SAMPLING

All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry constitute a

universe or population. A complete enumeration of all the items in the
population is known as a census inquiry. It can be presumed that in such
an inquiry when all the items are covered no element of chance is left and
highest accuracy is obtained. But in practice this may not be true. Even the
slightest element of bias in such an inquiry will get larger and larger as the
number of observations increases. Moreover, there is no way of checking
the element of bias or its extent except through a resurvey or use of sample
checks. Besides, this type of inquiry involves a great deal of time, money
and energy. Not only this, census inquiry is not possible in practice under
many circumstances. For instance, blood testing is done only on sample
basis. Hence, quite often we select only a few items from the universe for
our study purposes. The items so selected constitute what is technically
called a sample.
While developing a sampling design, the researcher must pay attention
to the following points:
(i) Type of universe: The first step in developing any sample design is to
clearly define the set of objects, technically called the Universe, to be
studied. The universe can be finite or infinite. In finite universe the number
of items is certain, but in case of an infinite universe the number of items is
infinite, i.e., we cannot have any idea about the total number of items. The
population of a city, the number of workers in a factory and the like are
examples of finite universes, whereas the number of stars in the sky,
listeners of a specific radio programme, throwing of a dice etc. are
examples of infinite universes.
(ii) Sampling unit: A decision has to be taken concerning a sampling unit
before selecting sample. Sampling unit may be a geographical one such as
state, district, village, etc., or a construction unit such as house, flat, etc., or
it may be a social unit such as family, club, school, etc., or it may be an
individual. The researcher will have to decide one or more of such units that
he has to select for his study.
(iii) Source list: It is also known as sampling frame from which sample
is to be drawn. It contains the names of all items of a universe (in case of
finite universe only). If source list is not available, researcher has to prepare
it. Such a list should be comprehensive, correct, reliable and appropriate. It
is extremely important for the source list to be as representative of the
population as possible.
(iv) Size of sample: This refers to the number of items to be selected
from the universe to constitute a sample. This a major problem before a
researcher. The size of sample should neither be excessively large, nor too

small. It should be optimum. An optimum sample is one which fulfills the

requirements of efficiency, representativeness, reliability and flexibility.
While deciding the size of sample, researcher must determine the desired
precision as also an acceptable confidence level for the estimate. The size
of population variance needs to be considered as in case of larger variance
usually a bigger sample is needed. The size of population must be kept in
view for this also limits the sample size. The parameters of interest in a
research study must be kept in view, while deciding the size of the sample.
Costs too dictate the size of sample that we can draw. As such, budgetary
constraint must invariably be taken into consideration when we decide the
sample size.
(v) Parameters of interest: In determining the sample design, one must
consider the question of the specific population parameters which are of
interest. For instance, we may be interested in estimating the proportion of
persons with some characteristic in the population, or we may be interested
in knowing some average or the other measure concerning the population.
There may also be important sub-groups in the population about whom we
would like to make estimates. All this has a strong impact upon the
sample design we would accept.
(vi) Budgetary constraint: Cost considerations, from practical point of
view, have a major impact upon decisions relating to not only the size of
the sample but also to the type of sample. This fact can even lead to the
use of a non-probability sample.
(vii) Sampling procedure: Finally, the researcher must decide the type of
sample he will use i.e., he must decide about the technique to be used in
selecting the items for the sample. In fact, this technique or procedure
stands for the sample design itself. There are several sample designs
(explained in the pages that follow) out of which the researcher must
choose one for his study. Obviously, he must select that design which, for a
given sample size and for a given cost, has a smaller sampling error.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SAMPLE DESIGN
From what has been stated above, we can list down the characteristics of a
good sample design as under:
(a)
(b)
(c)
the

Sample design must result in a truly representative sample.

Sample design must be such which results in a small sampling error.
Sample design must be viable in the context of funds available for
research study.

(d) Sample design must be such so that systematic bias can be

controlled in a better way.
(e) Sample should be such that the results of the sample study can be

applied, in general, for the universe with a reasonable level of confidence.

Types of sampling
The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample or what is
popularly known as the sample design. In other words, a sample design is a
definite plan determined before any data are actually collected for
obtaining a sample from a given population. Thus, the plan to select 12 of
a citys 200 drugstores in a certain way constitutes a sample design.
Samples can be either probability samples or non-probability samples. With
probability samples each element has a known probability of being included
in the sample but the non-probability samples do not allow the researcher to
determine this probability. Probability samples are those based on simple
random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling, cluster/area
sampling whereas non-probability samples are those based on convenience
sampling, judgement sampling and quota sampling techniques. A brief
mention of the important sample designs is as follows:
(i) Deliberate sampling: Deliberate sampling is also known as purposive or
non-probability sampling. This sampling method involves purposive or
deliberate selection of particular units of the universe for constituting a
sample which represents the universe. When population elements are
selected for inclusion in the sample based on the ease of access, it can be
called convenience sampling. If a researcher wishes to secure data from,
say, gasoline buyers, he may select a fixed number of petrol stations and
may conduct interviews at these stations. This would be an example of
convenience sample of gasoline buyers. At times such a procedure may
give very biased results particularly when the population is not
homogeneous. On the other hand, in judgement sampling the researchers
judgement is used for selecting items which he considers as representative
of the population. For example, a judgement sample of college students
might be taken to secure reactions to a new method of teaching. Judgement
sampling is used quite frequently in qualitative research where the desire
happens to be to develop hypotheses rather than to generalise to larger
populations.
(ii) Simple random sampling: This type of sampling is also known as
chance sampling or probability sampling where each and every item in the
population has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample and each one of
the possible samples, in case of finite universe, has the same probability of
being selected. For example, if we have to select a sample of 300 items
from a universe of 15,000 items, then we can put the names or numbers of
all the 15,000 items on slips of paper and conduct a lottery. Using the
random number tables is another method of random sampling. To select

the sample, each item is assigned a number from 1 to 15,000. Then, 300
five digit random numbers are selected from the table. To do this we select
some random starting point and then a systematic pattern is used in
proceeding through the table. We might start in the 4th row, second column
and proceed down the column to the bottom of the table and then move to
the top of the next column to the right. When a number exceeds the limit of
the numbers in the frame, in our case over 15,000, it is simply passed over
and the next number selected that does fall within the relevant range.
Since the numbers were placed in the table in a completely random
fashion, the resulting sample is random. This procedure gives each item an
equal probability of being selected. In case of infinite population, the
selection of each item in a random sample is controlled by the same
probability and that successive selections are independent of one another.
(iii) Systematic sampling: In some instances the most practical way of
sampling is to select every 15th name on a list, every 10th house on one
side of a street and so on. Sampling of this type is known as systematic
sampling. An element of randomness is usually introduced into this kind of
sampling by using random numbers to pick up the unit with which to start.
This procedure is useful when sampling frame is available in the form of a
list. In such a design the selection process starts by picking some random
point in the list and then every nth element is selected until the desired
number is secured.
Stratified sampling: If the population from which a sample is to be drawn
does not constitute a homogeneous group, then stratified sampling
technique is applied so as to obtain a representative sample. In this
technique, the population is stratified into a number of non- overlapping
subpopulations or strata and sample items are selected from each stratum.
If the items selected from each stratum is based on simple random sampling
the entire procedure, first stratification and then simple random sampling, is
known as stratified random sampling.
(v) Quota sampling: In stratified sampling the cost of taking random
samples from individual strata is often so expensive that interviewers are
simply given quota to be filled from different strata, the actual selection of
items for sample being left to the interviewers judgement. This is called
quota sampling. The size of the quota for each stratum is generally
proportionate to the size of that stratum in the population. Quota sampling is
thus an important form of non-probability sampling. Quota samples
generally happen to be judgement samples rather than random samples.
(vi)
Cluster sampling and area sampling: Cluster sampling involves
grouping the population and then selecting the groups or the clusters rather
than individual elements for inclusion in the sample. Suppose some
departmental store wishes to sample its credit card holders. It has issued its

cards to 15,000 customers. The sample size is to be kept say 450. For
cluster sampling this list of 15,000 card holders could be formed into 100
clusters of 150 card holders each. Three clusters might then be selected for
the sample randomly. The sample size must often be larger than the simple
random sample to ensure the same level of accuracy because is cluster
sampling procedural potential for order bias and other sources of error is
usually accentuated. The clustering approach can, however, make the
sampling procedure relatively easier and increase the efficiency of field
work, specially in the case of personal interviews.
Area sampling is quite close to cluster sampling and is often talked about
when the total geographical area of interest happens to be big one. Under
area sampling we first divide the total area into a number of smaller nonoverlapping areas, generally called geographical clusters, then a number of
these smaller areas are randomly selected, and all units in these small
areas are included in the sample. Area sampling is specially helpful where
we do not have the list of the population concerned. It also makes the field
interviewing more efficient since interviewer can do many interviews at
each location.
(vii) Multi-stage sampling: This is a further development of the idea of
cluster sampling. This technique is meant for big inquiries extending to a
considerably large geographical area like an entire country. Under multistage sampling the first stage may be to select large primary sampling
units such as states, then districts, then towns and finally certain families
within towns. If the technique of random-sampling is applied at all stages,
the sampling procedure is described as multi-stage random sampling.
(viii) Sequential sampling: This is somewhat a complex sample design
where the ultimate size of the sample is not fixed in advance but is
determined according to mathematical decisions on the basis of information
yielded as survey progresses. This design is usually adopted under
acceptance sampling plan in the context of statistical quality control.