb 2004

Power Systems I

12

Effects of Load Current

Using Thevenins theorem and superposition with the

load current


The fault current is found without the load in the circuit by

obtaining the Thevenins equivalent circuit (original method)
The load current is added to the no-load fault current

(c) Feb 2004

Power Systems I

13

Effects of Load Current

Example


A 220 kV, 100 MVA, 0.8 lagging pf load is connected to a 13.8 kV

generator through a j0.20 pu GSU transformer.
The generator parameters are:
Xd = 1.0 pu
Xd' = 0.25 pu

Xd" = 0.12 pu

A short circuit occurs at the load terminals.

Find the generator transient current including the load current.
Use the method of Thevenins theorem and superposition.

(c) Feb 2004

Power Systems I

14

Example
2200
VTh = 2200 V VBase = 220 V
VTh =
= 1.00
220
Z Th = j X d + j X xfmr = j 0.25 + j 0.20 = j 0.45
VTh 1.00
I f =
=
= j 2.222
Z Th
j 0.45
S L* 1.0 36.9
IL = * =
= 1.0 36.9
VL
1.00
I f = I f + I L = j 2.222 + 1.0 36.9 = j 2.222 + 0.8 j 0.6
= 0.8 j 2.822 = 2.93 74.2

(c) Feb 2004

Power Systems I

15

Fault Analysis
l

Analysis types
u

power flow - evaluate normal operating conditions

fault analysis - evaluate abnormal operating conditions

Fault types:
u

balanced faults
n

unbalanced faults
n
n

three-phase
single-line to ground and double-line to ground
line-to-line faults

Results used for:

u

specifying ratings for circuit breakers and fuses

protective relay settings
specifying the impedance of transformers and generators

Power Systems I

Fault Analysis
l

Magnitude of fault currents depend on:

u

Network impedances are governed by

u

the impedance of the network

the internal impedances of the generators
the resistance of the fault (arc resistance)
transmission line impedances
transformer connections and impedances
grounding connections and resistances

Generator behavior is divided into three periods

u

sub-transient period, lasting for the first few cycles

transient period, covering a relatively longer time
steady state period

Power Systems I

Fault Studies
l

Sub-transient period, XG = Xd"

u

determine the interrupting capacity of HV circuit breakers

determine the operation timing of the protective relay system for
high-voltage networks

Transient period, XG = Xd
u

determine the interrupting capacity of MV circuit breakers

determine the operation timing of the protective relay system for
medium-voltage networks
transient stability studies

Power Systems I

Fault Representation
l

A fault represents a structural network change

u

equivalent to the addition of an impedance at the place of the

fault
if the fault impedance is zero, the fault is referred to as a bolted
fault or solid fault

First order method

u

the faulted network can be solved conveniently by Thvenins

method
network resistances are neglected
generators are modeled as an emf behind the sub-transient or
transient reactance
shunt capacitances are neglected
system is considered as having no-load

Power Systems I

Thvenins Method
l

The fault is simulated by switching a fault impedance at

the faulted bus
The change in the network voltages is equivalent to
adding the prefault bus voltage with all other sources
short curcuited

j0.2

j0.4

2
j 0.4

3
Power Systems I

j0.8
j0.4

Thvenins Method
l

3-phase fault with Zf = j0.16 on bus 3

j0.2

j0.4

j0.2

2
j 0.4

j0.8
j0.4

j0.4

2
j 0.4

j0.4

3
If

Xf = 0.16

Power Systems I

j0.8

Vth
-+

Xf = 0.16

Thvenins Method
I 3[ f ]
j0.2

j0.4

V3[ 0]
=
Z 33 + Z f

V1[ 0 ] = V2[ 0] = V3[ 0] = 1.0

( j 0.4)( j 0.8) =
( j1.6)
( j 0.4)( j 0.4) = j 0.1
Z 3s =
( j1.6)
Z 1s = Z 2 s =

j 0.2
j0.2

j0.1

Vth
If

Power Systems I

Xf = 0.16

Z 33

(
j 0.4)( j 0.6)
=
+ j 0.1

j 0.4 + j 0.6
Z 33 = j 0.34

j0.24

j 0 .2
j0.1

3
Vth
If

j0.16

Thvenins Method
Z 33 = j 0.34

Z33 = j0.34

Vth
If

j0.16

Power Systems I

[f]
3

V3[ 0]
1.0
=
=
= j 2. 0
Z 33 + Z f
j 0.34 + j 0.16

Thvenins Method
l

For more accurate solutions

u

use the pre-fault bus voltages which can be obtained from the
results of a power flow solution
include loads - to preserve linearity, convert loads to constant
impedance model
Thevenins theorem allows the changes in the bus voltages to be
obtained
bus voltages are obtained by superposition of the pre-fault
voltages and the changes in the bus voltages
current in each branch can be solved

Power Systems I

Short Circuit Capacity (SCC)

l

Measures the electrical strength of the bus

Stated in MVA
Determines the dimension of bus bars and the
interrupting capacity of circuit breakers
Definition:
[ pre f ] [ f ]

SCC = 3 VL L ,k I k

in per unit:

[f ]
k

Vk[ pref ]
=
X kk

SCC =
Power Systems I

SB
X kk

Short Circuit Capacity (SCC)

l

Find the SCC for bus #3

j0.2

j0.4

2
j 0.4

Z 33 = j 0.34
S base = 100 MVA
S base 100 MVA
SCC3 =
=
= 294 MVA
0.34
Z 33
Power Systems I

j0.8
j0.4

Fault Analysis Using Impedance Matrix

l

Network reduction by Thvenins method is not efficient

u

difficult to apply to large networks

Matrix algebra formation

u

seek a matrix where the diagonal elements represent the source

impedance for the buses
consider the following system
n

operating under
balanced conditions
each generator
represented by a
constant emf behind
a proper reactance
(Xd, Xd, or Xd )
lines represented by
their equivalent model

Power Systems I

G
Si

Sk

Zf

Fault Analysis Using Impedance Matrix

l

Place the prefault voltages into a vector

[pre f]
Vbus

Replace the loads by a

constant impedance
model using the prefault
bus voltages

Z i load =

The change in the network

voltage caused by the fault
is equivalent to placing a
fault voltage at the faulted
bus with all the other
sources short-circuited

Power Systems I

Vi

[pre f] 2

Si*load
j

V1[pre f]

[pre

f]

= Vk

M
V [pre f]
n

-Vk
Zi

Zk

I k[ f ]
Zf

Fault Analysis Using Impedance Matrix

l

Using superpositioning, the fault voltages

are calculated from the prefault voltages
by adding the change in bus voltages
due to the fault
[f ]
[ pre f ]
Vbus
= Vbus
+ Vbus

The change in bus voltages

can be calculated from the
network matrix

Power Systems I

Vbus

I bus = Ybus Vbus

= Ybus Vbus
I[Fault]
bus
0
M

[Fault]
[Fault]
I bus = I k

M
0

V1

M
= Vk

M
V
n

Fault Analysis Using Impedance Matrix

I[Fault]
= Ybus Vbus
bus
0 y11
M M

[f]
I k = yk 1

M M
0 yn1

y1k

O M
L ykk

O
L

O M
L ynk

O
L

1 [Fault]
Vbus = Ybus
I bus
1
Z bus = Ybus

Vbus = Z bus I[Fault]

bus
Power Systems I

y1n
M
ykn

M
ynn

V1

M
Vk

M
V
n

Fault Analysis Using Impedance Matrix

V1

M
Vk

M
V
n

z11 L z1k L z1n

M
O
M
O
M

= z k1 L z kk L z kn

M
O
M
O
M

z n1 L z nk L z nn

[f ]
[ pre f ]
Vbus
= Vbus
+ Vbus
[f ]
[ pre f ]
f]
Vbus
= Vbus
+ Z bus I[bus

Vk[ f ] = Vk[ pref ] + Z kk I k[ f ]

I k[ f ]

Vk[ pref ]
=
Z kk + Z f

Power Systems I

0
M

[f]
I k

& Vk[ f ] = Z f I k[ f ]

Example
l

3-phase fault with Zf = j0.16 on

u

bus 3

j0.2

j0.4

2
j 0.4

j0.2

j0.4

j0.8

2
j 0.4

j0.8

j0.4

j0.4

3
If
Xf = 0.16

Power Systems I

Vth
Xf = 0.16

Example
j8.75
Ybus = j1.25
j 2.50
j 0.16
Z bus = j 0.08
j 0.12
I

[f]
3

j 2.50
j 6.25 j 2.50
j 2.50 j 5.00
j1.25

j 0.08
j 0.24
j 0.16

j 0.12
j 0.16
j 0.34

V3[ pre f ]
1.0 pu
=
=
= j 2.0 pu
Z 33 + Z f
j 0.34 + j 0.16

Power Systems I

Example
V1[ f ] = V1[ pre f ] Z13 I 3[ f ] = 1.0 pu ( j 0.12 )( j 2.0 ) = 0.76 pu

V2[ f ] = V2[ pre f ] Z 23 I 3[ f ] = 1.0 pu ( j 0.16 )( j 2.0 ) = 0.68 pu

V3[ f ] = V3[ pre f ] Z 33 I 3[ f ] = 1.0 pu ( j 0.34 )( j 2.0 ) = 0.32 pu

Power Systems I

The Bus Impedance Matrix

l

Definition
1
Z bus = Ybus

Direct formation of the matrix

u

inversion of the bus admittance matrix is a n3 effort

for small and medium size networks, direct building of the matrix
is less effort
for large size networks, sparse matrix programming with
gaussian elimination technique is preferred

Power Systems I

Forming the Bus Impedance Matrix

l

Graph theory techniques helps explain the building

process

bus node = graph vertex line branch = edge

0
1
j0.2

j0.4

2
j 0.4

j0.4

2
5

3
selected tree

Power Systems I

j0.8

0
2
4

1
3

extending
tree branch

2
5

loop
closing
co-tree branch

Forming the Bus Impedance Matrix

l

Basic construction of the network and the matrix

1
Partial
Network

m
bus

2
i
j
0
Reference

Power Systems I

Vbus = Z bus I bus

Adding a Line

1
Partial
Network

m
bus

2
p
m

1
q

0
Reference

Vq = V p + z qp I q
Power Systems I

Partial
Network

m
bus

2
p
m
q

0
Reference

Vq = 0 + z q 0 I q

Adding a Line to an Existing Line

V1 Z11
V Z
2 21
M M

V p = Z p1
M M

Vm Z m1
V = Z
p1
q

Power Systems I

Z 21
Z 22
M
Z p2
M
Z m2
= Z p2

L
L
O
L

Z1 p
Z2 p
M
Z pp

L
L
O
L

Z1m
Z 2m
M
Z pm

O
M
O
M
L Z mp L Z mm
L = Z pp L = Z pm

= Z1 p
= Z2 p
M
= Z pp

I1
I
2
M

I p
M
M

= Z mp I m
= Z pp + z pq I q

Adding a Line from Reference

V1 Z11
V Z
2 21
M M

V p = Z p1
M M

Vm Z m1
V = 0
q

Power Systems I

Z 21
Z 22
M

L Z1 p L Z1m
L Z 2 p L Z 2m
O M O M

Z p 2 L Z pp L Z pm
M O M O M
Z m 2 L Z mp L Z mm
=0 L =0 L

=0

=0
=0
M

I1
I
2
M

= 0 I p
M M

= 0 I m
= z0 q I q

Closing a Loop

Partial
Network

m
bus

1
p
q
m

Partial
Network

m
bus

1
p
i
m

0
Reference

0
Reference

z pq I l = V p Vq

z p0 Il = Vp 0

z pq I l + Vq V p = 0

z p0 Il Vp = 0

Power Systems I

Kron Reduction
Eliminating a node from the system

Z[1n ] I bus [1n ]

Z ll [11] I l
old
= Z bus
[ nn ] I bus [1n ] + Z [1n ] I l

old
Vbus [1n ] Z bus [ nn ]
0 = Z T
[ n1]

Vbus [1n ]

0 = Z

[ n1] bus [1n ]

+ Z ll [11] I l

old
Vbus [1n ] = Z bus
[ nn ] I bus [1n ]

Power Systems I

Z T [ n1]
Il =
I bus [1n ]
Z ll

Z[1n ]Z T [ n1]
Z ll

I bus [1n ]

old ZZ T
= Z bus
I bus
Z ll

Adding a Line between two Lines

V1 Z11
M M

V p Z p1

Vq = Z q1
M M

Vm Z m1
0 Z q1Z p1

Z1 p

Z1q

Z1m

Z pp

Z pq

Z pm

L
O

Z qp
M

Z qq
M

L
O

Z qm
M

Z mp

Z mq

Z mm

L Z qp Z pp

Z qq Z pq L Z qm Z pm

Z ll = z pq + Z pp + Z qq 2 Z pq

Then execute Kron reduction on Zll

Power Systems I

Z1q Z1 p I1

M
M
Z pq Z pp I p

Z qq Z qp I q
M
M

Z mq Z mp I m
Z ll I l

Adding a Line from a Line to Reference

V1 Z11
M M

V p Z p1

Vi = Z i1
M M

Vm Z m1
0 Z p1

L
O
L
L

Z1 p
M
Z pp
Z ip

O
M
L Z mp
L Z pp

Z1i
M
Z pi
Z ii

L
L
O
L

M
O
M
Z mi L Z mm
Z pi L Z pm

Z ll = z p 0 + Z pp
Then execute Kron reduction on Zll
Power Systems I

Z1m
M
Z pm
Z im

Z1 p I 1
M M

Z pp I p

Z ip I q
M M

Z mp I m
Z ll I l

Kron Reduction
l

Kron reduction removes an axis (row & column) from a

matrix while retaining the axiss numerical influence

V1 Z11
M M

V p Z p1

Vi = Z i1
M M

Vm Z m1
0 Z l1

Power Systems I

L Z1 p

Z1i

L Z1m

M
L Z pp
L Z ip

M
Z pi

M O M
Z mi L Z mm
Z li L Z lm

M
L Z mp
L Z lp
Z

new
jk

=Z

Z ii

old
jk

O Z pm
L Z im

Z jl Z lk
Z ll

Z1l I1
M M

Z pl I p

Z il I q
M M

Z ml I m
Z ll I l

Z-Bus Building Rules

l

Rule 1: Addition of a branch to the reference

u

start with existing network matrix [m m]

create a new network matrix [(m+1) (m+1)] with
n
n

the new off-diagonal row and column filled with (0)

the diagonal element (m+1),(m+1) filled with the element impedance

zq0

Power Systems I

Z-Bus Building Rules

l

Rule 2: Addition of a branch to an existing bus

u

connecting to existing bus p

start with existing network matrix [m m]
create a new network matrix [(m+1) (m+1)] with
n

the new off-diagonal row and column filled with a copy of row p and
column p
the diagonal element (m+1),(m+1) filled with the element impedance
zpq plus the diagonal impedance Zpp

Power Systems I

Z-Bus Building Rules

l

Rule 3: Addition of a linking branch

u

connecting to existing buses p and q

start with existing network matrix [m m]
create a new network matrix [(m+1) (m+1)] with
n

the new off-diagonal row and column filled with a copy of row q
minus row p and column q minus column p
the diagonal element (m+1),(m+1) filled with

zpq + Zpp + Zqq - 2 Zpq

perform Kron reduction on the m+1 row and column

Power Systems I

Z-Bus Building Rules

l

Rule 4: Addition of a linking branch

u

connecting to existing bus p and reference

start with existing network matrix [m m]
create a new network matrix [(m+1) (m+1)] with
n

the new off-diagonal row and column filled with a copy of the
negative of row p and the negative of column p
the diagonal element (m+1),(m+1) filled with
zp0 + Zpp

perform Kron reduction on the m+1 row and column

Power Systems I

Example
0
j0.2

j0.4

1
1

j0.8

j 0.4

j0.4

3
Network

3
Graph

Line adding order: 1-0, 2-0, 1-3, 1-2, then 2-3

Power Systems I

Example
0.
1.

0
j 0.2
0
j 0.4

4.
j 0.2
0

j 0.2 j 0.4

[]
[ j 0.2]

j 0.2
2.
0
j 0.2
3. 0
j 0.2

0
j 0.4
0
j 0. 4
0

Power Systems I

j 0.2
0
j 0.6

j 0.2
j 0.4
0
j 0.6 j 0.2

j 0.2
j1.4
(
j 0.2 )( j 0.2)
= j 0.17
Z11 = j 0.2
j1.4
j 0.171
j 0.057

j 0.171

j 0.2

j 0.057
0.285
j 0.057

j 0.171
j 0.057
j 0.571

Example
j 0.171
j 0.057
5.
j 0.171

j 0.114
j 0.16
j 0.08

j 0.12

Power Systems I

j 0.114
j 0.285 j 0.057 j 0.228
j 0.057
j 0.571 j 0.514

j1.14
j 0.228 j 0.514
j 0.08 j 0.12
j 0.24 j 0.16
j 0.16 j 0.34
j 0.057

j 0.171

Fault Analysis
l

Fault types:
u

balanced faults
n

<5%

unbalanced faults
n
n
n

three-phase

Percentage of total faults

single-line to ground
double-line to ground
line-to-line faults

60-75%
15-25%
5-15%

Unbalance fault analysis requires new tools

u

symmetrical components
augmented component models

Power Systems I

Symmetrical Components
l

Allow unbalanced three-phase phasor quantities to be

replaced by the sum of three separate but balanced
symmetrical components
u

applicable to current and voltages

permits modeling of unbalanced systems and networks

Representative symmetrical components

Ic1

120

120

Ia1

120

Ib2
120

120

Iaa2
120

Ib1
abc sequence
positive sequence
Power Systems I

Ic0
Ib0
Ia0
0

Icc2
acb sequence
negative sequence

zero sequence

Symmetrical Components
l

Positive sequence phasors

I a1 = I a1 ( + 0)

= I a1

I b1 = I a1 ( + 240) = a 2 I a1

I c1 = I a1 ( + 120) = a I a1
l

Operator a identities

a = 1120 = 0.5 + j 0.866

a 2 = 1240 = 0.5 j 0.866
a 3 = 10 = 1 + j 0
1+ a + a2 = 0
Power Systems I

Symmetrical Components
l

Negative sequence phasors

I a 2 = I a 2 ( + 0) = I a 2

I b 2 = I a 2 ( + 120) = a I a 2
I c 2 = I a 2 ( + 240) = a 2 I a 2
l

Zero sequence phasors

I a 0 = I a 0 ( + 0) = I a 0

I b 0 = I a 0 ( + 0) = I a 0

I c 0 = I a 0 ( + 0) = I a 0
Power Systems I

Symmetrical Components
l

Relating unbalanced phasors to symmetrical components

I a = I a 0 + I a1 + I a 2

= I a 0 + I a1 + I a 2

I b = I b 0 + I b1 + I b 2

= I a 0 + a 2 I a1 + a I a 2

I c = I c 0 + I c1 + I c 2

= I a 0 + a I a1 + a 2 I a 2

In matrix notation

I a 1 1
I = 1 a 2
b
I c 1 a
Power Systems I

1 I a0
a I a1
a 2 I a 2

Symmetrical Components
l

[A] is known as the symmetrical components

transformation matrix

I abc = A I 012
l

1 1

A = 1 a 2
1 a

a
a 2

Solving for the symmetrical components leads to

I 012 = A 1 I abc
1 1
1
1
A = 1 a
3
1 a 2
Power Systems I

1
1 *
2
a = A
3
a

Symmetrical Components
l

In component form, the calculation for symmetrical

components are

I a 0 = 13 (I a + I b + I c )

(
(I

)
+ aI )

I a1 = 13 I a + aI b + a 2 I c
I a 2 = 13

Power Systems I

2
a
Ib
+
a

Symmetrical Components
l

Similar expressions exist for voltages

Vabc = A V012
V012 = A 1 Vabc
l

The apparent power may also be expressed in terms of

symmetrical components
T
S 3 = Vabc
I *abc

S 3 = (AV012 ) (AI 012 )

T

T
S 3 = V012
A T A *I *012

A T A* = 3

T *
S 3 = 3V012
I 012 = 3 Va 0 I a*0 + 3 Va1 I a*1 + 3 Va 2 I a*2

Power Systems I

Example
l

Obtain the symmetrical components of a set of

unbalanced currents

I a = 1.625
I b = 1.0180
I c = 0.9132
l

Solution
I a0 =

(1.625) + (1.0180) + (0.9132) = 0.4596.5

3
(
1.625) + a(1.0180) + a 2 (0.9132)
= 0.94 0.1
I a1 =
3
(
1.625) + a 2 (1.0180) + a(0.9132)
I a2 =
= 0.6022.3
3
Power Systems I

Example
Ic

Ia0, Ib0, Ic0

abc set

Ia

Ib

zero sequence set

Ic1
positive sequence set

Ib2
Ia2

Ia1
negative sequence set

Ib1
Power Systems I

Ic2

Example
l

The symmetrical components of a set of unbalanced

voltages are

Va 0 = 0.690
Va1 = 1.030
Va 2 = 0.8 30
Obtain the original unbalanced voltages:

Va = (0.690) + (1.030) + (0.8 30) = 1.708824.2

Vb = (0.690) + a 2 (1.030) + a (0.8 30) = 0.490

Vc = (0.690) + a (1.030) + a 2 (0.8 30) = 1.7088155.8

Power Systems I

Example
Va0, Vb0, Vc0

Vc1

zero sequence set

Va1

Vb1

positive sequence set

Vb2
negative sequence set

Vc
Vc2

Va2

Vb

abc set
Power Systems I

Va

Sequence Impedances
l

The impedance offered to the flow of a sequence current

creating sequence voltages
u

positive, negative, and zero sequence impedances

Augmented network models

u

wye-connected balanced loads

transmission line
3-phase transformers
generators

Power Systems I

Balanced Loads
Ia
Va

Zs
Ib

Vb

ZM ZM

Zs
Ic

Vc

Zs
In

ZM
Zn

Model and
governing equations
Va = Z S I a + Z M I b + Z M I c + Z n I n
Vb = Z M I a + Z S I b + Z M I c + Z n I n
Vc = Z M I a + Z M I b + Z S I c + Z n I n
I n = I a + Ib + Ic
Va Z S + Z n
V = Z + Z
n
b M
Vc Z M + Z n

Power Systems I

Vabc = Z abc I abc

ZM + Zn
ZS + Zn
ZM + Zn

Z M + Zn I a
Z M + Z n I b
Z S + Z n I c

Balanced Loads
Vabc = Z abc I abc (A V012 ) = Z abc (A I 012 )

[
= [A

]
A]

V012 = A 1Z abc A I 012 V012 = Z 012 I 012

Z 012

Z abc

1 Z S + Z n Z M + Z n Z M + Z n 1 1
a 2 Z M + Z n Z S + Z n Z M + Z n 1 a 2
a Z M + Z n Z M + Z n Z S + Z n 1 a
0
0
Z S + 3Z n + 2 Z M
0
0
ZS ZM
=

0
0
Z S Z M

1 1
1
= 1 a
3
1 a 2

Power Systems I

1
a
a 2

Transmission Line
Ia
Va1
Vb1

Zs
Ib

Va2

Zs
Ic

Vc1
In

Zs
Zn

Va1 = Z S I a Z n I n + Va 2

Vb2
Vc2

Vb1 = Z S I b Z n I n + Vb 2
Vc1 = Z S I c Z n I n + Vc 2
Vn = 0 + Z n I n

Vn

I n + I a + Ib + Ic = 0
Va1 Z S + Z n
V = Z
n
b1
Vc1 Z n

Zn
ZS + Zn
Zn

Vabc1 = Z abc I abc + Vabc 2

Power Systems I

I a Va 2
Z n I b + Vb 2
Z S + Z n I c Vc 2
Zn

Transmission Line
Vabc1 = Z abc I abc + Vabc 2 A V0121 = Z abc A I 012 + A V012 2
V0121 = A 1Z abc A I 012 + V012 2 = Z 012 I 012 + V012 2
Z 012 = A 1Z abc A
1 Z S + Z n
a 2 Z n
a Z n
0
Z S + 3Z n 0
0
Z S 0
=

0
0 Z S

1 1
1
= 1 a
3
1 a 2

Power Systems I

Zn
ZS + Zn
Zn

1 1
Z n 1 a 2
Z S + Z n 1 a
Zn

1
a
a 2

Generators
l

Similar modeling of impedances to sequence impedances

Typical values for common generators
u

remember that the transient fault impedance is a function of time

positive sequence values are the same as Xd, Xd, and Xd
negative sequence values are affected by the rotation of the rotor
n

X2 ~ Xd

zero sequence values are isolated from the airgap of the machine
n

the zero sequence reactance is approximated to the leakage

reactance
X0 ~ XL

Power Systems I

Generator Model
X0

Zero Sequence

Positive
Sequence

Negative
Sequence
Power Systems I

E1

X1

X2

VT0

VT1

VT2

Impedance Grounded Generators

ZS
Ea

Z 012
Zn

Ec

Eb

Z S + 3Z n
0
=

ZS
ZS
Power Systems I

0
ZS
0

0
0
Z S

Transformers
l

Series Leakage Impedance

u

Three single-phase units & five-legged core three-phase

units
u

the magnetization current and core losses represented by the

shunt branch are neglected (they represent only 1% of the total
load current)
the transformer is modeled with the equivalent series leakage
impedance

the series leakage impedance

is the same for all the sequences

Z 0 = Z1 = Z 2 = Z l

Three-legged core three-phase units

u

the series leakage impedance is the same

for the positive and negative sequence only

Power Systems I

Z1 = Z 2 = Z l

Transformers
l

Wye-delta transformers create a phase shifting pattern for

the various sequences
u

the positive sequence quantities rotate by +30 degrees

the negative sequence quantities rotate by -30 degrees
the zero sequence quantities can not pass through the
transformer

USA standard
u

independent of the winding order (-Y or Y- )

the positive sequence line voltage on the HV side leads the
corresponding line voltage on the LV side by 30
consequently, for the negative sequence voltages the
corresponding phase shift is -30

Power Systems I

Transformers
l

Zero-sequence network connections of the transformer

depends on the winding connection
u

primary winding - wye / wye-grounded / delta

secondary winding - wye / wye-grounded / delta

Power Systems I

Transformers

wye-grounded wye-grounded

wye-grounded

wye

wye-grounded

delta

Power Systems I

Transformers

wye

delta

delta

delta

Power Systems I

Transformers

Equivalent Series Impedance:



Transformer bank of three single-phase transformers

Z 0 = Z1 = Z 2 = Z l


Three-phase transformer with a three-leg core

Z1 = Z 2 = Z l

Z0 > Zl

Wye-Delta Wound Transformers






Wiring connection will always cause a phase shift

Positive Sequence rotates by a +30 degrees from HV to LV side
Negative Sequence rotates by a -30 degrees from HV to LV side
Zero Sequence does not rotate

March 2004

Power Systems I

Zero-Sequence in a Transformer

Dependent on the winding connection on each side



Dependent on the ground connection



wye or delta
ungrounded or grounded

Types of connections







wye-grounded to wye-grounded
wye-grounded to wye
wye-grounded to delta
wye to wye
wye to delta
delta to delta

March 2004

Power Systems I

Zero-Sequence in a Transformer

wye-grounded to wye-grounded

wye-grounded to wye

wye-grounded to delta
March 2004

Power Systems I

Zero-Sequence in a Transformer

wye to wye

wye to delta

delta to delta
March 2004

Power Systems I

Generators

Synchronous Reactance


Dependent on the time period of the study





Steady-state
Transient
Sub-transient

Generator is modeled as a wye-connected machine for the

positive- and negative-sequence impedances
The zero-sequence is dependent on the winding connections of
the machine





March 2004

wye-grounded
wye-grounded through an impedance
wye
delta
Power Systems I

Solidly Grounded Generators

ZS

ZS

ZS
March 2004

Power Systems I

Solidly Grounded Generators

A E 012 = E abc
Ea

E abc = Eb
Ec
0
E 012 = Ea
0
X 0 = X1 = X 2 = X d
March 2004

jXd

Zero Seq

Pos Seq

Neg Seq

Power Systems I

jXd

jXd

VG0

VG1

VG2

Impedance Grounded Generators

ZS

Zn

ZS

ZS
March 2004

Power Systems I

Impedance Grounded Generators

0
E 012 = Ea
0
jX d + 3Z n
0
Z 012 =

Zero Seq

0
Xd
0

0
0
X d

Pos Seq

Neg Seq

March 2004

jXd+3Zn

Power Systems I

jXd

jXd

VG0

VG1

VG2

Wye Connected Generators

ZS

ZS

ZS
March 2004

Power Systems I

10

Wye Connected Generators

0
E 012 = Ea
0
0 0
Z 012 = 0 X d
0 0

Zero Seq

0
0
X d

Pos Seq

Neg Seq

March 2004

jXd

Power Systems I

jXd

jXd

VG0

VG1

VG2

11

Delta Connected Generators

ZS

E
ZS

E
ZS
March 2004

Power Systems I

12

Delta Connected Generators

0
E 012 = Ea
0
0 0
Z 012 = 0 X d
0 0

Zero Seq

0
0
X d

Pos Seq

Neg Seq

March 2004

jXd

Power Systems I

VG0

jXd

jXd

VG1

VG2

13

Common Unbalanced Network Faults

Single-line-to-ground faults
Double-line-to-ground faults
Line-to-line faults

March 2004

Power Systems I

Single Line to Ground Fault

Va = 0

Ia
Va

I f = Ia
Ib

Vb

Ib = Ic = 0
Ic

Vc

I a0
1 1 1 I a
I = 1 1 a a 2 0
a1 3

I a 2
1 a 2 a 0
I a 0 = I a1 = I a 2 = 13 I a
Va = Va 0 + Va1 + Va 2 = 0

March 2004

Power Systems I

Single Line to Ground Fault

Va = Ea Z a I a = 0

Network Diagram

= Ea A (Z 012 I 012 )

fault location
in network

= Ea (Z a 0 + Z a1 + Z a 2 )I a 0

Positive
Sequence

= Ea (Z a 0 I a 0 + Z a1 I a1 + Z a 2 I a 2 )

I a0 =

Ea
(Z a 0 + Z a1 + Z a 2 )

Ia0

I a 0 = I a1 = I a 2

Zero
Sequence

I f = 3 I a0
March 2004

Negative
Sequence

Power Systems I

Double Line to Ground Fault

Vb = 0

Ia
Va

Vc = 0
I a = I a 0 + I a1 + I a 2 = 0

Ib

Vb

Ic
Vc

I f = Ib + Ic
Va 0
1 1
V = 1 1 a
a1 3
Va 2
1 a 2

1 Va
a 2 0
a 0

Va 0 = Va1 = Va 2
March 2004

Power Systems I

Double Line to Ground Fault

Z1 Z1
Z2 + Z0
I a1 = 1 +
+ = Va1
Z2Z0
Z0 Z2
Va1 (Z 0 + Z 2 )
I a1 =
(Z 1 Z 0 + Z 2 Z 0 + Z 1 Z 2 )
I a0

I a0

Va1
=

Z0Z2
Z1 +

Z0 + Z2

Va 0
Va 2
=
, Ia2 =
Z0
Z2

March 2004

Network Diagram
fault location
in network

Ia1

Ia2

Ia0

Positive
Negative Zero
Sequence Sequence Sequence
Power Systems I

Double Line to Ground Fault

I a 0 + I a1 + I a 2 = 0
I abc = A I 012
I f = Ib + Ic
= I a 0 + a 2 I a1 + a I a 2 + I a 0 + a I a1 + a 2 I a 2
= 2 I a 0 + a 2 (I a1 + I a 2 ) + a (I a1 + I a 2 )

(a

= 2 I a 0 + a 2 + a (I a1 + I a 2 )
2

+ a = 1

I f = 2 I a 0 (I a1 + I a 2 )

March 2004

Power Systems I

Line-to-Line Fault
Ia
Va

Vb Vc = 0
Ib + Ic = 0

Ib

Vb

Ic
Vc

I a = I a 0 + I a1 + I a 2 = 0
I f = Ib Ic
I a0
1 1
I = 1 1 a
a1 3
I a 2
1 a 2

March 2004

Power Systems I

1 0

2
a Ib
a I b
7

Line-to-Line Fault
I a0
1 1
I = 1 1 a
a1 3
I a 2
1 a 2
I a0 = 0

(
(a

)
a) I

1 0

2
a Ib
a I b

Network Diagram
fault location
in network

Ia1

Ia2

I a1 = 13 a a 2 I b
I a 2 = 13

Positive
Sequence

I a1 = I a 2
March 2004

Power Systems I

Negative
Sequence
8

Line-to-Line Fault

)(

Vb Vc = a 2 a Vka1 Vka 2 = 0
Vka1 = Va Z k1 I a1
Vka 2 = Z k2 I ka 2 = Z k2 I ka1

(a

Vka

)[

(
(Z + Z ) I

) ]

a Va Z k1 + Z k2 I ka1 = 0

I ka1 =

1
k

2
k

a1
k

=0

Vka, pre f
Z k1 + Z k2

March 2004

Power Systems I

Line-to-Line Fault
I ka1 = I ka 2
I a 1 1
I = 1 a 2
b
I c 1 a

1 0
a I ka1
a 2 I ka1

I b = a 2 a I ka1 = j 3 I ka1
j 3 Vka
Ib = 1
Z k + Z k2
Ic = Ib
March 2004

Power Systems I

10

Example






The neutral of each generator is grounded through a current

limiting resistor of 8.333 % on a 100 MVA base
generators are running at no-load at rated voltage and in phase
all network data is expressed on a 100 MVA base
Find the fault current for 3-phs, 1-phs, L-L, L-L-G bolted faults

G1

G2
T1

T2
L 1-2

1
L 1-3

March 2004

2
L 2-3

Item
G1
G2
T1
T2
L 1-2
L 1-3
L 2-3
Power Systems I

V Rating
20 kV
20 kV
20/200 kV
20/200 kV
200 kV
200 kV
200 kV

X1
15%
15%
10%
10%
12.5%
15%
25%

X2
15%
15%
10%
10%
12.5%
15%
25%

X0
5%
5%
10%
10%
30%
35%
71.25%
11

Example

Positive Sequence Network

1/0

1/0

1/0

j0.15

1/0
j0.15

j0.15

j0.15

j0.22
1/0

j0.1

1
j 0.15

j0.125

3
March 2004

j0.1

j0.1

j0.1

j0.0357

j0.25

j0.0595

j0.0714

3
Power Systems I

12

Example

Negative Sequence Network

j0.15

j0.15

j0.1

j0.1

1
j 0.15

j0.125

3
March 2004

j0.15

j0.15

j0.1

j0.1

j0.0357

j0.25

j0.0595

j0.22

j0.0714

3
Power Systems I

13

Example

Zero Sequence Network

j0.25

j0.05

j 0.35

j0.05

j0.05

j0.25

j0.05
j0.35

j0.1

j0.1

j0.3

3
March 2004

j0.25

j0.1

j0.1

j0.25

j0.0771

j0.7125

j0.1569

j0.1830

3
Power Systems I

14

Example

3-phase fault

V3a1 1.00
I (F ) = 1 =
= j 4.54 pu
Z 33
j 0.22
a1
3

I af = I 3a1 ( F ) = j 4.54 pu

SLG fault

I 3a 0 = I 3a1 = I 3a 2

V3a1
= 0
1
Z 33 + Z 33
+ Z 332
=

1.00
= j1.266 pu
j 0.35 + j 0.22 + j 0.22

I af = 3I 3a1 = j 3.80 pu
March 2004

Power Systems I

15

Example

L-L fault

I 3a 0 = 0
I 3a1 = I 3a 2

V3a1
1.00
= 1
=
= j 2.27 pu
2
Z 33 + Z 33 j 0.22 + j 0.22

I bf = I cf = j 3 ( j 2.27 ) = 3.936 pu

March 2004

Power Systems I

16

Example

DLG fault
a1
V
1.00
3
I 3a1 =
=
= j 2.816 pu
0
2
j 0.35 j 0.22
Z 33 Z 33
1
j 0.22 +
Z 33 + 0
2
j 0.35 + j 0.22
Z 33 + Z 33

a2
3

I 3a 0

1 a1
V3a1 Z 33
I3
1.00 ( j 0.22) ( j 2.816)
=
=
= j1.729 pu
2
Z 33
j 0.22

1 a1
V3a1 Z 33
I3
1.00 ( j 0.22 ) ( j 2.816 )
=
=

= j1.087 pu
0
Z 33
j 0.35

)(

I f = I 3b + I 3c = 2 I 3a 0 + a + a 2 I 3a1 + I 3a 2

= 2( j1.087 ) ( j 2.816 + j1.729 ) = j 3.261 pu

March 2004

Power Systems I

17

Fault Analysis with Fault Impedances

Single Line to Ground Fault

Ia0

Zf

fault location
in network

Positive
Sequence
Negative
Sequence

a0
k

=I

a1
k

=I

March 2004

a2
k

Vka,1pre f
Z k0 + Z k1 + Z k2 + 3Z f 3 Z
f
Power Systems I

Zero
Sequence
18

Fault Analysis with Fault Impedances

Double Line to Ground Fault

Zf
Ia1

March 2004

fault location
in network

Ia2

3 Zf
Ia0

Positive
Negative Zero
Sequence
Sequence Sequence
19
Power Systems
I

Fault Analysis with Fault Impedances

Double Line to Ground Fault

a1
V
k
I ka1 = 1
Z k + Z k0 + 3Z f Z k2 Z k0 + 3Z f + Z k2

I ka 2

Vka1 Z k1 I ka1
=
Z k2

I ka 0

Vka1 Z k1 I ka1
= 0
Z k + 3Z f

March 2004

Power Systems I

20

Fault Analysis with Fault Impedances

Line to Line Fault

fault location
in network

Zf

Ia1

Positive
Sequence

a1
k

= I

March 2004

a2
k

Zf
Ia2

Negative
Sequence

Vka
= 1
Z k + Z k2 + Z f
Power Systems I

21

Fault Analysis using Z-Bus Matrix

Form the Positive Sequence and the Zero Sequence bus

impedance matrices


The Negative Sequence matrix is the same as the Positive

Sequence matrix

Use the diagonal element of the faulted bus with the

following modified fault equations

March 2004

Power Systems I

22

Fault Analysis using Z-Bus Matrix

Single Line to Ground Fault

I ka 0 = I ka1 = I ka 2 =

Vka,1pre f
Z 0kk + 2 Z1kk + Z f

Line to Line Fault

a1
k

March 2004

= I

a2
k

Vka
=
2 Z1kk + Z f

Power Systems I

23

Fault Analysis using Z-Bus Matrix

Double Line to Ground Fault

a1
V
k
I ka1 = 1
Z kk + (Z 0kk + 3Z f ) Z1kk (Z 0kk + 3Z f + Z1kk )

I ka 2

Vka1 Z1kk I ka1

=
Z1kk

I ka 0

Vka1 Z1kk I ka1

= 0
Z kk + 3Z f

March 2004

Power Systems I

24

Fault Analysis using Z-Bus Matrix

Bus voltages during fault

Vi a 0 = 0 Z ik0 I ka 0
Vi a1 = Vi a Z ik1 I ia1
Vi a 2 = 0 Z ik2 I ka 2

Line currents during fault

(
= (V
= (V

)
)z
)z

I ija 0 = Vi a 0 V ja 0 zij0
I ija1
I ija 2
March 2004

a1

i
i

a2

V ja1

V ja 2

1
ij
2
ij
Power Systems I

25

Stability
l

The ability of the power system to remain in synchronism

and maintain the state of equilibrium following a
disturbing force
u

Steady-state stability: analysis of small and slow disturbances

n

gradual power changes

Transient stability: analysis of large and sudden disturbances

n

faults, outage of a line, sudden application or removal of load

Power Systems I

Generator Dynamic Model

l

Under normal conditions, the relative position of the rotor

axis and the stator magnetic field axis is fixed
u
u

the angle between the two is the power angle or torque angle, d
during a disturbance, the rotor will accelerate or decelerate w.r.t.
the rotating stator field
acceleration or deceleration causes a change in the power angle

Pe
Pe
Te =
=
w e 2p (60 Hz )

Pm
= Tm
w rotor

Taccelation = DT = Tm - Te
d 2q m
J
= DT = Tm - Te q m = w ms t + d m
2
dt
Power Systems I

w rotor poles
=
2
w ms

Generator Dynamic Model

dq m
dd m
d 2q m d 2d m
wm =
= w ms +
am =
=
2
dt
dt
dt
dt 2
d 2q m
d 2d m
J
=J
= Tm - Te
2
2
dt
dt
d 2d m
Jw m
= w mTm - w mTe = Pm - Pe
2
dt
2 WKE
2
1
1
WKE = 2 Jw m = 2 Mw m
M=
= Jw m
wm
w m w ms

2 WKE
M
= Jw ms
w ms

Power Systems I

Generator Dynamic Model

d 2d m
= Pm - Pe
M
2
dt
poles
d = de =
dm
2
p d 2d
p 2 WKE
M 2 =
2
2 w ms
dt
2 WKE d 2d
= Pm - Pe
2
w s dt
Power Systems I

p d d
M 2 = Pm - Pe
2
dt
2 WKE d 2d
d 2d
=
2
w s dt 2
dt

2 WKE d 2d Pm Pe

=
2
w s S B dt
SB SB

Generator Dynamic Model

2 WKE d 2d
= Pm ( pu ) - Pe ( pu )
2
w s S B dt
WKE kinetic energy in MJ at rated speed
=
=H
SB
machine power rating in MVA
2 H d 2d
= Pm ( pu ) - Pe ( pu )
2
w s dt
H d 2d

= Pm ( pu ) - Pe ( pu )
2
p f dt
H d 2d

= Pm ( pu ) - Pe ( pu )
2
180 f dt
Power Systems I

(radians )
(degrees)

Synchronous Machine Model

Pmax

Xd

Pe

VT
Pm

Round E = E d
Rotor
Machine VG = VG 0
Model
B= 1

X d

Pe0

d0

p/2

power angle curve

E VG
Pe = E VG B cos(d - 90) =
sin d = Pmax sin d
X d

Power Systems I

The Swing Equation

H d 2d
= Pm - Pe
2
p f 0 dt

Dynamic Generator Model

Pe = Pmax sin d

Synchronous Machine Model

H d 2d
= Pm - Pmax sin d
2
p f 0 dt
Pm

H
p f0
Power Systems I

Forming the Swing Equation

Pe

E
ws

Xd
VT

Steady State Stability

l

The ability of the power system to remain in synchronism

when subject to small disturbances
Stability is assured if the system returns to its original
operating state (voltage magnitude and angle profile)
The behavior can be determined with a linear system
model
Assumption:
u
u
u

the automatic controls are not active

the power shift is not large
the voltage angles changes are small

Power Systems I

Steady State Stability

l

Swing Equation

H i d 2d i
= Pmi - Pmax sin d
2
p f 0 dt
l

Small disturbance modeling

d = d 0 + Dd

Consider a small deviation

H d 2 (d 0 + Dd )
= Pm - Pmax sin(d 0 + Dd )
2
dt
p f0
H d 2d 0
H d 2 Dd
+
= Pm - Pmax [sin d 0 cos Dd + cos d 0 sin Dd ]
2
2
p f 0 dt
p f 0 dt
Power Systems I

Steady State Stability

l

Simplification of the swing equation

H d 2d 0
H d 2 Dd
+
= Pm - Pmax [sin d 0 cos Dd + cos d 0 sin Dd ]
2
2
p f 0 dt
p f 0 dt
Substitute the following approximations

Dd << d

cos Dd 1

sin Dd Dd

H d 2d 0
H d 2 Dd
+
= Pm - Pmax sin d 0 - Pmax cos d 0 Dd
2
2
p f 0 dt
p f 0 dt
Group steady state and transient terms

H d 2d 0
H d 2 Dd
- Pm + Pmax sin d 0 = - Pmax cos d 0 Dd
2
2
p f 0 dt
p f 0 dt

Power Systems I

Steady State Stability

l

Simplification of the swing equation

H d 2 Dd
H d 2d 0
- Pm + Pmax sin d 0 = - Pmax cos d 0 Dd
2
2
p f 0 dt
p f 0 dt
H d 2 Dd
0=
+ Pmax cos d 0 Dd
2
p f 0 dt
Steady state term is equal to zero

dPe
dd

d0

d
=
Pmax sin d
dd

= Pmax cos d 0 = Ps
d0

H d 2 Dd
+ Ps Dd = 0 Second order equation.
2
p f 0 dt
The solution depends on the roots of the
Power Systems I
characteristic equation

Stability
l

Stability Assessment
u

When Ps is negative, one root is in the right-half s-plane, and the

response is exponentially increasing and stability is lost
When Ps is positive, both roots are on the jw axis, and the motion
is oscillatory and undamped, the natural frequency is:

p f0
PS
s =H
2

p f0
wn =
PS
H

Power Systems I

Root locus

jw

S-plane

Damping Torque
dd
Damping force is due to air-gap interaction
PD = D
dt
H d 2 Dd
dDd
+D
+ PS Dd = 0
2
p f 0 dt
dt
d 2 Dd p f 0 dDd p f 0
+
+
PS Dd = 0
D
2
dt
H
dt
H
d 2 Dd
d Dd
2
+
+
2
z
w
w
n
n Dd = 0
2
dt
dt
D p f0
z=
2 H PS
Power Systems I

Characteristic Equation
2

2
n

s + 2zw n s + w = 0
D
z =
2

p f0
<1
H PS

for normal operation conditions

s1 , s2 = -zw n j w n 1 - z
wd = wn 1 - z 2

Power Systems I

complex roots

the damped frequency of oscillation

Laplace Transform Analysis

x1 = Dd , x2 =

dDd
dt
1 x1
= x& = Ax

- 2zw n x2

x&1 0
x& = - w 2
2 n
L {x& = Ax} sX( s ) - x(0) = AX( s )
X( s ) = (sI - A ) x(0)
-1

s
( sI - A ) = 2
w n

Power Systems I

-1
s + 2zw n

s + 2zw n 1
-w 2

s
n
x ( 0)
X( s ) = 2
s + 2zw n s + w n2

Laplace Transform Analysis

Dd ( s ) =

(s + 2zw n )Dd 0

s 2 + 2zw n s + w n2

w n2 Dd 0
Dw ( s ) = 2
s + 2zw n s + w n2
Dd (t ) =

Dd 0
1-z 2

Dw (t ) = Power Systems I

e -zw nt sin (w d t + q ), q = cos -1 z

w n Dd 0
1-z 2

e -zw nt sin (w d t )

d (t ) = d 0 + Dd (t ), w (t ) = w 0 + Dw (t )

Example
l

A 60 Hz synchronous generator having inertia constant H =

9.94 MJ/MVA and a transient reactance Xd = 0.3 pu is
connected to an infinite bus through the following network.
The generator is delivering 0.6 pu real power at 0.8 power
factor lagging to the infinite bus at a voltage of 1 pu.
Assume the damping power coefficient is
D = 0.138 pu. Consider a small disturbance of 10 or 0.1745
radians. Obtain equations of rotor angle and generator
frequency motion.

Power Systems I

Example

X12 = 0.3

X'd = 0.3
G

inf
Xt = 0.2

Power Systems I

X12 = 0.3

V = 1.0

Example

Delta, degree

30
25
20
15
10

0.5

1.5
t, s ec

2.5

0.5

1.5
t, s ec

2.5

60.1

f, Hz

60.05
60
59.95
59.9
59.85

Power Systems I

Transient Stability

The ability of the power system to remain in synchronism

when subject to large disturbances


Lyapunov energy functions



Large power and voltage angle oscillations do not permit

linearization of the generator swing equations
simplified energy method: the Equal Area Criterion

Time-domain methods



numerical integration of the swing equations

Runga-Kutta numerical integration techniques

Power Systems I

Equal Area Criterion

Quickly predicts the stability after a major disturbance



graphical interpretation of the energy stored in the rotating

masses
method only applicable to a few special cases:



one machine connected to an infinite bus

two machines connected together

Method provides physical insight to the dynamic behavior

of machines


relates the power angle with the acceleration power

Power Systems I

Equal Area Criterion

For a synchronous machine connected to an infinite bus

H d 2
= Pm Pe = Paccel
2
f 0 dt

f0
d 2 f 0
(Pm Pe ) =
=
Paccel
2
dt
H
H

The energy form of the swing equation is obtained by

multiplying both sides by the system frequency (shaft
rotational speed)

d
2
dt

2
dt

Power Systems I

f0
d
=
(Pm Pe ) 2
H
dt

Equal Area Criterion

d 2
2 2
dt

d f 0
d

(Pm Pe ) 2
=
H
dt
dt

The left hand side can be reworked as the derivative of

the square of the system frequency (shaft speed)
2

d d 2 f 0
d
(Pm Pe )
=

dt dt
H
dt

d 2 2 f 0
(Pm Pe )d
d
=
H
dt
Power Systems I

Equal Area Criterion

Integrating both sides with respect to time,

2 f 0
d

=
H
dt
2

2 f 0
d
=
dt
H

(P

Pe )d

(P

Pe )d

The equation gives the relative speed of the machine.

For stability, the speed must go to zero over time

d
=0
dt
t

0 = (Pm Pe )d

0
Power Systems I

Equal Area Criterion

Consider a machine operating at equilibrium

 the power angle, = 0
 the electrical load, P
e0 = Pm0
Consider a sudden increase in the mechanical power
input
 Pm1 > Pe0 ; the acceleration power is positive


excess energy is stored in the rotor and the power frequency

increases, driving the relative power angle larger over time
1

U Potential = (Pm1 Pe )d > 0

0

d
2 f 0
= =
dt
H
Power Systems I

(P

Pe )d > 0

Equal Area Criterion



with increase in the power angle, , the electrical power

increases

Pe = Pmax sin


when = 1, the electrical power equals the mechanical power,

Pm1


acceleration power is zero, but the rotor is running above

synchronous speed, hence the power angle, , continues to
increase

now Pm1 < Pe; the acceleration power is negative (deceleration),

causing the rotor to decelerate to synchronous speed at = max
an equal amount of energy must be given up by the rotating
masses

max

U Potential = (Pm1 Pe )d

Power Systems I

(Pm1 Pe )d

=0

Equal Area Criterion

Pe
d

Pm1

c A b
1

Pm0

A2 e

0
Power Systems I

0 1 max

Equal Area Criterion

The result is that the rotor swings to a maximum angle



at which point the acceleration energy area and the deceleration

energy area are equal
1

(P

m1

Pe )d = area abc = area A1

max

(P

m1

Pe )d = area bde = area A2

area A1 = area A2



this is known as the equal area criterion

the rotor angle will oscillate back and forth between and max at
its natural frequency

Power Systems I

Equal Area Criterion - P mechanical

Pe

Pm1

A2

A1
a

Pm2

Power Systems I

max

Equal Area Criterion - P mechanical

1

max

Pm1 ( 1 0 ) Pmax sin d =

Pmax sin d Pm1 ( max 1 )

Pm1 ( max 0 ) = Pmax (cos 0 cos max )

Pm1 = Pmax sin max

( max 0 )sin max = cos 0 cos max

Pm1 = Pmax sin 1
Function is nonlinear in max
Solve using Newton-Raphson
Power Systems I

3-Phase Fault
1
G

Power Systems I

2
inf

Equal Area Criterion - 3 phase fault

Pe
f
e
A2

Pm

A1

0
Power Systems I

0 c

max

Equal Area Criterion - 3 phase fault

c

max

(
Pmax sin Pm ) d

Pm ( c 0 ) = Pmax (cos c cos max ) Pm ( max c )

Pm d =

Pm
( max c ) + cos max
cos c =
Pmax

Power Systems I

Critical Clearing Time

Pe
e
A2
a

Pm

cos c =

Pm
( max c ) + cos max
Pmax

cos max

Pm
=
Pmax

A1
b

0
Power Systems I

max

Critical Clearing Time

H d 2
= Pm Pe = Pm Pe = 0
2
f 0 dt
d 2 f 0
=
Pm
2
dt
H
t
d f 0
f0
=
Pm dt =
Pm t
0
dt
H
H
f0
Pm t 2 + 0
=
2H
2 H ( c 0 )
tc =
f 0 Pm

Power Systems I

3-Phase Fault
1
G

Power Systems I

2
inf

Equal Area Criterion

Pe
f
e
A2

Pm

Pe Pre-fault
Pe Post-fault
Pe during fault

A1
c
b

0
Power Systems I

max

Critical Clearing Time

Pe

Pe Pre-fault
Pe Post-fault
Pe during fault

e
A2

Pm

d
f

A1
c
b

0
Power Systems I

max

Critical Clearing Time

c

max

Pm ( c 0 ) P2 max sin d =

P3 max sin d Pm ( max c )

Pm ( max c ) + P3 max cos max P2 max cos 0

cos c =
P3 max P2 max

Power Systems I

Solving Non-linear ODE

Objective
Time domain solution of a system of differential equations
Given a function or a system of functions: f(x) or F(x)
Seek a time domain solution x(t) or x(t) which satisfy f(x) or F(x)

Integration of the differential equations

Linear equations - Closed form solutions:
Laplace transforms

Non-linear equations - Frequently no closed form solutions:

Numerical integration
Taylor Series
Euler
Runga-Kutta

Power Systems I

Solving Non-linear ODE

Taylor Series
Consider

dx
= f (x)
dt

Then by expansion

h
h
h
x + x + x iv +
2!
3!
4!
x = k1 x k 2 c1t c2t 2 c3t 3
x(t + h) = x + hx +

x = k1 x c1 2c2t 3c3t 2
x = k1 x 2c2 6c3t
Power Systems I

Solving Non-linear ODE

Eulers Method
First term of the Taylors series only is used

x(t + h) = x + hx + e(t , h)
y ( x) = x + c01 x + c00 + c10t + c20t 2 + c30t 3 +

=0

x = c01 x c00 c10t c20t 2 c30t 3

t k +1 = t k + h

(
+ h( c

x k +1 = x k + h c01 x k c00 c10t c20t 2 c30t 3

= xk

k
2 2
3 3
x

c
kh

c
k
h

c
k
h
01
00
10
20
30

x(t) = x( kh) x k
Power Systems I

Eulers Method

x2
x1
x0
t
t0
Power Systems I

t
t1

t2

Solving Non-linear ODE

Runga-Kutta

h
x (t + h ) = x + (g1 + 2 g 2 + 2 g3 + g 4 )
6
g1 = x(t , x )
g 2 = x(t , x + 12 hg1 )
g 3 = x(t , x + 12 hg 2 ) g 4 = x(t , x + hg3 )
x(t , x ) y ( x )
t k +1 = t k + h
x (t) = x ( kh ) x k
Power Systems I

Application
Power system equation

H d 2 i
= Pm Pe ( ) i ngen
2
f 0 dt
H
=M
f0
d 2 i Pm Pe ( ) di di
Pm Pe ( x 2 )
=

=
= x1i =

2
dt
M
M
dt
dt
M
M
d i
d i
i =
= x2 i = x1i = i
dt
dt
Power Systems I

Application
h
x = x + (g1i1 + 2 g1i 2 + 2 g1i 3 + g1i 4 )
6
Pm Pe (x k2 )

g1i1 = x(t , x ) =
M
M
k
1
x
+
P
P
(
2
m
e
2 hg 21 )
1
g1i 2 = x(t , x + 2 hg1 ) =

M
M
k
1
(
x
+
P
P
2
m
e
2 hg 22 )
1

g1i 3 = x(t , x + 2 hg 2 ) =
M
M
Pm Pe ( x k2 + hg 23 )
g1i 4 = x(t , x + hg3 ) =

M
M
k +1
1i

k
1i

Power Systems I

Application
h
x = x + ( g 2 i1 + 2 g 2 i 2 + 2 g 2 i 3 + g 2 i 4 )
6
g 2i1 = x(t , x ) = x1ki
k +1
2i

k
2i

g 2i 2 = x(t , x + 12 hg1 ) = x1ki

g 2i 3 = x(t , x + 12 hg2 ) = x1ki
g 2i 4 = x(t , x + hg3 ) = x1ki

Power Systems I

Example

Delta, degree

30
25
20
15
10
0

0.5

1.5
t, sec

2.5

0.5

1.5
t, sec

2.5

60.1

f, Hz

60.05
60
59.95
59.9
59.85

Power Systems I

Modeling Steps
Solve the initial load flow and obtain the initial bus
voltage magnitude and phase angle
Calculate the machine currents prior to the disturbance

I mach i

*
Smach
= * i
Vmach i

Obtain the voltages behind the transient reactances

i = Vmach i + j X d I mach i
Emach
Convert all loads to equivalent admittances

yi 0 =
Power Systems I

Si*
Vi

Pi j Qi
Vi

Modeling Steps
Combine the generator models with the networks bus
admittance matrix with converted loads

0
I mach

Ynn
= T
Yn mach

Yn mach
Ymach mach

Vn
Emach

Use kron reduction (matrix form) to remove the network

buses from the matrix
reduced
bus

= Ymach mach Y

reduced
I mach = Ybus
Emach

Power Systems I

T
n mach

[Ynn ]

Yn mach

Modeling Steps
Express in terms of the machines excitation voltages, the
power output
*
*

Smach
=
E
i
mach i I mach i

* i I mach i
Pmach i = Emach
I mach i =
Pmach i =
Power Systems I

m
j =1
m
j =1

jYij
Emach
i Emach
j Yij cos( ij i + j )
Emach

Example
Consider the following system
a three-phase fault at the middle of one line is cleared by
isolating the faulted circuit simultaneously at both ends.
The fault is cleared in 0.3 seconds, perform several steps of the
numerical solution of the swing equation using the modified Euler
method with a step size of
t = 0.01 seconds.
graph the swing equation for clearing times of 0.3 s,
0.4 s, and 0.5 s.

V1 = 1.0

H = 5.0

Xd = j0.3
Power Systems I

j0.3
j0.2
1

j0.3

Example
H =5
Pm = 0.8

Machine parameters

E = V + jX 1 I = 1.0 + ( j 0.65)

0.8 j 0.074
= 1.1726
1.0

(
1.17 )(1.0)
Pm = Pmax sin =
sin = 1.8 sin

0.65
0 = 26.4 = 0.4606 rad Initial conditions
Pm = 0.8 = 0 rad/s
[ fault ]
max

Pre-fault equation

(
1.17 )(1.0)
sin = 0.65 sin
=
1.8

Pa = Pm Pe[ fault ] = 0.8 0.65 sin

Power Systems I

fault parameters

Example
d
dt

= 0 rad/s
0

60
d
(0.8 0.65 sin(0.4606 rad )) = 19.27 rad/s2
=
5
dt 0

1p = 0.4606 + (0 )(0.01) = 0.4606 rad

1p = 0 + (19.27 )(0.01) = 0.1927 rad/s

d
dt

= 0.1927 rad/s
1p

60
d
(0.8 0.65 sin(0.4606 rad )) = 19.27 rad/s2
=
5
dt 1p
Power Systems I

Example
1c = 0.4606 + 12 (0 + 0.1927)(0.01) = 0.4615 rad

1c = 0 + 12 (19.27 + 19.27 )(0.01) = 0.1927 rad/s

End of first step. Next step:

d
= 0.1927 rad/s
dt 1
d
60
(0.8 0.65 sin(0.4615 rad )) = 19.25 rad/s2
=
dt 1p
5

Power Systems I

Example
One-machine system swing curve. Fault cleared at 0.3s
100

Power angle / time

fault clearing in 0.3 s

80

Delta, degree

60

40

20

-20

0.2

0.4

0.6
t, sec

Power Systems I

0.8

Example
One-machine system swing curve. Fault cleared at 0.4s
140

Power angle / time

fault clearing in 0.4 s

120

Delta, degree

100

80

60

40

20

0.2

0.4

0.6
t, sec

Power Systems I

0.8

Example
One-machine system swing curve. Fault cleared at 0.5s
500
450

Power angle / time

fault clearing in 0.5 s

400

Delta, degree

350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0

Power Systems I

0.2

0.4

0.6
t, sec

0.8

Example
Phase angle difference (fault cleared at 0.5s)
1400

Power angle / time 1200

fault clearing in 0.5 s

Delta, degree

1000
800
600
400
200
0
-200

Power Systems I

0.5

1
t, sec

1.5