Alcohol During Adolescence
Alcohol During Adolescence
Alcohol During Adolescence
Author Manuscript
Alcohol. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2014 October 16.
for Drug and Alcohol Programs, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC
29425
Abstract
Alcohol use increases across adolescence and is a concern in the United States. In humans, males
and females consume different amounts of alcohol depending on the age of initiation and the longterm consequences of early ethanol consumption are not readily understood. The purpose of our
work is to better understand the immediate and long-term impact of ethanol exposure during
adolescence and the effects it can have on behavior and dopaminergic responsivity. We have
assessed sex differences in voluntary ethanol consumption during adolescence and adulthood and
the influence of binge ethanol exposure during adolescence. We have observed that males are
sensitive to passive social influences that mediate voluntary ethanol consumption and early
ethanol exposure induces long-term changes in responsivity to ethanol in adulthood. Exposure to
moderate doses of ethanol during adolescence produced alterations in dopamine (DA) in the
nucleus accumbens septi (NAcc) during adolescence and later in adulthood. Taken together, all of
these data indicate the adolescent brain is sensitive to the impact of early ethanol exposure during
this critical developmental period.
Keywords
Adolescence; alcohol; sex differences; voluntary alcohol intake; social interaction; dopamine;
neurochemistry
To whom correspondence should be addressed: Cheryl L. Kirstein, Ph.D., Psychology Department-PCD 4118G, University of South
Florida, 4202 East Fowler Avenue, Tampa, Florida 33620, Phone: (813) 974-9626, Fax: (813) 974-4617, [email protected].
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Maldonado-Devincci et al.
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Introduction
NIH-PA Author Manuscript
Initiation of alcohol use during adolescence is high in both males and females, with rates of
use starting as low as 3.9% among adolescents aged 1213 and increasing rapidly across
adolescence with rates as high as 51.6% among individuals aged 1820 (Substance Abuse
and Mental Heath Services Administration, 2007). Underage drinking is slightly higher in
males than females (Substance Abuse and Mental Heath Services Administration, 2007).
Our work focuses on the hypothesis that early initiation of alcohol use may be a predictor of
continued use into adulthood and those that begin use of alcohol at an early age may also be
at risk for developing an alcohol abuse disorder in adulthood (Grant et al., 2001; Hasin and
Glick, 1992). Early exposure to ethanol may predispose the brain to greater vulnerability to
subsequent ethanol exposure both behaviorally and neurochemically
Rodent Model of Alcohol Exposure during Adolescence
In rodent models, the time frame encompassing adolescence has yet to reach consensus.
Adolescence in the rodent has been defined using various factors indicative of
developmental transitions in human adolescents. These factors include changes in behavioral
patterns, hormonal patterns, and/or primary sexual characteristics. In a comprehensive
review, Spear (2000) argues that adolescence cannot be defined based solely on the
characteristics associated with puberty and sexual maturation, but rather, that adolescence is
a period of soft events that should be viewed as a time of transitions that cannot be clearly
delineated. Using the appearance of growth spurt, pruning of excitatory synapses as well as
unique behavioral transitions in the rat (e.g., increased peer interaction, play and exploratory
behavior in the wild), Spear (2000) defined adolescence broadly from postnatal day (PND)
28 to PND 42, with the acknowledgement that in males some traits may appear as late as
PND 55. Other reviews have suggested similar broad classifications defined by the
appearance of mature hormonal cycling (PND 2830) and the subsequent appearance of
reproductive maturity which can occur as late as PND 60 in males (Ojeda and Urbanski,
1994; Smith, 2003). Within this broad range, some researchers have identified the categories
of early- (PND 2134), mid- (PND 3446) and late- (PND 4659) adolescence centered
around the appearance of puberty (between PND 3344) and encompassed by weaning on
PND 21 and reproductive maturity on PND 59 (Tirelli et al., 2003). The beginning of
preadolescence in the rat, in terms of sexual maturation begins at approximately PND 20 for
females and PND 30 for males (Odell, 1990) with significant changes continuing between
PND 2855 (Ojeda & Urbanski, 1994).
Ethanol has been shown to affect multiple neurotransmitter systems during early
development as well as adulthood. Most studies to date have not focused on adolescent
animals but have been conducted during the early postnatal period (Druse, 1992; Light,
Serbus & Santiago, 1989; Martin, Savage & Swartzwelder, 1992; Savage et al., 1991) or in
older, mature animals (see Hunt, 1985, for review). Therefore it is our aim to investigate the
behavioral effects of alcohol during adolescence and to determine how alcohols effects on
mesolimbic DA within adolescence is critical in addressing the long-term effects of early
exposure to alcohol. For these reasons our work has examined the effects of alcohol
exposure during the adolescent transition period from PND 3050.
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Social Interaction
One of the behavioral aspects that guides some of the recent work we have conducted
includes a preclinical approach to understanding environmental factors, specifically the
influence of social interaction and its impact on passive social modeling behavior, which can
influence early alcohol-seeking behavior in adolescent male and female rats. Social
influences, including passive social influences, such as social modeling, contribute to future
alcohol use in adolescent humans (Graham, Marks and Hansen, 1991). Previous studies have
shown the ability of alcohol to facilitate social interactions as an important factor in
adolescent drinking behaviors (Beck, Thombs and Summons, 1993; Beck and Treiman,
1996; Smith, Goldman, Greenbaum and Christiansen, 1995; Thombs, Beck, Mahoney,
Bromley and Bezon, 1994).
Acute ethanol increases social interaction in adolescent rats (Varlinskaya et al., 2001), and
produces social inhibition in adult rats (Varlinskaya and Spear, 2006). Given the increased
social interaction observed in adolescent rats administered ethanol, the demonstratorobserver model has been applied to assess preference for alcohol in adolescent rodents after
social interaction with a familiar alcohol-intoxicated peer (e.g. Fernandez-Vidal and Molina,
2004; Hunt, Holloway and Scordalakes, 2001). One experiment was designed to extend on
the findings of Hunt and colleagues, in which they observed increased ethanol intake in
adolescent rats following social interaction with a familiar alcohol-intoxicated peer (Hunt et
al., 2001). The present work assessed the effects of social familiarity during social
interaction on voluntary ethanol intake using a two-bottle choice test with a choice between
a sweetened ethanol solution and water in male and female adolescent rats (Maldonado,
Finkbeiner and Kirstein, 2008). Consistent with previous work in rodents (Hunt et al., 2001),
we found adolescent males and females that socially interacted with an alcohol-intoxicated
familiar peer voluntarily consumed significantly more sweetened ethanol relative to those
that socially interacted with an alcohol-free peer (Maldonado et al., 2008a). In contrast,
adolescent males that socially interacted with an unfamiliar alcohol-intoxicated peer
consumed significantly less sweetened ethanol relative to adolescent males that socially
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pairings with an alcohol-free peer for control rats). Each observer socially interacted with
the same demonstrator for all conditioning sessions. On the final day, PND 35, all rats
underwent a post-conditioning test to assess changes in time spent in the designated paired
chamber (Maldonado and Kirstein, unpublished data).
Note that adolescent observers were never administered water or ethanol in this experiment,
but were given the opportunity to socially interact with an alcohol-intoxicated demonstrator
to assess changes in behavior. As depicted in Figure 2, adolescent ethanol nave observer
male rats that socially interacted with an alcohol-intoxicated peer administered the highest
dose (1.5 g/kg) showed a significant increase in time spent in the chamber paired with the
alcohol-intoxicated peer at the post-conditioning test relative to the preconditioning baseline
assessment as compared to all other groups. There were no other significant differences
observed in adolescent ethanol nave male observers that socially interacted with an alcoholintoxicated peer administered the lower ethanol dose (0.5 g/kg) relative to their controls. Nor
were there changes in preference for the environment paired with social interaction with an
alcohol-intoxicated demonstrator at either dose in ethanol-nave female observers relative to
their controls (Maldonado and Kirstein, unpublished data). Together, these data indicate
adolescent male rats are especially sensitive to environmental conditions surrounding the
influence of the peer on changes in behavior following social interaction with an alcoholintoxicated peer.
Social play in adolescent animals has been suggested to be rewarding using the conditioned
place preference (CPP) paradigm (Calcagnetti & Schechter, 1992). Consistent with
Calcagnetti and Schechter (1992), there were no significant sex differences in time spent in
the initially least preferred side after conditioning in control animals in the social interaction
conditioning experiment discussed above (Figures 1 and 2). Extending upon the work of
Calcagnetti and Schechter (1992), using the conditioned place preference paradigm in
adolescent animals, in conjunction with the effects of ethanol on facilitating social
interaction, adolescent male rats appear to be the most sensitive to the effects of cues paired
with social interaction with an alcohol-intoxicated peer. Overall, the present results suggest
adolescent males are particularly sensitive to environmental conditions when socially
interacting with an alcohol-intoxicated peer, which may alter subsequent responding for
alcohol in social settings.
The ability of alcohol to facilitate social interactions plays a key role in adolescent drinking
behaviors (Beck et al., 1993; Beck and Treiman, 1996; Smith et al., 1995). Additionally, one
of the most important factors implicated in alcohol use in high school students is its effects
on social facilitation (Beck & Treiman, 1996; Thombs et al., 1994). Passive social
influences have been shown to affect future alcohol use in adolescent humans (Graham et
al., 1991) and the results obtained from the present experiments and previous preclinical
work (Fernandez-Vidal & Molina, 2004; Hunt et al., 2001) confirms this notion. More work
should be conducted to identify the specific mechanisms that may mediate these results and
how they may alter adolescent alcohol-seeking behavior.
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The method of initial exposure to ethanol can alter future drinking patterns in rats (Files et
al., 1997). Ethanol consumption during adolescence appears to have no effect on subsequent
ethanol intake in adulthood (Slawecki and Betancourt, 2002; Tolliver and Samson, 1991;
Vetter et al., 2007). Adolescent rats voluntarily consume more ethanol relative to adults
(Truxell et al., 2007) when animals were allowed voluntary access to ethanol under
continuous access conditions (Brunell and Spear, 2005; Doremus et al., 2005; Vetter et al.,
2007). The same effect was observed using a modified sucrose-substitution paradigm under
limited access conditions (Maldonado, Finkbeiner, Alipour and Kirstein, 2008).
Importantly, some of our most recent work has examined some of the sex-related differences
that may accompany the age-related differences in voluntary ethanol consumption under
limited access conditions. In the most common paradigm we employ in our experiments, rats
are given daily 30 minutes access to sweetened ethanol solutions using sucrose or saccharin.
Rats are initially placed in a holding cage for 3060 minutes to allow them to acclimate to
the behavioral testing room and subsequently given access to ethanol and water for 30
minutes in rats that are neither food, nor water deprived. We have observed interesting sex
and age-related differences in voluntary ethanol consumption under these limited access
conditions. As described recently, adolescent male rats consume significantly more ethanol
than adult male rats at higher sweetened ethanol concentrations (10% and 20% v/v ethanol)
(Maldonado et al., 2008b). In contrast, adult female rats consume significantly more ethanol
than adolescent female rats at lower sweetened ethanol concentrations (5% and 10%).
Consistent with other work, we have observed increased voluntary sweetened ethanol intake
in females as compared to males, when voluntary sweetened ethanol intake was equated for
body weight. These data highlight the importance of examining sex differences when
conducting developmental experiments. It appears early during adolescence there are no
differences in voluntary sweetened ethanol consumption (Maldonado and Kirstein,
unpublished data), however sex differences in voluntary ethanol consumption are observed
in adulthood (Almeida et al., 1998; Blanchard et al., 1993; Juarez and Barrios de Tomasi,
1999; Lancaster et al., 1996). Additionally, across development from adolescence into
young adulthood, there appears to be a natural decrease in voluntary ethanol consumption
(Vetter et al., 2007). Given that sex differences emerge in adulthood, early exposure to
ethanol during adolescence could alter the normal pattern of ethanol consumption in
adulthood.
Interestingly, when using a binge model of adolescent ethanol exposure and assessing
subsequent sweetened ethanol intake under limited access conditions in young adulthood in
male and female rats, we have observed dramatic increases in voluntary ethanol intake in
rats that were treated with high doses of ethanol during adolescence relative to those that
were treated with water during adolescence (Maldonado et al., 2009). Male and female rats
were exposed to ethanol (1.5, 3.0 or 5.0 g/kg/intragastric intubation) or water across
adolescence in four-day intervals (PND 2831, PND 3538, and PND 4345) with three
days between each administration in which animals were left undisturbed (PND 3234 and
PND 3941). Immediately following ethanol pretreatment during adolescence, all rats
underwent fourteen days of abstinence in which animals were left undisturbed (PND 4659).
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Finally, voluntary sweetened ethanol (0.5% saccharin/ 10% ethanol) intake was assessed in
young adulthood (PND 6069). According to preliminary data, when ethanol intake was
equated for body weight, females consumed significantly more ethanol than males
regardless of pretreatment with ethanol or water. Pretreatment with any dose of ethanol
enhanced this effect. However, when we equated for the innate sex differences in voluntary
ethanol consumption observed in adulthood, it appears males were more vulnerable to the
subsequent increase in voluntary ethanol consumption in adulthood. These data highlight the
importance of early ethanol history and the relative impact it has on later ethanol
consumption in adulthood when assessing vulnerability to subsequent ethanol-seeking and
consumption behaviors.
Long-term effects of adolescent ethanol exposure
Differential biphasic effects of ethanol have been demonstrated for ethanol-induced motor
activity. Ethanol-induced locomotor activity has been shown to be increased among
adolescent male and female alcohol-preferring P rats (Rodd et al., 2004). Specifically, in
response to an acute dose of 0.50 or 0.75 g/kg ethanol, adolescent P female rats
demonstrated increased activity counts relative to animals administered saline or 0.25 g/kg
ethanol. Additionally, adolescent P males exhibited elevated activity counts when
administered 0.25, 0.50, or 0.75 g/kg ethanol relative to saline controls. In animals of both
sexes activity counts were significantly decreased at 1.50 g/kg ethanol. Because of the
heightened sensitivity to ethanol among adolescent P females, the present study used outbred female rats to assess the effects of chronic ethanol administration (PND 3446) during
adolescence to assess the dose-dependent effects of ethanol on locomotor activity to 0.75
and 1.50 g/kg/ip/b.i.d. ethanol (Maldonado and Kirstein, unpublished data). Rats underwent
abstinence from PND 47 to PND 59. Rats were then challenged with ethanol (0.75 or 1.50
g/kg/ip) or saline on PND 60.
The results of this study indicated significant long-term alterations in behavior among
adolescent female rats that were repeatedly exposed to ethanol during this period of
development. Adolescent females developed tolerance to the high dose of ethanol (1.50
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the mesolimbic dopaminergic system given its involvement in reward, attention, novelty
preference and salience.
Neurochemistry
Alcohol consumption during adolescence is frequent and often involves heavy drinking
patterns such as binge drinking (Johnston, OMalley, Bachman and Schulenberg, 2006).
High rates of alcohol consumption have been reported for human (Bates and Labouvie,
1997) and rodent adolescents in comparison to adults (Doremus et al., 2005). Normal
development of neuronal pathways may be disturbed by alcohol consumption during
adolescence, consequently altering subsequent adult brain functioning. Therefore, it is
important to understand how the adolescent brain develops and also the impact of early
alcohol exposure on adult behavior and brain functioning.
Alcohol abuse research in rodents has focused on one particular pathway in the brain, the
mesolimbic dopamine (DA) pathway that originates in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and
projects to the nucleus accumbens septi (NAcc; Dahlstrom and Fuxe, 1964). Due to the fact
that ethanol increases DA in the NAcc as measured by in vivo microdialysis (Yoshimoto et
al, 1992), examining ethanols impact on extracellular DA levels in adolescents would help
determine whether DA mediates adolescent vulnerability to high ethanol consumption rates
and alcohol dependency.
Our early work showed preadolescent rats (PND 25) had increased NAcc DA levels
following acute or repeated ethanol injections (1.0 g/kg/ip) relative to saline injected
controls with repeated ethanol inducing a leftward shift in peak DA levels (Philpot and
Kirstein, 1998). Therefore, ethanol-induced DA levels could be reliably obtained in the
young rat. The ability of ethanol to induce DA associated expectancy effects was also
measured. Preadolescent rats pretreated with ethanol but only given a saline injection during
DA sampling exhibited increased NAcc DA levels as well (Philpot and Kirstein, 1998).
These data suggest DA levels increased in anticipation or expectancy of ethanol
administration.
Maldonado-Devincci et al.
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levels for early adolescent (PND 35) rats. It should be noted the conventional method
reported dialysate DA levels that were not corrected for probe recovery. These results
indicate ontogenetic differences in basal DA. Furthermore, different findings for PND 35
rats between the two methods suggest that reuptake and/or metabolic differences for early
adolescent rats given that the quantitative method indirectly assesses group differences in
reuptake and transporter functioning. These data characterized basal DA levels in naive
adolescent rats and suggest basal inherent differences in DA during development may likely
impact neurochemical reactivity to early life alcohol exposure and produce long-term
consequences in neuronal functioning in adulthood.
Early alcohol use is highly associated with more severe alcohol dependency as an adult
(Grant and Dawson, 1997) and mesolimbic DA mediate the rewarding properties of alcohol
in adult rodents (Engleman et al., 2000; Ericson, Blomqvist, Engel and Soderpalm, 1998;
Gonzales, Job and Doyon, 2004; Katner and Weiss, 2001; Weiss, Lorang, Bloom and Koob,
1993; Weiss et al., 1996). Given these data, it was hypothesized that adult rats pretreated
with ethanol during adolescence would have different basal DA concentrations than salinetreated controls. Adolescent rats were injected daily from PND 3050 with either 0.75
g/kg/ip ethanol or saline followed by an ethanol-abstinent period from PND 5165. Changes
in extracellular DA levels in the NAcc were quantified on PND 70. Extracellular DA levels
were greater in rats chronically treated with ethanol during adolescence in comparison to
saline-exposed controls (Figure 5; Badanich, Maldonado and Kirstein, 2007). These data
support similar reports in the adult literature (Weiss et al., 1996); however, a recent
adolescent alcohol report (Sahr, Thielen, Lumeng, Li and McBride, 2004) suggested there
were no differences in DA for rats selectively bred to drink alcohol during adolescence.
Differences between the previous adolescent report and the present study may certainly be
attributable to differences in route of administration whereas the previous report
incorporated voluntary self-administration and the present study incorporated passive
experimenter administration of alcohol injections. Voluntary self-administration of alcohol
produces different neurochemical responses than involuntary or passive administration of
alcohol (Ericson et al., 1998; Weiss et al., 1993; Imperato and Di Chiara, 1986; Kiianmaa,
Nurmi, Nykanen and Sinclair, 1995; Yoshimoto, McBride, Lumen and Li, 1992). DA results
may have differed had rats in the present study been allowed to voluntarily drink alcohol
during adolescence. Further, differences between the previous report and the present study
may be attributable to genetic differences between rodent strains particularly because rats
used in the previous report were selectively bred for high ethanol consumption while rats in
the present study were out-bred rats.
These data provided insight into how the adolescent brain responds to ethanol insult during
adolescence and that these effects persist into adulthood. These data contribute to an
understanding of how the human adolescent brain may develop and also how alcohol use
during adolescence effects normal brain development. Clinical and experimental research
should continue to focus on the development of the adolescent brain so to better understand
how to treat adolescent substance use/abuse. Future research should investigate whether
elevated basal DA impacts ethanol-seeking behavior differently in adolescent and adult rats
as DA has been shown to mediate drug-seeking behavior in adult rodents.
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Acknowledgments
This work was funded by NIAAA AA11820, the University of South Florida Neuroscience Health Program, the
University of South Florida College of Arts and Sciences, the Department of Psychology and the University of
South Florida Honors College.
Maldonado-Devincci et al.
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Figure 1.
The diagram is a schematic of the experimental protocol used in the social interaction
experiment.
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As depicted in the figure adolescent male alcohol nave observer rats that socially interacted
with demonstrators administered the highest dose of ethanol showed an increase in time
spent in the chamber paired with social interaction with an alcohol-intoxicated demonstrator
after conditioning relative to all other groups. Adolescent alcohol nave female observers
showed no change in time spent in the chamber paired with social interaction with an
alcohol-intoxicated demonstrator, regardless of dose. Data presented are mean +/ SEM
difference in seconds spent in the paired chamber at test minus baseline presented as the
change in time spent in the chamber paired with social interaction in the adolescent alcohol
naive observers initially least preferred chamber. * indicates significant difference from all
other sex- and dose-matched groups. The bars indicate the type of demonstrator the alcohol
nave adolescent observer socially interacted with (0.0 (clear bars)- social interaction with a
sober peer; 0.5 (light grey) and 1.5 (dark grey)- social interaction with an alcoholintoxicated peer). Female 0.0 n = 13; Female 0.5 n = 14; Female 1.5 n = 13; Male 0.0 n = 8;
Male 0.5 n = 11; Male 1.5 n = 10.
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Figure 3.
As depicted in the figure, animals that were pretreated with ethanol during adolescence and
conditioned with ethanol in young adulthood spent more time in the ethanol-paired chamber
relative to rats that were pretreated saline and conditioned with ethanol in young adulthood
and also those that were pretreated with ethanol during adolescence and conditioned with
saline in adulthood. Data presented are mean +/ SEM of the change in time spent in the
paired chamber in the initially least preferred chamber (test-baseline). The bars indicate
conditioning in young adulthood with saline (clear bars) or ethanol (grey bars). Saline-Saline
n = 9; Saline-Ethanol n = 10; Ethanol-Saline n = 9; Ethanol-Ethanol n = 9.
Maldonado-Devincci et al.
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Figure 4.
In both panels, the x-axis denotes Age and the y-axis denotes extracellular DA levels (nM).
Both approaches yielded similar age results [quantitative: F(2, 12)=14.01, P < 0.05;
conventional: F(3, 279)=17.171, P < 0.05] with late adolescent animals (PND 45) having
significantly higher basal DA levels than adults, but with the conventional method (Philpot
and Kirstein, 2004), levels obtained in adolescents were higher than those obtained using the
quantitative method (Badanich, Adler & Kirstein, 2006). Additionally, the quantitative
approach revealed lower basal DA levels for early adolescent (PND 35) rats. For panel A, #
= differs from PND 60; ## = differs from PND 45 and PND 60. For panel B, diamonds =
differs from PND 45 and PND 60; stars = differs from all other ages. It should be noted the
conventional method in panel B shows dialysate DA levels that were not corrected for probe
recovery. Figures reproduced with permission from Philpot and Kirstein, 2004 and Badanich
et al, 2006).
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The amount of DA in the microdialysis perfusate (DAin) is on the x-axis while the
difference between DAin and recovered DA (DAout) is on the y-axis (DAin DAout). The
broken horizontal line depicts the point of no net flux of DA between the brain and the
microdialysis perfusate. The x-intercept denotes the extracellular DA concentration in the
NAcc for ethanol-treated (solid line; n=4) and saline control (broken line n=4) rats. Basal
DA was greater for rats pretreated with ethanol during adolescence (6.5 nM DA) than for
saline controls (3.6 nM DA); [t(6)= 2.458, P < 0.05]. The slope of the regression line
denotes the extraction fraction (Ed), an indirect measure of DA reuptake, for ethanol-treated
(87%) and saline control (68%) rats. Each data point denotes mean and SEM. This figure
has been reproduced with permission from Badanich et al., 2007.