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Table of Contents
About This Book
vii
About the Author
CHAPTER I Basic Instruments

Why Study Instruments?; Aircraft Instrument Requirements;
Pitot-Static System Instruments; Gyro Instruments; Compass Systems;
Electronic Instruments; Computers in Aircraft
CHAPTER II Powerplant Instruments
55
and Logic Gates
Liquid Quantity Measuring Systems; Fuel Flow Indicators;
Temperature Measuring Systems; Position Indicating Systems; Tachometers;
Oil Pressure Indicators; Torquemeters; Engine Pressure Ratio Indicators;
Manifold Pressure Gauges; Primary Power Setting Instruments; Vibration Indicators;
Logic Circuits and Digital Systems; Takeoff Warning Systems; Angle of Attack Indicators;
Stall Warning Systems; Annunciators; FARs for Warning Systems and Annunciators
CHAPTER III Communication and Navigation Systems
103
Radio Fundamentals; Regulations and Standards for Radios;

Intercom and Interphone Systems; Communications Radios;
Emergency Locator Transmitters (ELTs);
Cockpit Voice Recorders and Flight Data Recorders; Navigational Systems;
Long Range Navigation Systems; Instrument Landing System (ILS);
Microwave Landing System (MLS); Radar Altimeter;
Ground Proximity Warning System (GPWS); Weather Radar; Stormscope;
TCAS Airborne Collision Avoidance System
CHAPTER IV Aircraft Antennas and Autopilots
149
Installation and Inspection of Avionics; Antenna Installations;

Autopilots and Flight Directors
Appendix A Glossary
193
Appendix B Abbreviations
197
Index
201
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Aircraft Technical Books, LLC
(970) 726-5111
http://www.ACTechBooks.com
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(970) 726-5111
About This Book

This textbook is intended to be used in the instruction of students in an aviation maintenance technician training program. The descriptions, drawings
and graphics in this book are for instructional purposes only and should not be used as a technical
reference source for specific maintenance tasks on
aircraft or aircraft systems or for other operational
purposes. Excerpts from Federal Aviation Regulations and other sources have been paraphrased and
simplified in order to save space and time.
The author wishes to express his appreciation for
permission to use material from the technical publications of the following aviation companies.
Beechcraft Aircraft Corp. (Wichita, Kansas)
Canadair Group, Bombardier Inc. (Montreal,
Quebec, Canada)
Cessna Aircraft Co. (Wichita, Kansas)
Comant Industries Inc. (Sante Fe Springs,
California)
Dayton-Granger Inc. (Fort Lauderdale, Florida)

Dorne and Margolin Inc. (Bohemia, New York)
Flight Dynamics Inc. (Portland, Oregon)
Piper Aircraft Corp. (Vero Beach, Florida)
Sensor Systems (Chatsworth, California)
Terra Avionics (Albuquerque, New Mexico)
United Technologies Pratt & Whitney Canada
Inc. (Longueuil, Quebec, Canada)
The Canadair drawings which appear throughout
this book are the proprietary property of Bombardier
Inc, Canadair Group. As such, it is forbidden to copy
these drawings without the express written permission of Bombardier Inc., Canadair Group. Readers
are cautioned that the drawings are training
material only and as such are not subject to revision.
They are not to be used in lieu of approved technical
manual illustrations for the purposes of carrying out
any maintenance procedure or any other activity on
any Canadair aircraft or any other aircraft.

(970) 726-5111
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About The Author

Max F. Henderson has been teaching Aviation
Maintenance Technology subjects at Embry-Riddle
Aeronautical University since 1982. Previous experience includes working as an Electronics Technician in the U.S. Air Force, as a Commercial pilot
and A&P mechanic and as a Control Tower Operator.
Mr. Henderson holds four FAA certificates:
Commercial Pilot Certificate Ratings for
single and multi-engine land, instruments,
single-engine seaplanes and gliders.
Mechanic Certificate Airframe and
Powerplant ratings
3. Ground Instructor Certificate Advanced
rating
4. Control Tower Operator Certificate

During his years at Embry-Riddle Aeronautical
University, Mr. Henderson has earned the following degrees: A.S. Degree in Aircraft Maintenance,
B.S. Degree in Professional Aeronautics and a
Master's Degree in Aeronautical Science. Mr.
Henderson acquired his interest in aviation from
his father Floyd B. Henderson whose flying and
maintenance experience on aircraft began in 1932.
Mr. Henderson's interest in aviation history is
evidenced by a collection of books and
photographs of early aviation dating back to the
World War I era.
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CHAPTER I
Basic Instruments
Chapter one begins with a study of the general
requirements for aircraft instruments and their installation. The categories and types of instruments
are covered before beginning a study of specific
instruments.
The instruments examined in chapter one include
pitot-static system instruments, gyro instruments,
compass systems and electronic instruments. Reference will be made to Federal Aviation Regulations
which apply to these areas, particularly FAR Part
1 Definitions and Abbreviations, FAR Part 23, FAR
Part 43 and FAR Part 91.
A. Why Study Instruments?
It is important for aircraft technicians to study
aircraft instruments so that they will be able to
inspect, install and troubleshoot them properly.
There are also occasions when the technician will
be running the aircraft's engines or other systems
and will have to use the instruments himself. Many
instruments are a part of a larger system and it
is necessary to understand the interrelationships
between the various parts of the system.
All certificated aircraft have instruments, although in the case of hot air balloons and gliders,
only a few basic instruments may be required. The

number and variety of instruments has increased
over the years so that a small single engine airplane
of today has more instruments and more sophisticated instruments than airliners had in the 1940s
or earlier. Figure 1-1 shows the instrument panel
of a Piper Cub from the early 1940s with its six
basic instruments. This airplane was a small two
place airplane which did not have an electrical system, so all the instruments used mechanical means
of operation. The instrument panel shown in figure
1-2 is that of a modern single engine airplane
equipped for "blind flying" or IFR flight operations.
This airplane has many more instruments and systems that increase the safety of flight and make
it a more efficient means of transportation. The
most important instruments are placed directly in
front of the pilot and the radios are grouped together
in the middle for easy access to the controls.
The most common and important types of aircraft
instruments and avionics systems will be described
in this book along with some FAA requirements
for testing and installation. The categories for
aircraft instruments and the basic FAA requirements will be covered first.
OIL
TEMPERATURE
TACHOMETER

AIRSPEED
INDICATOR
COMPASS ALTMETER
OIL
PRESSURE
Figure 1-1. The instrument panel of a 1940s Piper Cub. (Courtesy Piper Aircraft Corp.)
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B. Aircraft Instrument
Requirements
4. Electrical and Electronic Instruments This

group has seen the most change in recent
years due to advances in digital technology
and other related fields.
1. Instrument Categories
The instruments found on different types of aircraft
have considerable variety, but they can be categorized
according to either how they work or what kinds
of information they present to the flight crew.
a. Categories According to Application
Powerplant Instruments These give information related to the aircraft's powerplant or
powerplants.
Flight and Navigation Instruments These give
information such as altitude, speed etc. or information required for navigating the aircraft.
3. Systems Instruments These concern aircraft systems such as electrical, hydraulic,
pressurization, bleed air systems etc.
b. Categories According to Means of Operation
2. Instrument Placement
and Installation
While there is not a standard placement for all
the instruments that might be found on either
a small or large aircraft, some of the most important instruments will have a standard layout
directly in front of the pilot. This makes it easier
for the pilot to scan the important instruments
and it makes it easier to transition to a different
type of airplane.
Aircraft instruments are manufactured in a number of standard sizes. This mainly applies to the
round instruments since some other types come
in a wide variety of sizes. The standard sizes for
round instruments are:
Pressure Instruments These measure the

pressure of air, fuel, oil, etc.
1" Often a vacuum gauge on single-engine

airplanes
Mechanical Instruments These use a mechanical system to obtain and/or transmit

information.
2" Flangeless Many turbine engine powerplant instruments are this type.
3. 2- 1/4" A common size for many different
instruments
3. Gyro Instruments These use the principles

of a gyroscope and are primarily used for IFR
flight.
4. 3- 1/8" Considered to be a standard full-size

instrument
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Figure 1-2. Typical arrangement of instruments and radios in a single engine airplane.
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5. 4" The older style gyro instruments were

often this size, but it is seldom used on a
modern aircraft.
Examples of the 1", 2- 1/4" and 3- 1/8" sizes can
be seen on the instrument panel in figure 1-2.
There are a number of methods used to install
instruments into the aircraft instrument panel. The
three most common methods are:
Screws Non-magnetic fine thread machine
screws are used, brass screws with a black
oxide finish are very common.
Circumferential Clamps These clamps are
fastened to the back of the instrument panel
and operate somewhat like a hose clamp (figure 1-3).
3. Brackets small "L" or "U" shaped brackets
are installed on studs to hold the instrument
in place (figure 1-3).
Installing aircraft instruments is often made difficult by the fact that there isn't much room behind
the instrument panel and access is limited. Some
aircraft use sliding or hinged panels to improve
access to this area.
3. Instrument Markings
Aircraft instruments often utilize colored markings so that safe operating values can be indicated
to the pilot. For example, red usually means a
maximum or minimum operating limitation for
the airplane or engine. These markings are normally on the face of the instrument, inside the
cover glass. It is permissible to apply colored
markings with paint to the cover glass, but if
this is done the marks must not interfere with

reading the instrument and a white line must
be applied to the cover glass and case to act
as a slippage mark.
When applying or inspecting the markings on
instruments, a suitable reference source must be
used, the acceptable sources are:
Approved Aircraft Flight Manual or Pilot's Operating Handbook This is an FAA-approved
document which is a part of the required aircraft equipment.
Maintenance Manual or Service Manual.
Type Certificate Data Sheet or Specifications.
STC, Manufacturers Service Bulletins, and AD
Notes These would indicate a change from
the original aircraft requirements.
There are standard meanings for the different
colors and markings applied to instruments like
powerplant and system instruments, they are:
Red Radial Line This indicates a maximum
or minimum operating limitation. Example: on
an oil pressure gauge.
Red Arc This indicates a prohibited range
of operation. A common example is the red
arc on a tachometer because of vibration problems at certain RPMS.
Yellow Arc This indicates a caution range.
Green Arc The normal operating range.
5. Blue Arc or Line This has a meaning specified by the manufacturer. An example is a
blue arc on a manifold pressure gauge for
engine operation with a lean mixture.
111
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CIRCUMFERENTIAL CLAMP
(A)
BRACKET
(B)
Figure 1-3. Two of the common methods used to install instruments in an aircraft instrument panel.
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The colored markings on an airspeed indicator

have different and very specific meanings, this will
be covered later. The colored markings found on
an airspeed indicator are shown in figure 1-4, notice
that both arcs and radial lines are used.
4. General Precautions for

Installing Instruments
A number of things must be kept in mind when
installing instruments, radios and related systems.
Instruments are very delicate and must be handled
with care. If an instrument must be sent to a repair
station or other place for repair, it should be packed
in an approved container with any ports or openings
plugged and with a desiccant pack to prevent moisture damage if it is sensitive to moisture. When
shock mounts are required for a particular installation, you should ensure that the shock mounts
are in good condition and that the weight of the
equipment does not exceed the weight carrying
capability of the shock mounts. Figure 1-5 shows
a shock mount unit for aircraft equipment with
a bonding jumper installed. Figure 1-6 illustrates
the use of a shock mounted sub-panel for the flight
instruments on a small airplane.
Many types of instruments can be damaged by
static electricity and magnetic fields. Bonding
jumpers, shielded wires and static wicks must be
properly installed and maintained to prevent these
kinds of problems.
Bonding jumpers have a number of functions when
installed on an aircraft. Four of these functions are:
\
N
Reducing radio frequency interference in sensitive aircraft systems.

Decreasing the possibility of damage due to
lightning strikes on control surfaces and other
areas.
Allowing static charges to move around easily
and equalize. This prevents arcing which could
create a fire hazard.
A bonding jumper is a small metal braid or metal
strap which electrically connects together two parts
on the airframe. Some of the recommendations for
installing and maintaining bonding jumpers are:
Keep them as short as possible but allow for
any movement that is necessary as on control
surfaces.
Clean the contact areas to minimize resistance.
This includes removing coatings such as anodizing.
Do not solder bonding jumpers. It makes them
brittle.
Do not paint bonding jumpers. It makes them
brittle.
Use multiple jumpers on shock mounted electrical equipment. One might break.
Ensure that the jumper is compatible with
the structural material and hardware to prevent corrosion. Aluminum jumpers are recommended for aluminum aircraft parts and
copper jumpers are recommended for stainless
steel, cadmium plated steel, brass and bronze.
Some instrument and equipment installations require the use of shielded wire. Don't assume that
both ends of the wire shield should be connected
to ground. It is sometimes specified that only one
end of the wire shielding be attached to ground.
0 /
200 40
I'
A ground return path for aircraft circuits that

use single wire type systems.
PH
AIR PEED
160
80
120
Figure 1-4. Operating limitations markings on an

airspeed indicator.
Figure 1-5. Bonding jumpers are installed on shock

mounts to ensure proper grounding.
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When installing an instrument that requires

lighting, use care to ensure that the light is installed correctly and that it will not short out
or cause a problem with another instrument.
There are often many small wires behind the instrument panel for the light fixtures and they
must be routed and tied carefully. There are four
common types of instrument lighting systems
found on aircraft:
1. Eyebrow Lights These are small semi-circular fixtures that fit over the top of a round
instrument and look like eyebrows.
Post Lights These are small round lights

that install into holes in the instrument panel
(figure 1-7).
Internal Lights These are inside the instrument case.
4. Flood Lights These lights can be aimed at
the instrument panel and are shielded so that
they don't shine in the pilot's eyes. They are
often fitted in addition to one of the other
types as a back-up lighting system.
Figure 1-8 shows the fluorescent flood lighting
system for a corporate jet airplane.
SHOCK MOUNTS
GROUND STRAP
(INSTALLED ON SHOCK MOUNT
DIRECTLY UNDER CONTROL WHEEL)
Figure 1-6. The instrument panel for a twin engine airplane showing the shock mounted sub--panel and two kinds of
shock mounts. (Courtesy Cessna Aircraft Co.)

(970) 726-5111
Precipitation static, also known as P-static, is

a build up of static electricity on the aircraft in
flight. It can have an adverse effect on the operation
of many instruments and radios. P-static is caused
by friction between the aircraft structure and particles in the air such as rain, snow, ice and dust
particles. It can also be caused by the hot exhaust
of a turbine engine as it exits the large metal tailpipe
or exhaust pipe. It cannot be prevented but the
problems can be reduced by installing good static
dischargers on the aircraft. These are normally installed on the trailing edges of main control surfaces
and also occasionally on the tips of the wing and
horizontal stabilizer.
5. FAA Regulations for Instruments
Figure 1-7. A post light type of lighting fixture (item 1) for

aircraft instruments. (Courtesy Cessna
Aircraft Co.)
The FAA has many regulations that concern the

installation of instruments in certificated aircraft.
The examples that will be given apply to FAR Part
23 airplanes although the requirements for other
categories of aircraft are often very similar. The
requirements of FAR Part 91 would apply to any
aircraft being operated under that section of the
FARs. The FARs will not be quoted exactly, but
CENTER INSTRUMENT PANEL

DUAL STRIP
PILOT INSTRUMENT PANEL
DUAL STRIP
CO-PILOT INSTRUMENT PANEL

DUAL STRIP
PILOT SIDE
FACIA STRIP
CO-PILOT SIDE
FACIA STRIP
CO-PILOT SIDE
CONSOLE STRIPS
PILOT SIDE
CONSOLE STRIPS
IN
Figure 1-8. Fluorescent lighting arrangement for a corporate jet. (Courtesy Canadair Group, Bombardier Inc.)
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Figure 1-9. An un-supercharged reciprocating aircraft

engine.
will be paraphrased in order to simplify the wording

and save space.
Since some of the FAR rules for instruments
depend on what type of engine the aircraft uses,
it is necessary to discuss the different types of
powerplants found on certificated aircraft. A
reciprocating engine is a piston engine which can
either be supercharged or non-supercharged. The
most common type of reciprocating engine on
modern aircraft is the horizontally opposed type
although many radial piston engines are still in
service. Figure 1-9 shows an unsupercharged
INTAKE PIPE
horizontally opposed reciprocating engine. Figure

1-10 shows a radial engine with an internal supercharger. A turbine engine could be one of four
types. The turbojet and turbofan engines are similar
in that they are both rated in pounds of thrust.
The difference is that with the turbofan engine some
airflow bypasses the core of the engine and is acted
upon only by the fan section as seen in figure
1-11. The turbojet engine illustrated in figure 1-12
does not use the bypass principle since all of the
intake air passes through the length of the engine.
In the FARs, the use of the term turbojet includes
turbofan engines. The other two types of turbine
engines are the turbo-propeller and turboshaft engines. These are both usually rated in horsepower
because they deliver power to an output shaft (unlike
turbojet and turbofan engines). The difference between the two is that the turboprop engine turns
a propeller while the turboshaft engine powers the
rotor drive gearbox of a helicopter. The reduction
gearbox and output shaft of a turboprop engine
can be seen on the left in figure 1-13.
FAR Part 23
This FAR covers the Airworthiness Standards for
Normal, Utility, Acrobatic and Commuter category
airplanes. Certain instrument requirements are a
part of these Airworthiness Standards.
MANIFOLD
PRESSURE
INTAKE AIR DUCT
CARBURETOR
HEAT VALVE
CARBURETOR
AIR CONTROL
CARBURETOR AIR
TEMPERATURE BULB
CARBURETOR
THROTTLE VALVE
THROTTLE
SUPERCHARGER
IMPELLER
Figure 1-10. A radial piston engine with internal supercharger.
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FAR 23.841
The additional instruments required for pressurized
airplanes are specified in this section. Figure 1-14
illustrates these instruments. Pressurized airplanes
are required to have instruments to indicate:
Cabin differential pressure
FAR 23.1303
Required Flight and Navigation Instruments
Airspeed indicator
Altimeter
Magnetic direction indicator (compass)
Free air temperature for airplanes with turbine
engines
Cabin altitude
3. Rate of change of cabin altitude (cabin rate
of climb)
5. Speed warning for turbine engine aircraft or

others when Vmo/Mmo is greater than .8 Vd.
Notice that only the first three would be required
for all FAR Part 23 airplanes.
FAR 23.1301
This FAR states that equipment must be labeled
as to its identification, function and operating limitations. The colored markings on an airspeed indicator
are examples of these required operating limitations.
FAR 23.1305
Required Powerplant Instruments
1. Fuel quantity for each tank.
HOT
EXHAUST
Figure 1-11. A turbofan engine showing the bypass airflow which bypasses the core of the engine.
TURBINES
COMPRESSOR
COMBUSTORS
EXHAUST
4 ow
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Figure 1-12. A turbojet engine with the major sections identified. This type of engine has no bypass airflow.
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EXHAUST OUTLET
AIR INLET
I/
COMPRESSOR
REDUCTION GEARBOX
PROPELLER DRIVE SHAFT

-COMPRESSOR TURBINE
FREE (POWER) TURBINE
Figure 1-13. A typical turboprop engine with the output shaft on the left. The engine could become a turboshaft engine
if it was modified to drive the rotors of a helicopter.
Oil pressure for each engine.
Gas temperature for turbine engines.
Oil pressure for each turbosupercharger (only

with separate oil system).
Fuel flowmeter for turbine engines.
Oil temperature for each engine.

Oil temperature for each turbosupercharger
(only with separate oil system).
Tachometer for each engine.
Cylinder head temperature for:
Air-cooled engines with cowl flaps.
Reciprocating engine commuter category
airplanes.
Torquemeter for turbo-propeller engines.

EGT and carburetor inlet temperature for turbosupercharger installations if operating limitations can be exceeded.
Figure 1-15 shows a typical tachometer and manifold pressure gauge installation for a twin engine
airplane with two pointers in each gauge for the
left and right engines.
Fuel pressure if the engine is pump fed.

FAR 23.1321
Instrument Installation
Manifold pressure for:

Altitude engines.
Reciprocating engine commuter category
airplanes.
10. Oil quantity for each oil tank (if separate from
engine).
Instruments must be plainly visible with minimum deviation of the pilot's position.
For multi-engine airplanes, identical instruments must be arranged to prevent confusion.
Instrument panel vibration must not damage
the instruments.
For airplanes more than 6,000 lbs. maximum
weight, the following instruments must be installed so that they are centered about the
vertical plane of the pilot's vision in this order:
Primary attitude instrument in the center.
Airspeed indicator adjacent and to the left
of the attitude instrument.
Altitude instrument adjacent and to the
right of the attitude instrument.
Figure 1-14. The three instruments required for a pressurized aircraft.
Direction of flight instrument adjacent and

below the attitude instrument.
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The instrument referred to as the primary attitude instrument above would be an artificial
horizon on smaller aircraft or an ADI on aircraft
with more modern types of instruments. The direction of flight instrument in item 4 is not a magnetic
compass. It would be a directional gyro on simple
airplanes or an HSI on more sophisticated aircraft.
In addition to the four standard instruments mentioned above as part of this "T" configuration,
two other instruments are commonly installed in
standard positions to make up an arrangement
of six instruments. This is illustrated in figure
1-16. The actual appearance of the instruments
in the standard configuration is shown in figure
1-17. The gyro instruments in figure 1-17 are
the older style instruments.
2. Must not be easily erased, disfigured or

obscured.
FAR 23.1543
Instrument Markings, General Requirements
When markings are on the cover glass, there
must be a means to maintain the alignment
of the glass with the dial (a slippage mark).
Each arc and line must be wide enough and
located to be clearly visible to the pilot.
FAR 23.1545
Airspeed Indicator
The required markings are:
FAR 23.1322
Warning, Caution and Advisory Lights
1. For the never exceed speed Vne, a red radial

line.
There are standard colors specified for certain

indicator lights used in airplanes. A fire warning
light for example would be red. The colors specified
in this FAR are as follows:
RED Warning This is used when immediate
attention is required.
AMBER Caution This is not as serious as
a warning.
GREEN Safe operation normal operating
range.
Any other color of indicator light can be used including white if it differs sufficiently from other colors
and its meaning is specified by the manufacturer.
FAR 23.1381
Instrument Lights
Any instrument lights that are installed must
make the instruments and controls easily readable
and must be shielded so that they don't shine in
the pilot's eyes. A cabin dome light is not acceptable
as an instrument light.
FAR 23.1541
Markings and Placards
The airplane must have all placards required by
the FARs and any additional placards that are required for safe operation if unusual design, handling
or operational characteristics are present. In addition, each marking and placard:
1. Must be displayed in a conspicuous place.
Figure 1-15. The manifold pressure gauge is used in

conjunction with a tachometer to set power
on a supercharged engine.
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For the caution range, a yellow arc extending

from the red radial line in item 1 to the upper
limit of the green arc in item 3.
For the normal operating range, a green arc
with the lower limit at Vs1 (maximum weight,
landing gear and flaps retracted) and the upper
limit at Vno, maximum structural cruising

speed.
For the flap operating range, a white arc with
the lower limit at Vso and the upper limit
at Vfe.
For the one-engine-inoperative best rate of
climb speed, Vy, a blue sector extending from
the Vy speed at sea level to the Vy speed
at 5,000 ft. (or higher altitude as appropriate).
6. For the minimum control speed (one-engineinoperative) Vmc, a red radial line.
Note: Items 1 through 3 do not apply to an aircraft

for which a maximum operating speed,
Vmo/Mmo has been established. These
aircraft would need a maximum allowable
airspeed indicator.
AIRSPEED
A/S= INDICATOR
ARTIFICIAL
A/H= HORIZON
ALT = ALTIMETER
TURN
T&B = AND
BANK
DG=DIRECTIONAL GYRO
VERTICAL
VSI=SPEED
INDICATOR
Figure 1-16. Most modern aircraft have the important

flight instruments installed in a standard
configuration directly in front of the pilot.
FAR 23.1547
Magnetic Direction Indicator

A placard must be installed on or near the
magnetic direction indicator to show deviation
error corrections.
The placard must show the calibration in level
flight with the engines running.
Figure 1-17. The types of instruments that might be found in the standard "T" configuration in a small airplane.
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(970) 726-5111
The placard must state if calibration was made

with radios on or off.
The placard must list the corrections for magnetic headings in increments of no more than
30.
5. If the operation of electrical equipment can
cause a deviation of more than 10 0 , the placard
must identify that equipment.
FAR 43 Appendix D
Scope and Detail of Items to Inspect For 100 Hour and Annual Inspections
(4) Instruments - inspect for poor condition,
mounting, marking and where practical for
improper operation.
FAR 65.81
General Privileges and Limitations
FAR 23.1549
Powerplant Instruments
The required markings are:
Each maximum and minimum safe operating
limit must be marked with a red radial line.
Each normal operating range must be marked
with a green arc.
Each takeoff and precautionary range must
be marked with a yellow arc.
Each engine or propeller range that is restricted because of vibration stresses must be
marked with red arcs or red lines.
(a) A certificated mechanic may perform or supervise the maintenance, preventive maintenance or alteration of an aircraft or appliance
or a part thereof, for which he is rated but
excluding major repairs to and major alterations of propellers and any repair to or alteration of instruments.
FAR 91.9
Powered Civil Aircraft with Standard Category
U.S. Airworthiness Certificates; Instrument and
Equipment Requirements
Visual Flight Rules Day - For VFR, the following
are required:
FAR 23.1551
Oil Quantity Indicator
Airspeed indicator
It must be marked with sufficient increments to

readily and accurately indicate the quantity of oil.
Altimeter
Magnetic direction indicator
Tachometer for each engine
Oil pressure gauge for each engine
FAR 23.1553
Fuel Quantity Indicator
Temperature gauge for each liquid-cooled engine
If the unusable fuel supply for any tank exceeds

one gallon or 5% of tank capacity, whichever is
greater, a red arc must be marked to extend from
calibrated zero to the lowest reading obtainable in
level flight.
Manifold pressure gauge for each altitude engine
Oil temperature gauge for each air-cooled engine

Fuel quantity gauge for each tank
Landing gear position indicator if landing gear
is retractable
Visual Flight Rules Night - For night VFR in addition to the requirements for VFR day, the following
are required:
FAR 23.1563
Airspeed Placards
Position lights
There must be an airspeed placard in clear view

of the pilot and as close as practical to the airspeed
indicator. This placard must list:
Anti-collision lights (red or white)

Adequate source of electrical energy for all
electrical equipment
If operating for hire, one electric landing light
The design maneuvering speed Va.

The maximum landing gear operating speed Vlo.
5. Spare fuses
Instrument Flight Rules - For IFR, the following
are required
FAR 43 Appendix A
Appliance Major Repairs
Calibration and repair of instruments
Calibration of radio equipment
The equipment for VFR day and night as appropriate; PLUS

Two-way radio communications equipment
3. Radio navigation equipment
12
(970) 726-5111
Gyroscopic rate-of-turn indicator (except aircraft with three attitude instruments)

Slip-skid indicator
Sensitive altimeter
a. Pressure Measuring Sensors

There are three common types of sensors that can
be used to mechanically measure a fluid pressure.
Bourdon Tube
Clock which displays hours, minutes and seconds

Generator or alternator
Gyroscopic bank and pitch indicator (artificial
horizon)
Gyroscopic direction indicator (DG or equivalent)
For flight at and above 24,000 ft. MSL, a DME
system
12. For Category II operations, additional equipment is required as listed in Appendix A.
A modern digital aircraft clock is shown in figure
1-18. The clock required for IFR does not have
to be a digital clock, but it must display hours,
minutes and seconds. The older type of aircraft
clock was a conventional kind of round clock with
three hands.
C. Pitot-Static
System Instruments
1. Methods of Pressure Measurement
Pressure instruments are those which obtain readings by measuring the pressure at one or more
places in terms of a liquid or gas pressure.
A bourdon tube is a curved, hollow tube made

of a springy metal (often a specially treated brass
material) (figure 1-19).
One end of the tube is anchored and the other
is free to move and fastened through linkages to
the indicator pointer or similar device. As pressure
is applied to the inside of the bourdon tube, it
will try to straighten out as a result of the imbalance
of forces on the walls of the curved tube. This
motion is transmitted to the indicator needle or
pointer through gears and linkages. The bourdon
tube is used to measure relatively high pressure,
typically 20 PSI or more.
Diaphragm
A diaphragm is a thin, lens shaped hollow metal
container. It is used to measure relatively low pressures, as in an altimeter or airspeed indicator. Typically, it is made of a very thin, springy metal
(beryllium copper is often used). One side is
anchored and the other side is connected through
gears and linkages to the pointer. See figure 1-20.
3) Bellows
A bellows is somewhat similar to a diaphragm,
but it is longer and has accordion folds to typically
allow a greater range of motion. It measures relatively
BOURDON
TUBE/
POINTER
STAFF
ANCHOR
POINT
Figure 1-18. A digital aircraft clock able to display hours,

minutes and seconds. (Courtesy Canadair
Group, Bombardier Inc.
Figure 1-19. The bourdon tube pressure measuring

device for instruments.
13

(970) 726-5111
low pressures and a common use is to measure

differential pressure. It that case the bellows would
be divided into two separate chambers with a different pressure source connected to each one as
seen in figure 1-21.
b. Units of Measure for Pressure
Standard Atmosphere Table
Many different units of measure are used for pressure. In aviation, a number of units are in common
use. Some examples are listed below.
Pounds per Square Inch
We will now examine the basic aircraft flight instruments that operate as pressure instruments.
These are often referred to as the pitot-static instruments because they utilize pitot pressure and
static pressure.
PSI
Inches of Mercury in. Hg

Millibars Mbar
Kilopascals kPa
c. Types of Pressure Measurement

Pressure is measured compared to some reference
value. Standard abbreviations are used to designate
what this reference level is for a particular pressure
measurement. The three common designations are:
Absolute Pressure This is a pressure compared to a perfect vacuum. No pressure can
be below a vacuum, so there is never a negative
absolute pressure. Examples of this designation are PSIA and in. Hg absolute.
Gauge Pressure This is a pressure compared to ambient pressure, usually outside
atmospheric pressure, as in PSIG, etc.
3. Differential Pressure This is used to designate two different pressures in the aircraft
that are compared to each other, as in PSID.
Altimeters and other instruments obtain readings

by measurements of the pressure at various altitudes. The average or standard pressures and
temperatures at different altitudes are contained
in a table of the Standard Atmosphere. The values
given in this table are accepted by virtually all
countries of the world for scientific and aviation
purposes (figure 1-22).
Altimeters
The altimeter is a basic required instrument for
all certificated aircraft. It measures the atmospheric
pressure and displays it as altitude in feet. This
altitude is called mean sea level (MSL) since it is
referenced to the average level of the major oceans.
The measurement of altitude is based on the standard atmosphere table and the changes in pressure
with altitude changes that it gives.
a. Non-Sensitive and Sensitive Altimeters
1) Non-Sensitive Altimeter
A non-sensitive altimeter has only one pointer and
it makes one complete revolution for each 10,000
ft. in altitude. If the pointer was on the number 8,
Examples of these using aircraft instruments are

the manifold pressure gauge which measures absolute pressure, the oil pressure gauge measures
gauge pressure and the cabin differential pressure
gauge is calibrated in PSID.
PRESSURE
CAPSULE
BELLOWS
PRESSURE
\ENTRANCE
-n
Figure 1-20. The diaphragm or aneroid pressure

measuring device.
PRESSURE
ENTRANCE
-/
Figure 1-21. An example of a bellows being used to

measure a differential pressure.
14
(970) 726-5111
that would represent 8,000 ft.; but it could also indicate 18,000 ft. For this reason, this type of altimeter
is only used for small, simple aircraft that don't operate
at high altitudes. A non-sensitive altimeter is illustrated in figure 1-23.
sensitive altimeter is shown in figure 1-24. A major

problem with this type of altimeter is that the smallest pointer can be covered up by one of the other
two pointers which makes it easy to misread the
altimeter. The newer kind of three pointer altimeter
2) Sensitive Altimeter
A sensitive altimeter is more sensitive and easier
to read than the non-sensitive type. A sensitive
altimeter may have three separate pointers or a
single pointer and a drum readout.
On an altimeter with three pointers, the longest
pointer makes one revolution for each 1,000 ft.,
the second pointer makes one revolution for each
10,000 ft., and the shortest pointer makes one
revolution for each 100,000 ft. The three pointer
SPEED OF
SOUND
ALTITUDE
FT.
DENSITY
RATIO
a
PRESSURE
RATIO
b
TEMPERATURE
F
1.0000
1.0000
59.00
661.7
1000
0.9711
0.9644
2000
3000
4000
0.9428
0.9151
0.8881
0.9298
.08962
0.8637
55.43
51.87
48.30
44.74
659.5
657.2
654.9
652.6
5000
6000
7000
0.8617
0.8320
41.17
0.8359
0.8106
8000
.07860
0.8014
0.7716
0.7428
37.60
34.04
30.47
650.3
647.9
645.6
643.3
KNOTS
9000
0.7620
0.7148
26.90
640.9
10000
15000
20000
0.7385
0.6292
0.6877
0.5643
0.5328
0.4595
23.34
5.51
-12.32
638.6
626.7
614.6
25000
0.4481
0.3711
*36089
0.3741
0.3099
0.2971
0.2970
0.2353
0.2234
-30.15
-47.98
602.2
30000
35000
40000
0.2462
45000
50000
0.1936
0.1522
0.1197
0.0941
0.0740
0.0582
55000
60000
65000
70000
-65.82
-69.70
589.5
576.6
573.8
0.1851
-69.70
573.8
0.1455
0.1145
-69.70
-69.70
573.8
573.8
0.0900
-69.70
573.8
0.0708
-69.70
573.8
0.0557
0.0438
-69.70
-69.70
-69.70
573.8
573.8
-69.70
573.8
577.4
583.4
75000
0.0458
0.0344
80000
0.0360
0.0280
0.0217
0.0271
0.0213
0.0168
95000
0.0169
0.0134
-64.80
-56.57
-48.34
100000
0.0132
0.0107
-40.11
85000
90000
Figure 1-23. A simple non-sensitive aircraft altimeter.

(Courtesy Piper Aircraft Corp.)
573.8
589.3
595.2
* GEOPOTENTIAL OF THE TROPOPAUSE
Figure 1-22. A reference table of the Standard Atmosphere.
Figure 1-24. The older style three-pointer sensitive altimeter.

15

(970) 726-5111
seen in figure 1-25 has been modified to make it

easier to read. The pointer that makes one revolution
in 100,000 ft. has been extended to the outside
of the face with a small triangle on the end so
it cannot be covered up. In addition, a small window
shows a striped pattern below about 15.000 ft. (at
higher altitudes the striped symbol disappears). The
sensitive altimeter with one pointer as seen in figure
1-26 uses the drum readout and a single pointer
which makes one revolution for each 1,000 ft. The
drum readout may have three or five digits displayed,
but in any case the combination of the two permits
accurate reading of the altimeter.
b. Altimeter Mechanism
The internal mechanism of the altimeter consists
of three diaphragms in series. This creates an altimeter which is sensitive to very small changes
in pressure and which has a large enough range
of measurement to read altitudes of 35,000 to
50,000 ft. or more.
Inside the case of the altimeter is a bimetallic
device which gives automatic compensation for temperature changes to ensure accurate readings.
There is a knob on the front of the altimeter which
operates a mechanism that compensates for nonstandard atmospheric pressure. The standard atmosphere table gives the standard pressure at sea
level as 29.92 in. Hg, but the actual atmosphere
pressure in any given location seldom matches the
values in the table. Weather systems with higher

or lower pressure are constantly moving across the
surface of the earth.
It is due to these variations in pressure that
the knob on the front of the altimeter must be
adjusted to the current barometric pressure setting for the area in which it is operating. There
is a small window on the altimeter which displays
the current barometric pressure setting. It is commonly called the Kollsman window. If for example
a pilot received an altimeter setting of 30.01 from
an air traffic controller, that number would be
set into the Kollsman window of the altimeter.
When the pilot sets the altimeter to the correct
setting before takeoff, the indication on the altimeter will show the height of that airport above
sea level. Outside the United Sates, a different
unit of measurement is often used for barometric
pressure settings. This unit of measurement is
millibars (MB) and the altimeters found in many
modern aircraft have two Kollsman windows: one
for inches of mercury and one for millibars. Figure
1-26 shows the two windows and the barometric
pressure setting knob.
Altimeter Operation
The diaphragms of an altimeter are sealed at the
factory. The case of the altimeter is connected to
the static ports on the airplane. The static pressure
outside the airplane is conducted to the instrument
case by tubing and hose. If the airplane climbs,
the reduced pressure in the case causes the diaphragms to expand and move the pointers to indicate a higher altitude.
The altimeter uses three diaphragms in series
to increase the range of measurement. The mechanism uses very delicate gearing which is designed
in such a way that a very small movement of the
diaphragm causes a large motion of the pointer
or pointers. Under certain circumstances it has
a tendency to stick and some aircraft have a vibrator
on the instrument panel or in the altimeter to prevent this sticking.
Encoding Altimeter
Figure 1-25. The newer style three-pointer sensitive altimeter uses a different pointer and a striped
symbol that is visible below about 15,000 ft.
as aids to make reading the altimeter easier.
An altimeter related device which is found on many

aircraft is the encoding altimeter system. The purpose of this system is to send information concerning the aircraft's altitude to a radar system
on the ground so that it can be displayed on a
radar scope. The data is transmitted to the ground
using a special aircraft radio called a transponder.
An encoding altimeter system (also known as Mode
C), supplies the electrical signal to the transponder
that contains this altitude data. An aircraft encoding
16
(970) 726-5111
altimeter and transponder are required for three

different conditions:
Flight operations within a TCA (terminal control area) or Class B airspace.
Flight operations within an ARSA (airport radar
service area) or Class C airspace.
a. Types of Airspeed
There are three types of airspeed associated with
the airspeed indicator. This is because it is subject
to a number of errors or inaccuracies. The three
types of airspeed are:
Indicated Airspeed This is the reading on
the instrument
Flight operations above 10,000 ft. MSL and

over 2500 ft. AGL.
Calibrated Airspeed This is indicated airspeed which has been corrected for position
and instrument error. The pitot tube is
mounted at a fixed angle to the longitudinal
axis of the aircraft and at slow speeds and
high angles of attack there will be an error.
The pilot determines the correction for calibrated airspeed by consulting a table in the
Pilot's Operating Handbook, an example of
which is shown in figure 1-28.
The connections for the encoding feature of an

altimeter and an altimeter vibrator can be seen
in figure 1-27.
Airspeed Indicators
Airspeed indicators are required on all certificated
aircraft except free balloons. This instrument gives
the pilot an indication of his speed through the
air, it does not measure groundspeed. The airspeed
indicator is a pitot-static system instrument that
is connected to both the pitot pressure source and
the static pressure source. It measures the difference between these two pressures as indicated
airspeed.
On aircraft operated in the United States, the
unit of measurement for airspeed indicators is nautical miles per hour (knots), statute miles per hour
(MPH) or both on the same instrument.
3. True Airspeed This is calibrated airspeed

which has been corrected for altitude and temperature effects. At high altitudes the indicated
airspeed will be much less than the actual
speed through the air which is true airspeed.
For example, at 41,000 ft. the indicated airspeed is only about half the true airspeed.
At sea level on a standard day with the aircraft
in level cruise flight, indicated and true airspeed are usually the same.
ALTIMETER
07 INDICATION
Indicator
DIAPHRAGM
Set Knob
STATIC
PRESSURE
Figure 1-26. A sensitive altimeter with drum readout showing the static connection to the outside of the diaphragm.
17
(970) 726-5111
VIBRATOR FAIL FLAG
BARO SET COUNTER DISPLAYS
BARO SET KNOB

FRONT FACE
VIBRATOR FAIL FLAG

28 V DC
BUS 2
CB-B 262
VIBRATOR
I
C/P ENC ALT
"S" CAPSULE
I- - I
I
I
DIFFERENTIAL'
700
ALTITUDE
POINTER
_ __M I
S2 (OR S 3) PRESSURE
ENCODED ALTITUDE
TO N 2 TRANSPONDER

OPTICAL
ALTITUDE
ENCODER
ALTITUDE
COUNTER
DISPLAY
MB
IN HG
1 13
2 92
BARO SET COUNTER

DISPLAYS
I
=.7
BARO SET KNOB
Figure 1-27. An altimeter installation that includes a vibrator and altitude encoder. (Courtesy Canadair Group, Bombardier Inc.)
18
(970) 726-5111
Airspeed Indicator Operation

The airspeed indicator uses a diaphragm that
measures the differential pressure between pitot
pressure and static pressure. Pitot pressure is connected to the inside of the diaphragm and static
pressure to the outside as shown in figure 1-29.
A pitot tube has an opening facing forward into
the relative wind so that it measures ram pressure
effects. The static ports simply measure outside
atmospheric pressure. The faster the airplane goes,
the greater will be the difference in pressure.
Airspeed Indicator Markings

The operating limitations airspeeds that would be
found on a general aviation twin-engine airplane
are listed below.
FLAPS UP
KIAS
KCAS
80
81
100
101
120
120
140
139
160
159
180
177
200
196
210
206
70
72
80
81
90
91
100
100
120
119
140
138
160
157
175
171
60
64
70
72
80
80
90
89
100
98
110
108
125
123
- - - - -
FLAPS 10
KIAS
KCAS
FLAPS 30
KIAS
KCAS
Note: For Illustration only; not to
be used for
flight planning
Figure 1-28. The table of calibrated airspeed corrections

for a twin-engine airplane. (Courtesy
Cessna Aircraft Co.)
Vso Stall speed with gear and flaps down.

This is shown by the bottom of the white arc.
Vsl Stall speed with gear and flaps up. The
bottom of the green arc.
Vmc Minimum control speed with critical
engine failed. A red radial line in the lower
range of indicated airspeeds.
Vfe Maximum speed with flaps down. Top
of white arc.
Vno Maximum structural cruise. Top of
green arc or bottom of yellow arc.
Vne Never exceed speed. a red radial line
at the highest permitted airspeed, also the
top of the yellow arc.
7. Vyse Best rate of climb speed with one engine inoperative. A blue line or sector.
The aircraft should only be operated in the yellow
arc range with caution and in smooth air. Figure
1-30 shows the colored markings for the airspeed
indicator on a single-engine airplane. A twin-engine
airplane would have the additional markings for
Vmc and Vyse. The principle of critical engine and
Vmc is illustrated in figure 1-31. The critical engine
is the engine whose failure would produce the most
adverse effect on the handling characteristics of
the airplane. Since the flight controls become more
effective at higher speeds, the concept of Vmc involves high engine power and slow speeds such
as occurs during takeoff. During initial climb after
takeoff, the thrust from the propellers is offset
to the right side as shown in figure 1-31 if both
AIRSPEED
INDICATION
Indicator
\ \\\\\\\
PITOT
PRESSURE
DIAPHRAGM
)
)
STATIC
PRESSURE
Indicator Case
Figure 1-29. The two pressure connections to the diaphragm in an airspeed indicator.
19
(970) 726-5111
propellers rotate clockwise. In this case, the critical

engine is the left engine since the thrust line for
the right engine is farther from the longitudinal
axis of the airplane. Some twin engine airplanes
are designed so that the propellers rotate in opposite directions. In that case, the two engines
are equally critical. The Vmc speed would be the
same no matter which engine failed. The reason
that the Vmc marking is red is that maintaining
a speed above Vmc can be very important to prevent
loss of control. If an engine fails after takeoff and
the airplane is below Vmc speed, the airplane will
start to turn and roll and the motion cannot be
stopped with full opposite control inputs. This has
caused many accidents and many deaths. Vmc
is a critical operating limitation that the pilot must
keep in mind. The speed for Vyse is obviously
higher than Vmc, it is the speed the pilot would
use after an engine failure to get the best rate
of climb possible.
A table of airspeed indicator operating limitations
markings for a small twin engine airplane is shown
in figure 1-32.
All of the important operating limitations
airspeeds will not be shown on the airspeed indicator. Some of them will be displayed on a placard
next to the airspeed indicator like that seen in
figure 1-33 and others will only be found in the
Pilot's Operating Handbook or Airplane Flight
Manual.
Figure 1-31. An illustration of why the left engine is the

critical engine when both propellers turn
clockwise. At slow speeds, the thrust lines
from the propellers are offset to the right
which places the thrust line of the right
engine farther from the center line of the
aircraft. Vmc is the slowest speed at which
control can be maintained when the critical
engine fails.
MARKING
KIAS VALUE
OR RANGE
Red Radial
65
58-125
Green Arc
66-175
Normal Operating Range.

Lower limit is maximum
weight Vs at most forward
C.G. with flaps retracted.
Upper limit is maximum
structural cruising speed.
Blue Radial
97
Single Engine Best Rate-ofClimb Speed at Maximum

Weight.
Yellow Arc
175-210
Operations must be
conducted with caution
and only in smooth air.
Red Radial
210
Maximum speed for all

operations.
240
40
220 AIR 'ED 60 lik
4st*
.
200
80
,
1004,
, 180
if
160 1
Ali
120 Atf
dm.
wtisanittOl"
Minimum Control Speed

Full Flap Operating Range.
Lower limit is maximum
weight Vs, in landing
configuration. Upper limit
is maximum speed
permissible with flaps
extended.
White Arc
\\\\\
SIGNIFICANCE
Note: For Illustration purposes only; not to be used for flight planning.
Figure 1-30. The airspeed indicator for a single engine

airplane showing the colored operating
limitations markings.
Figure 1-32. A table of airspeed indicator markings for a

twin engine airplane. This table is found in
the Pilot's Operating Handbook or Approved Airplane Flight Manual. (Courtesy
Cessna Aircraft Co.)
20
(970) 726-5111
Maximum Allowable Airspeed Indicator

On high speed aircraft that operate at high altitudes,
it is not practical to use the colored markings on
the airspeed indicator because the values change
significantly as the aircraft climbs to higher altitudes.
These aircraft would use a different type of
airspeed indicator called the maximum allowable
airspeed indicator. It is found on turboprop
airplanes, bizjets and air carrier jets.
The maximum allowable airspeed indicator has
two pointers; one gives the normal indicated
airspeed and the second one, which has a striped
or checked pattern, is connected to a separate
diaphragm and it shows the Vmo speed at the existing altitude. The two pointers can be seen in
figure 1-34. On a jet airplane, the maximum allowable airspeed indicator will also usually include
a Mach number display as shown in figure 1-34.
Machmeter
A machmeter is required for jet airplanes because
they will have a maximum safe operating speed expressed in Mach numbers. This is in addition to
the maximum safe indicated airspeed. This is necessary because if the safe Mach number is exceeded,
the airplane can become difficult or impossible to
MAX SPEED KIAS
148
MANEUVERING
175
EXTEND GEAR
RETRACT GEAR
150
210
GEAR DOWN
Note: For Illustration purposes only; not to be used for flight planning.
Figure 1-33. The airspeed limitations placard that would

be installed near the airspeed indicator for
a twin engine airplane. (Courtesy Cessna
Aircraft Co.)
control. Mach number indicates the ratio of the

aircraft's true airspeed compared to the speed of
sound. A speed of Mach 0.8 means the aircraft
is traveling at 80% of the speed of sound. The speed
of sound is about 760 MPH at sea level, but it is
affected by temperature. As the temperature
decreases, the speed of sound is also decreased.
Since temperature decreases with an increase in
altitude, the speed of sound is reduced at higher
altitudes. At 35,000 ft. the speed of sound would
be about 660 MPH. If an airplane climbed from sea
level to 35,000 ft. at a constant true airspeed, the
Mach number would steadily increase. Most civilian
jet airplanes have an Mmo (maximum operating
Mach number) of about 0.8 to 0.87. As an airplane
approaches its critical Mach number, a shock wave
begins to form on the upper surface of the wing
as seen in figure 1-35. This will occur at flight speeds
below Mach 1 because the air accelerates as it moves
over the top of the wing. This shock wave disrupts
airflow and causes the center of pressure to shift
aft. As aircraft speed gets closer to Mmo, the shock
wave gets stronger until a point is reached where
control of the aircraft may be lost. A loss of control
at high speed and high altitude can and has resulted
in the loss of the aircraftit is an important operating
limitation for jet airplanes. The machmeter instrument has a diaphragm like a normal airspeed indicator that is connected to pitot and static pressure.
It also has an additional diaphragm which modifies
the movement of the pointer to compensate for the
effects of altitude and temperature (figure 1-36).
5. Vertical Speed Indicator

The last of the three basic pitot-static system instruments is identified by several names: a vertical
speed indicator (VSI), a rate of climb indicator (ROC)
MACH NUMBER DISPLAY

(OBSCURED BY "OFF" FLAG WHEN
INSTRUMENT UN POWERED OR
ELECTRICALLY MALFUNCTIONING)
VMO POINTER
AIRSPEED POINTER
MANUALLY SETTABLE BUGS
Figure 1-34. The combined maximum allowable airspeed indicator and Machmeter for a corporate jet airplane. (Courtesy Canadair Group, Bombardier Inc.)
21

(970) 726-5111
and a vertical velocity indicator (VVI). This instrument measures the rate of change of static pressure.
Since static pressure decreases with an increase
in altitude, it can measure the rate of climb or
descent of the aircraft. The unit of measurement
is feet per minute (FPM) as seen on the instrument
face in figure 1-37.
a. Basic Operation of VSI

Static pressure is connected directly to the inside
of the diaphragm, but it is connected to the case
pressure (outside of the diaphragm) by a small orifice
or restrictor opening as indicated in figure 1-38.
If the airplane climbs, the pressure will decrease
more rapidly inside the diaphragm than outside
of it. The diaphragm will be compressed and that

will move the pointer to show the rate of change
of altitude in feet per minute. The opposite occurs
during descents. When the aircraft levels off, the
pressures equalize and the pointer returns to zero.
The instrument case usually includes an overpressure valve to prevent damage at rates of climb or
descent in excess of the maximum reading for that
instrument.
Because of the very small size of the restrictor
opening, the pointer tends to react slowly to rapid
changes in altitude. This problem is reduced in
the instrument called an Instantaneous Vertical
Speed Indicator (IVSI).
Instantaneous Vertical Speed Indicator

SUPERSONIC
REGION
0.90 0.95 1.00,
, 1.02
1.00
0.95
NORMAL
SHOCK
0.90
0.85
0.85
FLIGHT MACH NUMBER 0.85
The IVSI has two little cylinders with pistons and

springs which can be seen in figure 1-39. They
are called accelerometer operated dashpots. When
the aircraft pitches up or down suddenly, the pistons
will move and force air into or out of the diaphragm
to get the pointer moving quickly. In a steady rate
climb or descent, they will have no effect on the
pointer.
Variometer
Figure 1-35. A shock wave will form on the upper surface

of the wing when the airplane is traveling at
less than the speed of sound.
The variometer is a very sensitive version of the

VSI which is used by gliders. The mechanism uses
a movable vane in a small air tight metal container.
STATIC
ALTITUDE DIAPHRAGM
(SEALED)
1' PRESSURE
PITOT
11 PRESSURE
INDICATOR CASE
Figure 1-36. The Machmeter has an extra diaphragm to compensate for altitude effects.
22
(970) 726-5111
The vane divides the container into two chambers.

One chamber is connected to the static port and
the other is connected to an air bottle. The air
storage bottle is used because it will hold more
air than a small instrument case and this improves
sensitivity. With the variometer, even small changes
in rate of climb or descent can be detected.
6. Accelerometer
The accelerometer is an instrument that measures
the "G" forces or acceleration forces on an aircraft
in flight. The common application is in an aerobatic
airplane where the pilot needs to know how much
"G" force the airplane is being subjected to in order
to prevent overstress of the structure.
The mechanism of the accelerometer consists of
a weight which is connected by a cord and pulleys
to the shaft that operates the pointer. The internal
arrangement of an accelerometer is shown in figure
1-40. The weight is supported by a guide shaft
which only allows it to move up and down relative
to the guide shaft. A positive G acceleration will
cause the weight to move downward and rotate
the pointer to show a higher positive G loading.
There is a balance spring on the pointer shaft pulley
to balance the forces. The instrument is installed
in the airplane so that it measures acceleration
along the vertical axis of the airplane. The normal
at rest indication on the ground or in level flight
is +1 Gs. The instrument face of an accelerometer
is shown in figure 1-41. The instrument has three
pointers connected to the operating mechanism.
One pointer gives a readout of the current acceleration force along the vertical axis. The other two
pointers have a ratchet device so that they will
remain at the highest reading recorded for positive

and negative forces. A knob is included on the
instrument to reset the two recording pointers.
7. Pitot-Static Systems
a. Pitot and Static Ports
The system of ports and tubing on the aircraft which
supplies pitot and static pressure for the instruments is called the pitot-static system. The pitot
tube is an open tube which faces forward into the
relative wind in flight. It measures the ram pressure
of the airstream. On small airplanes, the pitot tube
is usually installed below the wing. On other aircraft,
it is installed on the nose section of the aircraft.
The static ports are openings at right angles to
the relative wind so that they will measure static
pressure and not be affected by the speed of the
aircraft. The static ports are most often located
in pairs along the sides of the fuselage. On some
aircraft, the static ports are along the sides or top
and bottom surfaces of the pitot tube so that both
pressures are measured with the same probe. A
pitot tube which includes static ports and electric
heaters to prevent icing is shown in figure 1-42.
With the static ports in pairs on opposite sides
of the fuselage, any errors caused by sideslip will
be eliminated. Aircraft that must operate in adverse
weather conditions will require an electrical heating
system for the pitot tubes and static ports to prevent
icing. Air carrier jets and similar types of aircraft
usually employ multiple pitot tubes and static ports
for safety. A typical arrangement of this kind with
three pitot tubes and three sets of static ports is
illustrated in figure 1-43. Notice that the instruments on the left and right sides of the cockpit
STATIC
PRESSURE
RESTRICTION
Figure 1-37. The vertical speed indicator has two scales:

one for climbs and one for descents.
Figure 1-38. The VSI has a restrictor in the connection to

the case which causes a difference between
diaphragm and case pressure during
climbs and descents.
23

(970) 726-5111
are operated by totally separate pressure sources.

By routinely cross checking the instrument indications from the left and right sides, a faulty indication
can be identified.
b. Blockage of Ports
When pitot-static lines or ports become blocked by
ice or other factors, it can cause the instruments
to give improper readings. If the static pressure is
blocked, the altimeter will remain at the current indication and the VSI will continue to read zero even
when the aircraft climbs or descends. This problem
would usually be noticed by the pilot. The airspeed
indicator uses both pitot and static pressure and
a blockage in flight could be more difficult to detect.
Let's use the example of an airplane that is flying
at 10,000 ft. when the static ports become blocked.
The pressure in the static system will be sealed
in and won't change when the aircraft climbs or
descends. If the airplane climbs at a constant speed,
the airspeed indicator will show a decreasing
airspeed. If the airplane descends, the airspeed indicator will indicate a higher than actual airspeed.
Just the opposite would happen if the pitot tube
iced over or was blocked in some other way in
flight. A climb would cause the airspeed indicator
to read higher than it should and a descent would
cause it to read lower than actual airspeed.
The lines and connections in a pitot-static system
should be maintained in good condition. Even
though they don't have to handle high pressures,
the instruments are very sensitive to small changes
in pressure so that even very small leaks can cause
errors in the instruments.
The tubing and hoses that are used are not very
strong and should be inspected carefully for damage.
The fittings and connections should be installed
with care and torqued to specified values.
c. Altimeter System Tests and Inspections
There are some FAR requirements for testing of
altimeter systems. These will be covered next along
ACCELEROMETERACTUATED
PUMPS OR DASHPOTS
INLET FROM
STATIC PORT
CALIBRATED LEAK
Figure 1-39. The acceleration actuated dashpots in the WS! reduce the lag in pointer movement.
24
(970) 726-5111
.-----TOP PULLEY
CONTROL CORD
SHAFTS
MAIN PULLEY
MAIN POINTER CENTERING SPRING
WEIGHT
DRIVER ARM
AUXILIARY POINTER
RETURN SPRINGS
N\4
AUXILIARY POINTER
(POSITIVE G INDICATION)
MAIN
POINTER
.4r----------BOTTOM PULLEY
POINTER RESET SHAFT
AUXILIARY POINTER
(NEGATIVE G INDICATION)
RATCHETS
PAWL
Figure 1-40. The internal mechanism of a three-pointer accelerometer.

with the procedures for other tests which might
not be required at specific intervals but would be
conducted whenever a problem was suspected. A
portable pitot-static system test set that could be
used for these tests is seen in figure 1-44.
FAR 91.411
Altimeter System and Altitude Reporting Equipment Tests and Inspections
a. No person may operate an airplane, or helicopter,
in controlled airspace under IFR unless:
Within the preceding 24 calendar months,
each static pressure system, each altimeter
instrument, and each automatic pressure
altitude reporting system has been tested
and inspected and found to comply with
Appendix E of Part 43 of this chapter;
Figure 1-41. Accelerometer instrument face with three

pointers.
Except for the use of system drain and

alternate static pressure valves, following
any opening and closing of a static pressure
system, that system has been tested and
25

(970) 726-5111
inspected and found to comply with paragraph (a) Appendices E and F of Part 43
of this chapter; and
error could have been introduced, the entire

system has been tested, inspected and
found to comply with paragraph (c) Appendix E of part 43 of this chapter.
3. Following installation or maintenance on

the automatic pressure altitude reporting
system of the ATC transponder where any
b. The tests required by paragraph (a.) of this

section must be conducted by:
STATIC
TUBE
PITOT TUBE
PITOT TUBE
PLATE
STATIC
HOLES
DRAIN HOLE
n
HEATER
III
HEATER
STATIC
HOLES
Figure 1-42. A pitot tube which also contains static ports and electric heating elements.
CAPTAINS
PITOT
TUBE

AIRSPEED
iht
MACH
ALTITUDE
RATE OF
CLIMB
RATE OF
CLIMB
ALTITUDE
MACH
MACH
ALTERNATE
AIR
SELECTOR
VALVES
LEFT
SIDE
STATIC
PORTS
AIRSPEED
WARN
1ST OFFICER
PITOT TUBE
CAPTAIN RIGHT
FIRST OFFICER SIDE
IC
AUXILIARY PTOART-1
CABIN DIFF. PRESSURE
/
MACH
W
AUTOPILOT
FLIGHT
DIRECTOR
FLIGHT
RECORDER',
t=fl__
AUXILIARY
PITOT
TUBE
Figure 1-43. The pitot-static system for a large jet airplane showing the instruments and equipment operated by the
three pitot tubes and three sets of static ports.
26
(970) 726-5111
The manufacturer of the airplane or

helicopter;
differential of approximately 1 inch of

mercury or to a reading of 1,000 ft.
above the aircraft elevation at the time
of the test. Without additional pumping
for a period of one minute, the loss of
indicated altitude must not exceed 100
ft. on the altimeter.
A certificated repair station with appropriate rating;

3. A certificated mechanic with an airframe
rating (but only for the static pressure system tests and inspections).
FAR 43 Appendix E
Altimeter System Test and Inspection
Each person performing the altimeter system tests
and inspections required by FAR 91.411 shall comply with the following:
a. Static pressure system;
Ensure freedom from entrapped moisture
and restrictions.
Determine that leakage is within the tolerances established in FAR 23.1325 or
25.1325 whichever is applicable.
Determine that the static port heater, if
installed, is operative.
Ensure that no alterations or deformation
of the airframe surface have been made
that would affect the relationship between
air pressure in the static pressure system
and true ambient static pressure for any
flight condition.
b. Altimeter omitted here
c. Automatic pressure altitude reporting system
omitted here
FAR 23.1325
Static Pressure System
ii. Pressurized Airplanes Evacuate the

static pressure system until a pressure
differential equivalent to the maximum
cabin pressure differential for which the
airplane is type certificated is achieved.
Without additional pumping for a period
of 1 minute, the loss of indicated altitude
must not exceed 2 percent of the
equivalent altitude or 100 ft., whichever
is greater.
3. Each static pressure port must be designed and located so that errors will not
result when the aircraft encounters icing
conditions. An anti-icing means or alternate static ports may be used to show
compliance.
d. Pitot System Tests

There is no specific test for pitot systems as there
is for static systems other than the normal inspections of the entire aircraft. If a problem is reported
or suspected with a pitot system, there is a general
leak test procedure in AC 43.13-1A, as well as some
general guidelines for pitot-static system maintenance. The procedure for leak testing the pitot
system is: Apply pressure to the pitot tube to cause
the airspeed indicator to show 150 knots. Seal off
for 1 minute and the maximum loss of indicated
airspeed should not exceed 10 knots.
b. If a static pressure system is necessary for

the functioning of instruments, systems or devices, it must comply with the provisions of
paragraphs (1) through (3) of this section.
1. The design and installation of the static
pressure system must be such that
Positive drainage of moisture is provided
Chafing of tubing and excessive distortion or restriction in bends is avoided;
and
iii. The materials used are durable, suitable
for the purpose and protected against
corrosion.
2. A proof test must be conducted to demonstrate the integrity of the static pressure
system in the following manner
I. Unpressurized Airplanes Evacuate
the static pressure system to a pressure
Figure 1-44. A portable pitot-static system tester which

can be used for leak tests and other maintenance functions.
27
(970) 726-5111
AC 43.13-1A
Precautions in Testing Pitot-Static System
Perform all maintenance and inspections before leak testing.
Use a system diagram.
Check the test unit for leaks before beginning
the test.
Run full range tests only if you are thoroughly
familiar with both the aircraft and the test
equipment.
Pressure in the pitot system must always be
equal to or greater than the pressure in the
static system.
The rate of change of pressure during testing
should not exceed the limits for any installed
instrument.
7. After testing make sure that the system is
returned to flying condition, such as removing
tape from ports and drain holes.
There is an FAR that concerns the altimeter setting which is set by the pilot in the Kollsman window.
FAR 91.121
Altimeter Settings
Each person operating an aircraft shall maintain
the altitude of the aircraft by reference to an altimeter that is set:
1. Below 18,000 ft. MSL, to
The current reported altimeter setting of
a station along the route of flight and within
100 nautical miles of the aircraft
If there is no station within 100 nm, the
nearest appropriate station altimeter setting
The air data computer has three inputs; pitot

pressure from the pitot tube, static pressure from
the static ports and total air temperature (TAT)
from a special TAT probe. The TAT measurement
is needed to correct the instrument indications for
friction heating of the air at high speeds. The TAT
probe also permits the calculation of SAT (static
air temperature) which is used to apply corrections
for non-standard temperatures for any flight altitude. The outputs of the air data computer supply
a number of cockpit instruments. The three basic
pitot-static instruments are operated by the ADC
and often several others are added. The common
inputs and outputs associated with an air data
computer are shown in figure 1-45.
High speed jet airplanes require a machmeter;
this could be a separate instrument or included
with the airspeed indicator.
Aircraft with an air data computer usually have
a digital display on the instrument panel which
gives a calculated true airspeed and total air
temperature or static air temperature. TAT includes
the heating effect of the friction at high speed
whereas SAT is just ambient outside air temperature. The temperature indications are especially important for turbine engines which are affected by
the temperature of the intake air.
The air data computer system automatically compensates for both temperature effects and the compressibility of the air at higher Mach numbers. This
helps to ensure accurate instrument readings
throughout a wide range of altitudes and airspeeds.
Air data computers are typically found on turboprop
airplanes and jet airplanes.
iii. If the aircraft has no radio, the elevation

of the departure airport or the setting available before takeoff shall be used.
2. At and above 18,000 ft. MSL, the altimeter
shall be set to 29.92.
e. Air Data Computer Systems

Aircraft that operate at high speeds and high altitudes can have significant errors in the pitot-static
system instruments with the simple probes used

on smaller aircraft. These aircraft will use an Air
Data Computer (ADC) to operate the airspeed indicator, altimeter, VSI and any other systems that
require this data. The air data computer is placed
in the system between the sensor ports and the
instruments to automatically apply corrections in
order to increase accuracy.
MACHMETER
TAT
PROBE
AIR DATA
I -11.- COMPUTER
PITOT
AIRSPEED
INDICATOR
-IP-
TUBE
VSI
I
STATIC
PORTS
ALTIMETER
TAS & TAT/SAT

INDICATOR
Figure 1-45. An air data computer provides more accurate readings on the pitot-static instruments for high performance aircraft. Total
air temperature is measured by a special
probe and provided as an input to the ADC.
28
(970) 726-5111
D. Gyro Instruments
The instruments know as gyro instruments are required for IFR flight and can also be an aid to
accurate flying in VFR conditions. These instruments utilize the principles of a spinning gyroscope
to give the pilot information about the aircraft's
pitch and roll attitude, heading and rate of turn.
A gyroscope is a device which consists of a weighted
wheel or rotor which spins at high speed and is
held in an arrangement of hinged mounting rings
called gimbals (figure 1-46).
The gyro has three axes and one is always the
spin axis. Depending on the type of gimbals used,
it will be able to move relative to the mounting
base around one or both of the remaining axes.
If it has 1 degree of freedom, it can move around
one axis and if it has two degrees of freedom it
can move around both. A gyro with two degrees
of freedom is also called a free gyro.
1. Principles of Gyroscopes
There are two main properties of a spinning gyro
which are of importance to aircraft use, they are:
Rigidity in Space This means that the gyro

rotor will try to maintain its position in space
even when its mounting base is tilted and
rotated. This is illustrated in figure 1-47.
Precession This effect will cause a gyro,
when it is acted upon by an outside force,
to tilt or rotate as if the disturbing force was
applied to it 90 degrees ahead in the direction
of rotation of the rotor (figure 1-48).
Gyros are also subject to other effects such as
oscillation. Oscillation is a problem caused by the
mass of the gimbals. It can be reduced by making
the gimbals lighter. A number of things can be done
to make the gyro more stable and more efficient.
One way is to concentrate the mass of the rotor
on its rim and reduce the mass of the web and
shaft which connects it to the bearings. Another
way to make it more efficient is to increase the
speed of rotation. There are two common methods
used to spin the rotor of an aircraft gyro instrument.
Pneumatics makes use of a stream of air directed
at the rim of the rotor to make it spin at about
8,000 RPM. Electric motors can also be used to spin
the rotor and will usually produce a speed of about
24,000 RPM. A gyro can become unstable which is
called tumbling. Some aircraft gyro instruments have
a caging knob or mechanism which is designed to
return the gyro to a stable condition so that it will
give correct instrument readings. A caging knob can
be seen at the bottom left of figure 1-49. The latest
types of gyro instruments are non-tumbling and
as long as the instrument is in good condition it
will not tumble, even in unusual attitudes. The three
common types of aircraft gyro instruments are the
directional gyro (DG), the artificial horizon and the
turn and bank instrument.
2. Directional Gyro
The directional gyro is the primary heading reference
for IFR flight. The magnetic compass is not a good
Figure 1-46. A simple gyroscope with both inner and

outer gimbals.
Figure 1-47. The rigidity in space characteristic causes

the gyro rotor to try to maintain its orientation in space.
29

(970) 726-5111
heading reference for IFR because it tends to oscillate and is not as stable as a DG. This instrument
uses a free gyro with a horizontal spin axis. The
DG will drift due to precession errors and must
be reset every 15 to 20 minutes using the magnetic
compass as a reference. Older style DGs had a
rectangular window on the face through which the
numbers representing the magnetic heading could
be read. This older style DG presentation is shown
in figure 1-50. Newer style DGs show a full compass
card with the indicated magnetic heading under
the index mark at the top of the instrument as
seen in figure 1-51.
The newer style DG with a full compass card
is often called a heading indicator. Another name
for a DG type instrument is a gyro compass. The

DG uses a free gyro because the spin axis must
remain horizontal to give accurate readings. When
the airplane banks, for example, the rotor will maintain its horizontal spin axis. On many modern
aircraft a more sophisticated instrument replaces
the DG, this instrument is the horizontal situation
indicator or HSI.
The HSI shown in figure 1-52 is an example of
a modern integrated instrument. It has a gyro stabilized compass card like a DG that indicates the
aircraft's magnetic heading. Unlike the DG however,
this compass card is slaved to a remote compass
so it does not have to be reset every 15 to 20
minutes. The HSI is called an integrated instrument
because it combines several different types of displays which would normally be found in separate
LUBBER LINE
r3
FORCE
APPLIED
HERE
1331
0 = 360 OR NORTH
33 = 330' OR NORTH-NORTHWEST
3 = 030' OR NORTH-NORTHEAST
FORCE
FELT
HERE
Figure 1-48. Precession causes a gyro rotor to tilt as if a

disturbing force was applied 90 ahead in
the direction of rotation from the actual
point of application.
I0I
Figure 1-50. The old style DG displayed a small window

like a magnetic compass. This type of
presentation can be difficult to read.
OUTER
GIMBAL
INNER
GIMBAL
GYRO
ROTOR
CARD
111011111101111IM II11II1111
CAGI NG KNOB
Figure 1-49. The rotor in a directional gyro has a horizontal spin axis and two degrees of freedom.
Figure 1-51. The modern DG or heading indicator has a

display which shows a complete compass
card. This type is easier to use.
30
(970) 726-5111
3. Artificial Horizon
instruments. The wide split bar in the middle is

connected to navigational radios and tells the pilot
whether to turn right or left to follow the radio
navigational signals. The indicators on the right
side and at the top are connected to other navigational radios to provide additional information to
the pilot.
The artificial horizon is the pilot's most important

instrument for IFR flying. As the name implies,
it replaces the natural earth horizon that a pilot
uses in VFR flying to maintain the correct pitch
and roll attitude of the aircraft. When an aircraft
is flying in the clouds, the pilot must rely on the
OME INDICATOR
MILES No .I
\,\\
AIRCRAFT SYMBOL
(Fixed to glass)
HOG SELECT CURSOR
7;477.7-//,
\ 36/
FIXED MARKER (45)
MAGNETIC/TRUE ANNUNCIATOR
12 8 40i
0 3151.1
COURSE SELECT CURSOR
"TO" ARROW
("FROM" ARROW opposite
under Mask)
GLIDESLOPE DEVIATION
POINTER
VOR/LOC DEVIATION BAR
LUBBER LINE
COMPASS CARD
Figure 1-52. The horizontal situation indicator is an integrated instrument that displays many additional kinds of
information besides gyro stabilized heading data.
OUTER,GIMBAL
OUTER GIMBAL
BEARING
STOP PIN
GYRO ROTOR
STOPS
INNER GIMBAL (Gyro housing)

HORIZON INDICATOR coupled to this frame
Figure 1-53. The artificial horizon uses a gyro rotor with a vertical spin axis and two degrees of freedom.
31
(970) 726-5111
artificial horizon to determine the aircraft attitude

and prevent a loss of control. The artificial horizon
is also known as a gyro horizon, an attitude indicator, an attitude gyro and a bank and pitch
instrument. The arrangement of the spin axis and
gimbals for an artificial horizon is illustrated in
figure 1-53. The artificial horizon is a free gyro
with a vertical spin axis; this allows it to measure
the angular displacement of the aircraft in both
pitch and roll. The internal mechanism of the artificial horizon must have some means to maintain
the spin axis in a vertical orientation. There are
two common devices used to accomplish this function, the pendulous vane and ball erector systems.
The ball erector system uses a number of steel
balls similar to ball bearings that are free to roll
around on a plate mounted above or below the
gyro rotor. One type of erector system that uses
steel balls is shown in figure 1-54. When the gyro
tilts away from the vertical, the balls roll to the
low side and this produces a force which pushes
the gyro back to the vertical position. This device
will maintain the required vertical spin axis of the
gyro rotor. The ball erector is usually found on
electric motor driven artificial horizons. When an
air-driven gyro is used, the pendulous vane erector
mechanism is utilized.
vanes move to open the air valves in such a way

that streams of air are directed to push the rotor
back to the vertical position. The swing of the pendulous vanes to open and close the air valves can
be seen in figure 1-55.
The artificial horizon has a presentation which
shows an airplane symbol with the horizon behind
it. It includes index marks to show the angle of
bank. Some indications of an artificial horizon for
different flight attitudes are illustrated in figure
1-56. The newer types of artificial horizon have
a more user friendly presentation on the instrument
face. Different colors are used above and below
the horizon line to make it easier to read. Converging
lines are placed below the horizon line to create
perspective and additional markings for pitch attitude are included. These features can be seen
on the newer type artificial horizon in figure 1-57.
The small knob on the front of the artificial horizon
is used to move the airplane symbol up and down
ROTOR
OVA
The pendulous vanes in this type of erector

mechanism are small gravity operated air valves.
When the rotor tilts away from the vertical, the
11111111111111111111111
GYRO
HOUSING
INNER
GIMBAL
GYRO
ROTOR
PENDULUM
VALVE
'
AIR EXIT
SLOT OPEN
\n.\
1111 1 1 11 111111111111 11 11 1 11
BALL
ERECTOR
r
Figure 1-54. The ball erector mechanism uses steel balls

that move to the low side of the plate to
supply a force that corrects the artificial
horizon back to a vertical spin axis.
AIR EXIT
SLOT CLOSED
Figure 1-55. The pendulous vanes used in the erector

mechanism of an air-driven gyro horizon
are opened and closed by gravity.
32
(970) 726-5111
to adjust for different aircraft flight attitudes and

for tall and short pilots. There also may be a control
for quick erect that can be used to stabilize the
gyro if it tumbles. There is a newer type of integrated
instrument which replaces the artificial horizon on
many modern aircraft. This instrument is called
the attitude director indicator (ADI). It includes command bars that are operated by a flight director.
The flight director is a computer which receives
signals from navigational radios and other sources
and calculates the correct pitch and roll attitudes
to keep the aircraft on course or return it to the
desired flight path. The output signals from the
flight director computer move the command bars
on the ADI and the pilot follows these commands.
AIRCRAFT IS FLYING STRAIGHT

AND LEVEL.

(A)
An example of the use of these command bars on

an ADI is found in figure 1-58.
The latest kinds of ADIs use different shapes
for the airplane symbol and the command bars
as can be seen in figure 1-59. The airplane symbol
is a triangle that resembles a delta wing airplane
and the command bars are two converging triangular shapes above the airplane symbol. They often
use different colors as well to make it easier to
distinguish between the airplane symbol and command bar symbol. Some ADIs also include indicators
for other aircraft systems in addition to the flight
director indicator. The indicator pointer on the right
side of the ADI is operated by the aircraft autothrottle system. The pointer on the left side is
AIRCRAFT IS BANKED 20 DEGREES TO THE RIGHT.

(B)
AIRCRAFT IS PITCHED NOSE DOWN.

(C)
Figure 1-56. Indications for an artificial horizon instrument.

The airplane is straight and level.
The airplane is in a 20 bank to the right with the nose on the horizon.
(C) The wings are level, but the nose is below the horizon.
33
(970) 726-5111
operated by a glideslope radio receiver and gives

the pilot information needed for an instrument ILS
approach. An ADI is an integrated instrument that
gives pitch and roll attitude data like an artificial
horizon and additional displays of information from
radio navigation sources and other aircraft systems
like the flight director. On sophisticated aircraft which
have backup gyro instruments, a turn and bank is
not installed, so the inclinometer is installed at the
bottom of the ADI as can be seen in figure 1-59.
flying a little sideways. The gyro rotor of the turn

and bank is designed to measure the rate of turn
of the aircraft. It is the only one of the three basic
gyro instruments which is a rate gyro.
The other two basic gyro instruments measure
angular displacement about the aircraft's axes. The
turn and bank has a gyro with a horizontal spin
COMMAND
BAR
4. Turn and Bank

The last of the three basic gyro instruments is the
oldest and simplest. It is called the turn and bank
and it is really two instruments in one. The gyro
part of the instrument measures the rate of turn
for the aircraft. The inclinometer or slip-skid indicator is a simple mechanical instrument that consists of a ball in a liquid filled glass tube. This
tube is curved and the ball reacts to gravity and
centrifugal force. It is used by a pilot to coordinate
the use of aileron and rudder control. If the pilot
keeps the ball centered, the aircraft is being flown
in a coordinated manner. This instrument is especially helpful when the aircraft is turning. When
the ball is not centered, it means the aircraft is
SYMBOLIC
AIRCRAFT
ALIGNMENT KNOB
SYMBOLIC
AIRCRAFT
AIRCRAFT IS FLYING STRAIGHT AND LEVEL AND

ALL COMMANDS ARE SATISFIED.
AIRCRAFT IS FLYING STRAIGHT AND LEVEL AND

THE FLIGHT DIRECTOR IS COMMANDING A CLIMB.
THE AIRCRAFT HAS SATISFIED THE CLIMB

COMMAND.
(C)
Figure 1-57. The newer type of artificial horizon uses a

presentation that is easier to interpret.
Figure 1-58. The command bars on an attitude director

indicator show the pilot the pitch and roll
attitude that is needed to satisfy the commands of the flight director.
34
(970) 726-5111
axis and one degree of freedom. The feature that

makes it a rate gyro are the springs that are connected to the gimbals. These springs oppose the
precession force which is caused by the aircraft
turning. These features of the turn and bank can
be seen in figure 1-60.
When the aircraft turns, the gimbal holding the
gyro rotor tilts over against the tension of the spring
and moves the pointer to indicate the direction
and rate of turn. The turn and bank gives readings
based on the concept of a standard rate turn. A
standard rate turn is a turning rate of 3 per second.
This is also called a 2 minute turn because it would
take 2 minutes to turn 360 at this rate. A standard

rate turn is not suitable for a high speed aircraft
because it would require a steep angle of bank.
These higher speed aircraft would use a 1/2 standard rate turn which is 1- 1/2 per second or a 4
minute turn. Turn and banks are manufactured
in both types; 2 minute turn and 4 minute turn,
both of which are shown in figure 1-61. The turn
and bank indicator is also called a turn and slip
indicator and a needle and ball. The face of the
instrument shows a needle to indicate turn direction
and rate and a ball which is the slip-skid indicator
or inclinometer.
FLIGHT DIRECTOR
MODE ANNUNCIATORS
PITCH REFERENCE
ROLL REFERENCE "POINTER"
ATTITUDE SPHERE
ROLL ATTITUDE SCALE
GO AROUND
ANNUNCIATOR
RADIO ALTIMETER
DECISION HEIGHT
ANNUNCIATOR
FLIGHT DIRECTOR
CUE COMMAND BAR
SPEED COMMAND SCALE
GLIDESLOPE
POINTER
-SPEED COMMAND "DONUT"
111
GLIDESLOPE
SCALE
AIRCRAFT SYMBOL
RADIO ALTIMETER DECISION

HEIGHT READOUT
RADIO ALTITUDE READOUT
RADIO ALTIMETER
TEST BUTTON
BRIGHTNESS CONTROL
FOR DIGITAL READOUTS
IN AD1 & HSI
ATTITUDE TEST BUTTON

RATE OF TURN SCALE
RADIO ALTIMETER DECISION

HEIGHT SET CONTROL
RATE OF TURN POINTER

INCLINOMETER
EXPANDED LOCALIZER SCALE
EXPANDED LOCALIZER POINTER

Figure 1-59. The newer type of ADI uses different shapes for the airplane symbol and the command bars symbol. It also
may include additional displays for other systems. (Courtesy of Canadair Group, Bombardier Inc.)
35
(970) 726-5111
The turn and bank is shown in figure 1-61. The

pointer is the rate of turn indicator and the glass
tube is the inclinometer.
The index marks on either side of the center
position of the pointer on the lower instrument
are called dog houses. When the pointer is lined
up with a dog house, it indicates a 2-minute turn
on the bottom instrument. A 2-minute turn on the
upper instrument would be indicated by a one needle width deflection of the turn needle. The turn
and bank is considered to be a backup instrumnet
for the artificial horizon. If the artificial horizon
fails, it is possible to fly the aircraft using the turn
and bank in its place.
Another gyro instrument called the turn coordinator is a modified version of the turn and bank.
The only significant difference in the internal mechanism is the fact that the tilt axis for the gimbal
is changed to a 30 angle from the horizontal as
shown in figure 1-62. This causes the gyro rotor
to react to rotation around the longitudinal axis

as well as the vertical axis. The turn and bank
only measures rotation rate about the vertical axis
so that it cannot be used accurately to level the
wings. The turn coordinator is a better back-up
instrument for the artificial horizon for this reason.
Since the turn coordinator is not the same as a
turn and bank and doesn't give the same kind
of information, it has a different appearance so
that pilots won't confuse the two instruments.
The turn coordinator as illustrated in figure 1-63
uses a rear view of a small airplane as the indicator.
When the wing tip of the airplane symbol is lined
up with an index mark, it indicates a standard rate
turn for the 2 minute type. The turn coordinator
also includes an inclinometer, like the turn and bank.
5. Gyro Instrument Power Sources

Aircraft gyro instruments can be powered by electricity or air. The electric gyros can use 14 or
POINTER
CALIBRATED
CENTERING
SPRING
DASHPOT
Figure 1-60. The turn-and-bank instrument has a gyro rotor with a horizontal spin axis and one degree of freedom. It
also has a centering spring on the gimbal.
36
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28 volts DC or several different values of AC. The

gyros that are air driven can use either an air
pump or bleed air from turbine engines. Air-driven
gyros can either use suction pressure or positive
pressure. Those that use suction pressure are
usually called vacuum driven gyros. Some older
aircraft used vacuum venturis to power the airdriven gyro instruments. The venturi for gyros is
mounted on the fuselage of the aircraft and the
airflow caused by the forward motion of the aircraft
creates a low pressure or suction in the throat
of the venturi. A major problem with using a venturi

for IFR flight is that the venturi tends to become
blocked with ice under some flight conditions.
Another disadvantage of the venturi tube is that
the aircraft must maintain a certain minimum
airspeed to generate enough vacuum for the gyros.
The gyros will not be spun-up and stable during
takeoff for example. Examples of 2" and 4" venturis
Figure 1-62. By mounting the gimbal at an angle to the

horizontal, the turn coordinator senses
rotation about both the roll and yaw axes of
the aircraft.
TWO-MINUTE TURN INDICATOR DIAL
FOUR-MINUTE TURN INDICATOR DIAL
Figure 1-61. Both 2-minute and 4-minute turn and bank

instruments are available.
Figure 1-63. The presentation on the face of the turn

coordinator is different from that of a turn
and bank so that the two instruments will
not be confused with each other.
37

(970) 726-5111
are found in figure 1-64. The 2" and 4" are not
physical dimensions. They refer to the amount of
suction in inches of mercury that each is designed
to provide.
The most common type of air pump used on
modern airplanes for the gyro instruments is called
a dry air pump. It does not use any oil for sealing
or lubrication. It is a vane type pump and the vanes
are made of a carbon based material which gradually
wears away in service from rubbing against the
cylinder walls. Figure 1-65 shows a dry air pump
connected to operate as a vacuum pump. Notice
that the gyro instruments and gauge are installed
in parallel. Figure 1-66 shows the same kind of
dry air pump that has been connected to operate
as a positive pressure pump. In the vacuum pump
system the output of the pump is dumped overboard

and the cockpit air is filtered before it flows into
the instruments. A filter is required on the regulator
of the vacuum system because air is drawn in at
that point to regulate the vacuum pressure. An
advantage of the positive pressure system is that
it is better for aircraft that operate at higher altitudes
of 15,000 to 18,000 ft. The positive pressure system
requires a filter on the inlet side of the pump and
a filter on the outlet side ahead of the instruments.
A filter is not required on the regulator in the positive
pressure system. There is also a wet pump for
air driven gyros which uses engine oil for cooling
and lubrication. It can only be used as a vacuum
pump and requires an air/oil separator to return
oil to the airplane's engine. Figure 1-67 shows the
TWO INCH
VENTURI
FOUR INCH
VENTURI
TURN AND SLIP

INDICATOR
CENTRAL
AIR
FILTER
SUCTION
GAGE
DIRECTIONAL
GYRO
GYRO
HORIZON
Figure 1-64. A 2 " and 4 " venturi are available to power air-driven gyro instruments. The ratings apply to the number
of inches of Mercury vacuum that are provided, not to physical size.
38
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air/oil separator in a wet pump system as well

as a suction reducer that is used to drop the pressure for the turn and slip indicator. An air driven
turn and bank or turn and slip requires about
2 inches of mercury while the other two basic types
of gyros require 4-5 inches of mercury.
For any kind of air driven gyros, it is very important
to change the filters regularly to ensure that only
very clean air reaches the gyro instruments. The instruments are very delicate and can wear out rapidly
if dust and dirt are allowed to enter with the air
supply. A typical air filter for aircraft gyro instrument

systems is shown in figure 1-68. The small filter
installed on vacuum regulator valves can be seen
in figure 1-69. The tubing and hose in an air driven
gyro system must be checked to make certain that
no restrictions are present which would create higher
than normal resistance to the flow of air. The only
lubricant approved for vacuum system fittings is usually a silicone spray. Thread lubricants and Teflon
tape should not be used as they might get drawn
into the system and cause damage.
REG.
FILTER
PUMP
Figure 1-65. A gyro instrument vacuum system that uses a dry air pump.
INLET
FILTER
INLINE
FILTER
REG.
GAGE
PUMP
IN

REQ'D WHEN AIRCRAFT
IS PRESSURIZED
S
OUT
IN
OUT
Figure 1-66. A gyro instrument system that uses a dry air pump to supply positive rather than negative pressure.
39
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FILTER
SUCTION REDUCER
AIR
IN
TURN & SLIP

INDICATOR
GYRO HORIZON
CENTRAL
J/--- AIR FILTER
DIRECTIONAL GYRO
./ SUCTION REGULATOR
11
AIR
IN

<
(1

SUCTION GAUGE
OIL SEPARATOR
AIR OVERBOARD
4 OR TO DE-ICER
DISTRIBUTOR VALVE
VACUUM
PUMP
ENGINE OIL
OIL RETURN
METERED INTO
.0 TO ENGINE
PUMP FOR
CRANKCASE
COOLING & SEALING
Figure 1-67. A wet pump vacuum system to operate three gyro instruments. A suction reducer is needed in the line to
the turn and slip since it requires less vacuum pressure.
6. Inspection and Maintenance

of Gyro Systems
Some recommended practices for gyro system maintenance are:
Check the time it takes for the gyro instruments to come up to full speed and stabilize.
This should normally be about 2-4 minutes.
Listen for unusual noise when the gyros are
spinning. Noise is easier to detect after the
engines are stopped.
When power to the gyros is removed, measure
the run-down time. If there is a shortening
of the normal run-down time, it indicates the
bearings are getting worn or some other problem exists.
Check tubing and hose condition. They should
not be worn or restricted. Check for kinks
and dents.
Fittings should be in good condition and with
wide radius bends. Do not over tighten.
Figure 1-68. A typical replaceable filter used with airdriven gyro instruments.
Use only approved lubricants for fittings. Silicone

spray is the most common recommendation.
40
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Route tubing carefully to avoid rubbing and

abrasion.
If it becomes necessary to blow the lines to
remove dirt or moisture, ensure that instruments are completely disconnected. Apply air
pressure to instrument end of the lines.
9. Replace filters at recommended. intervals

more often in dusty conditions or if smokers
ride in the aircraft.
When installing additional air-driven gyro instruments or if a problem is suspected, the load on
the pump should be evaluated. Each gyro instrument
requires a certain volume of air which is stated
in cubic feet per minute (CFM). Add up the requirement in CFM for all the instruments and ensure
that it does not exceed the rated CFM for the pump.
You must also evaluate the pressure drop requirements for the instruments and lines. Artificial
horizons and directional gyros usually require 4.05.0 in. Hg. The turn and bank requires 2.0-2.5
in. Hg. The loss or pressure drop in all the lines
and tubing should not exceed 2 in. Hg. If it does,
you may have to use larger diameter tubing.
E. Compass Systems
1. Magnetic Compass
Figure 1-69. A vacuum regulator for gyro instruments
includes an air filter.
The aircraft magnetic direction indicator or compass

is a completely independent instrument. It does not
require any electrical or tubing connections. It contains a compass card with magnets that line up with
FLOAT
EXPANSION UNIT
INSTRUMENT
LAMP
CONTACT AND
SOCKET ASSEMBLY
LUBBER LINE
CARD
LENS
ii
OUTER CASE
SENSING
MAGNET
COMPENSATING
SCREWS
FILLER HOLE
PIVOT
COMPENSATING MECHANISM
-JEWEL
COMPENSATING
MAGNET
JEWEL POST
JEWEL SPRING
Figure 1-70. The parts of a liquid-filled aircraft magnetic compass.

41
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the magnetic flux lines of the earth. Figure 1-70 shows

the following basic parts of a magnetic compass.
A compass card or float which is mounted
on jeweled bearings. It has numbers and direction markings so that the magnetic heading
of the aircraft can be read from the instrument.
The case is filled with a light oil (usually refined
kerosene) which dampens float motion and
lubricates the bearings.
A diaphragm or bellows accommodates thermal expansion and contraction.
The compensator is two small moveable magnets used to adjust the compass for deviation
error.
5. The lubber line is a marker against which
readings are taken.
The face of a typical liquid filled magnetic compass
is shown in figure 1-71. The indicated magnetic
heading is 035.
2. Compass Errors
The magnetic compass is subject to a number of
errors which affect its operation. These include
variation, deviation, acceleration error, northerly
turning error and oscillation error. Variation error
is simply the fact that a magnetic compass will
give indications based on the magnetic north pole
and not the north geographic pole. The normal grid
lines on an aeronautical chart are in true directions
based on the geographic poles and the equator.
As can be seen in figure 1-72, the north magnetic
pole is hundreds of miles from the north geographic
pole. In most locations, there will be a difference

between true and magnetic directions. This is variation. Figure 1-73 shows how the amount of variation
is drawn on aeronautical charts for pilots to use.
There are some locations where true and magnetic
directions are the same. This would be along the
line called the agonic line. Everywhere else the pilot
would consult the variation markings on the map
and add or subtract the appropriate number of
degrees to convert from true to magnetic headings.
Acceleration error and north turning error are
both a result of compass dip. The earth is round
so that at high latitudes in the northern hemisphere,
the compass card will tilt downward toward the
north magnetic pole. This compass dip causes both
of these errors. If an airplane is flying east and
it accelerates, the compass will momentarily indicate a turn to the north. If it decelerates, it will
indicate a turn to the south. North turning error
occurs when the aircraft is flying north or south.
If a turn is made from a north heading, the compass
will indicate a turn in the opposite direction momentarily and then it will lag behind the actual heading
during the turn. Turns from south will cause the
compass to lead the actual heading or indicate a
higher than actual turning rate. Oscillation error
is caused by the very delicate bearings in the compass. In rough air, the compass will oscillate back
and forth 40, 50 or more. The compass may never
settle down as long as the turbulence persists. This
forces the pilot to have to estimate the actual compass reading.
Deviation error is the most important one for
maintenance technicians because they usually perform the checks and adjustments for deviation error.
This error is also called magnetic influence error
since it is caused by magnetic influences within
the aircraft. All aircraft have some steel parts that
may have some permanent magnetism. Most aircraft
also have electrical circuits that can produce electromagnetic fields. Both of these can affect the magnetic compass and cause errors. The compensator
magnets in the compass are used to adjust this
error to a minimum. This process is called swinging
the compass. It should be performed whenever
equipment is installed that could cause a change
or when a problem with the compass accuracy is
suspected.
Swinging the compassthe basic procedure is:
Figure 1-71. The face of a liquid-type magnetic compass.
1. Locate a compass rose on a ramp area which

is accurate and can be used as a reference.
A compass rose is a circle with magnetic directions indicated as shown in figure 1-74.
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Configure the aircraft for the checks by turning

on electrical equipment and radios, running
the engines and establishing a level attitude.
Point the aircraft west and remove half the error.

The process so far has averaged the error for
all headings. Now you are ready to record the error.
Set the compensators to zero (there are two

little screws labeled N-S and E-W)
Point the aircraft on all headings every 30,

and record the compass heading for each.
Point the aircraft north on the compass rose

and adjust the N-S screw to zero error or as
close to zero error as possible.
9. Prepare a placard which lists the deviation

error at least each 30. Place it on or near
the compass and make a logbook entry.
The compass correction card is used to record
the deviation error for the aircraft's compass. An
example is shown in figure 1-75.
A newer type of compass is called the vertical
card compass. It operates like the other types of
Point the aircraft east and adjust the E-W

screw to zero error or as close to zero error
as possible.
6. Point the aircraft south and remove half the
error.
yNorth
Geographical
Figure 1-72. Variation error for an aircraft compass is the difference between true headings and magnetic headings. It
is caused by the fact that the north geographic pole and the north magnetic pole are not in the same
location.
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0 +5 +10+15 +20 +24
-24
+15
..
+10
WESTERLY
VARIATION
+5
-15'
AGONIC
LINE
-5
Figure 1-73. Lines of variation are drawn on aeronautical charts so that pilots can apply the proper corrections during
flight planning.
1-76 for an illustration of the appearance of a vertical
card compass.
The full compass card presentation of the vertical
card compass makes it easier to read. If the pilot
wants to turn to a heading of 180, the presentation
makes it easier to determine if it is quicker to turn
left or right to reach that heading. The compensator
screws can be seen at the bottom of the vertical
card compass.
3. Flux Gate Compass

The flux gate compass is a special type of remote
mounted compass which is more stable than a standard magnetic compass and usually eliminates the
problems of acceleration and north turning errors.
Figure 1-74. A compass rose contains the markings and

numbers needed for magnetic direction references.
magnetic compass but the presentation on the face

of the instrument is a full compass card which
is easier to read. It sometimes eliminates the use
of oil and employs eddy current damping. See figure
The sensor used with a flux gate compass system

is called a flux valve or flux gate. It is a wheel
shaped device made of a ferrous material with three
spokes and the rim cut into three equal parts. The
flux valve sensor can be seen in figure 1-77. The
excitation coil is in the center and the pick up coils
or output coils are installed with one on each spoke
of the flux valve core. The excitation coil is supplied
with AC current with a frequency of 400 Hz. It
is designed so that when the current flow in the
excitation coil is at peak value, the core material
is saturated. When the current falls below peak
value, the earth's magnetic flux lines cut across
the pick up coils and produce an output signal
44
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in each one. The excitation coil in effect alternately

blocks out the earth's magnetic field and then allows
it to move across the output coils. This produces
an AC output signal from each of the three output
coils. Since the angle of the earth's flux lines to
FOR
N
0
E
9
12
15
21
24
W
27
30
33
S
18
RADIO
STE ER
NO RADIO
FOR
RADIO
STE ER
NO RADIO
Figure 1-75. The compass correction card is usually

made up by the mechanic when he swings
the compass to determine the deviation
error.
COMPASS
CARD
LUBBER
LINE
the flux valve changes for each different heading,

the relative values of the three output voltages will
be different for each different heading. This is
illustrated in figure 1-78. An electronic component
measures the three output signals and derives the
magnetic heading of the aircraft.
In order to give accurate readings, the flux gate
sensor must normally be maintained in a level, horizontal position with respect to the Earth's surface.
This leveling can be accomplished in one of two ways.
In the first type of flux gate sensor found on aircraft,
the sensor is suspended by a pendulous mechanism
so that it can remain level when the aircraft attitude
is changed. This type of flux gate has a housing
filled with a light oil to dampen the motions of the
moving parts. In the second type of flux gate compass
system, the flux gate sensor is stabilized by a gyro
system to keep it level. The output signals from a
flux gate sensor are sent to an electronic unit which
amplifies the signals and calculates magnetic heading.
The output of this electronic unit is sent to cockpit
indicators that require magnetic heading information
and sometimes to navigational systems that require
heading information. The two common cockpit instruments that receive signals from the flux gate system are the HSI and the RMI (radio magnetic indicator).
The HSI and RMI can be seen in figure 1-79 which
shows the flux gate compass system for a Challenger
EXCITATION
COIL
PICK UP
COILS
FIXED
AIRCRAFT
SYMBOL
CORRECTION
SCREWS
SECTION A-A
Figure 1-76. The vertical card compass displays a complete compass card and is easier to read
than the older type. (Courtesy Canadair
Group, Bombardier Inc.)
Figure 1-77. The flux valve sensor has an excitation coil

in the center and three pick up coils on the
spokes or arms.
45

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airplane. The flux valve sensors themselves are normally installed near the wing tips to keep them
away from magnetic influences in the aircraft. The
location of the vertical card magnetic compass is
also shown in figure 1-79.
The HSI and the RMI both have a compass card
which indicates the magnetic heading of the aircraft.
The heading information comes from a flux gate
compass system. The compass cards on both instruments are driven by a remote mounted directional gyro. The DG receives signals from the flux
gate compass that automatically reset it to the correct magnetic heading. The remote DG is slaved
to the flux gate compass and the compass cards
on the instruments are slaved to the remote DG.
The connections are shown in figure 1 - 80 which
is a diagram of a flux gate compass system. In
this system, the pilot never has to reset the instruments with his magnetic compass in the cockpit
unless the flux gate compass system fails.
The face of an RMI is shown in figure 1-81. The
compass card in this instrument indicates the magnetic heading of the aircraft as previously described.
The RMI can be identified by the two pointers that
have a common pivot point in the center of the
instrument. These pointers are connected to radio
navigation systems so that they point toward the
location of the ground transmitter. The selector
switches allow each pointer to be connected to an
ADF or VOR radio receiver.
THE AIRCRAFT IS HEADED

NORTH

(A)
4. FARs for Compass Systems

There are a number of FARs that relate directly
to compass systems.
FAR 23.1327
Must be installed to prevent influence by airplane vibrations or magnetic fields.
Maximum deviation in level flight is 10 degrees
on any heading.
3. Magnetic non-stabilized may deviate more than
10 degrees due to electric heated windshield
etc. if either a stabilized magnetic direction
indicator or DG is installed. Deviation over
10 degrees requires a placard.
FAR 23.1547
Deviation Placard
Placard must be installed on or near the MDI
(compass).
Placard must list calibration for level
with engines running.
flight
Placard must state if calibration is for radios

on or off.
Calibration increments must be 30 degrees
maximum.
THE AIRCRAFT IS HEADED WEST

(B)
Figure 1-78. The changing angle of the earth's flux lines to the flux valve produces a different output signal for each
different heading of the aircraft.
46
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STANDBY COMPASS
RADIO MAGNETIC
INDICATOR (RMI)
0 COMPASS CONTROLS 0
(0.\
HORIZONTAL SITUATION
INDICATOR (HSI)
0 .0
Sl AVEO
O
COMPASS CONTROL
PANEL
FLUX VALVE WS 274
DUAL REMOTE COMPENSATOR
DIRECTIONAL
GYRO NO. 2
DIRECTIONAL
GYRO NO. 1
Figure 1-79. The location of the various components of a flux valve compass system are illustrated in this drawing. The
standby magnetic compass is also shown. (Courtesy Canadair Group, Bombardier Inc.)
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DIRECTIONAL GYRO 2
PILOTS
RMI
CO-PILOT COMPASS
CONTROL PANEL
FLUX VALVE 2
NO.2 VHF
NAV RX
STANDBY
COMPASS
AUTOPILOT
COMPUTER
DUAL REMOTE
COMPENSATOR
PILOTS
HSI
FLUX VALVE 1
COMPASS CONTROLS
CO-PILOTS
RMI
DG
SLAVED
e
PILOT COMPASS
CONTROL PANEL
DIRECTIONAL GYRO 1
Figure 1-80. The compass cards in the aircraft HSI and RMI instruments are operated by both the flux valve compass
system and the remote mounted directional gyros. (Courtesy Canadair Group, Bombardier Inc.)
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5. More than 10 degrees deviation for electric

heated windshield etc. must be placarded.
F. Electronic Instruments
1. Basic Principles
The term "electronic instruments" is used to refer
to the latest trend in aircraft instruments. This
involves the use of CRTs (cathode ray tubes or
TV screens) to display aircraft instrument information. Another common term for this system is
the "glass cockpit". The use of CRTs permits a
greater use of integrated instruments which display
numerous types of information on one screen. It
also permits greater flexibility because the method
of displaying the information and the amount of
information on each CRT can be changed in flight.
It is also claimed that reliability is increased because
complex electro-mechanical instruments are replaced by CRTs that have no moving parts. These
CRTs are operated by a special type of computer
control called a symbol generator. The latest gen-
LUBBER
LINE
eration of air carrier jets and bizjets was designed

to use the glass cockpit displays. This group includes Boeing 757, 767 and 747-400; McDonnell
Douglas MD-11 and Gulfstream G-IVs among others.
Other aircraft have been retrofitted with glass
cockpit displays in their latest versions or as an
option from the factory.
Some aircraft have only one or two CRTs, while
others with a full glass cockpit system will use
six or more CRTs. The electronic instruments that
make up a full glass cockpit come in three types:
Electronic attitude director indicators (EADIs)
Electronic horizontal situation indicators
(EHSIs)
3. Engine indication and crew alerting system
(EICAS)
The appearance of the EADI and EHSI are very
similar to the electro-mechanical versions that have
been covered previously. The major difference is
that the display is more versatile and the pilots
can select what types of information they wish
OFF-WARNING
FLAG
SINGLE BAR POINTER

(YELLOW)
DOUBLE BAR POINTER
(GREEN)
COMPASS CARD
MODE SELECT
SWITCHES
Figure 1-81. The radio magnetic indicator (RM!) has a compass card which indicates the magnetic heading of the
aircraft. (Courtesy Canadair Group, Bombardier Inc.)
49
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to see and much more information can be presented

with the electronic version of the instrument. A
typical EADI and EHSI are shown in figure 1-82.
The EHSI can be set to a map mode which changes
the appearance of the display to that of a map.
An EHSI that is showing the map mode is found
in figure 1-83. The map mode shows an airplane
symbol along with navigational sites, airports and
other features on the ground. The map mode
presentation shows the aircraft moving across the
map in correct relationship to locations on the
ground. It is a very user friendly display which
shows a large amount of information to the pilot
in a way that makes it easier to read than more
conventional displays.
2. EADI
Some of the information that can be presented on
the EADI other than the basic pitch and roll data
includes; radio glideslope data, radio localizer data,
radar altimeter data, autopilot status and aircraft

indicated airspeed.
EHSI
Information displayed on the EHSI includes: magnetic heading, radio steering commands for
VOR /INS, radio glideslope data, DME radio data
and weather radar data. The EADI and EHSI are
installed directly in front of the pilots to match
the standard "T" configuration.
EICAS
The EICAS system usually consists of two large
CRTs installed in the middle of the instrument
panel. The two CRTs may be arranged vertically
or horizontally depending on the particular aircraft
involved. The EICAS display screens in figure 1-84
are positioned one above the other. The EICAS system has two main types of information that are
displayed, as the name implies. The engine indication function displays numerous powerplant instruments in standard columns depending on how many
engines the aircraft has. The crew alerting system
function consists of many sensors located
throughout the aircraft that monitor all the major
systems such as engines, electrical, hydraulic, bleed
air, pressurization, etc. These sensors are monitored
by computer and any faults or abnormal readings
are displayed to the flight crew. On many aircraft
these sophisticated monitoring systems replace a
human crew member, the flight engineer. This allows
the aircraft manufacturer to design a large airplane
like a 747-400 that only requires two flight crew
members instead of three.
An EICAS system that uses two CRTs stacked
vertically is probably the most common and will
be described here. This system is shown in figure
1-84. The upper screen has a standard presentation which displays the primary engine
parameters. These are the most important engine
instruments that are used to set power and
monitor the engines. Also on the upper screen
is a list of alert and status messages concerning
the aircraft systems.
Figure 1-82. Electronic flight instruments: EADI on the

top and an EHSI below.
During routine cruise flight conditions, the lower

screen is very often blank. If a problem suddenly
developed with the hydraulic pressure, for example,
the EICAS computer would automatically put a message on the upper screen and show the hydraulic
system instruments on the lower screen. The basic
theory of this system is that normal readings on
the instruments do not have to be displayed for
the crew. When an abnormal reading occurs, then
it will be displayed to the crew. This reduces the
workload for the two-man cockpit.
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The primary engine parameters on the upper

screen are in two identical columns because the
airplane has two engines. The instruments displayed are engine pressure ratio (EPR), N1
tachometer and exhaust gas temperature (EGT).
During engine starts, the EICAS system will automatically display the secondary engine parameters
as shown here. The EICAS screens can also display
additional information such as check lists. If an
engine flames out during flight, a checklist is automatically displayed which shows the acceptable altitudes and airspeeds for an attempted restart as
well as the checklist to accomplish this task. The
EICAS system is complex and expensive so it has
been installed only on the more sophisticated
aircraft. The EADI and EHSI can be found on all
classes of aircraft including small single engine
airplanes.
5. Heads Up Displays
The glass cockpit instruments were made possible
by the rapid advances made in microprocessors
and digital computer technology. An even newer

item of advanced cockpit displays is the Heads Up
Display. The use of a HUD system was developed
by the military for combat aircraft. If information
about important aircraft systems is displayed in
the windshield area, the pilot does not have to
shift his attention down to the instrument panel
to get this information. The HUD allows the pilot
to keep looking out the windshield of the aircraft
(head up) and to see the information that is needed
projected onto a special screen in the windshield
area. A heads up display system for commercial
jet airplanes has been developed and is installed
in some aircraft at this time. This system is called
the Heads Up Guidance System (HGS) and the display is shown in figure 1-85.
The HGS screen itself is a special type of glass
plate which the pilot can look through even while
information is being projected onto the screen. The
images on the screen are focused at infinity so
the pilot does not have to refocus his eyes to look
at either the world outside the windshield or the
AIRCRAFT
SYMBOL
TUNED
VOR/DME
DISTANCE AND COURSE

TO DESIGNATOR
SELECTED
NAV SOURCE
MAG/TRU
ANNUNCIATOR
"NORTH-UP"
IDENTIFIER
TRU
FMS 2
6.0/190
AIRPORT
ANNUNCIATOR
NE
+ 0 LA?
DISPLACEMENT
LINE
0
DESIGNATOR
MAY
RNG
100
TO MANZY'll

ETA 1736
DIS 100
WX
RANGE
"TO" WAYPOINT
ETA
WAYPOINT -
DISTANCE TO
"TO" WAYPOINT
Figure 1-83. The appearance of an EHSI when operating in MAP MODE.

51
(970) 726-5111
data on the HGS. The HGS screen is operated by

a computer controlled system which has many sensors to display different information. On a civil
aircraft the information displayed on the HGS is
the same kind of information displayed on an EADI.
The first airline to begin using an FAA-approved
HGS system was Alaska Airlines. They retrofitted
their Boeing 727s with HGS at a cost of about
$200,000 for each aircraft. The use of the HGS
enables the airline to operate in bad weather conditions that might ground aircraft of other airlines.
The FAA has approved this operation because of
the elimination of the need for the pilot to switch
his attention from the instrument panel to the view
out the windshield. The future will no doubt see
an increasing use of HGS and other advanced display systems by many other airlines and aircraft
operators. Versions of the heads up display designed
for use in twin-engine turboprop aircraft are already
being developed by several companies.
etc. The aviation maintenance technician that works

on modern aircraft should have a basic understanding of computers in general and their application to aircraft systems. The modern digital
computer is made possible by the rapid advances
in integrated circuits that have taken place over
the last twenty years. A modern microprocessor
is in effect a computer on a small chip of silicon.
This small and powerful chip makes possible the
manufacture of small but powerful computers.
1. Basic Parts of a Computer

A computer is made up of three basic parts as
related to their functions. The basic hardware consists of input devices, output devices and the CPU
(central processing unit). Refer to figure 1-86.
Input devices are things like keyboards, mice,
scanners etc. Output devices are CRTs, printers,
plotters etc. The central processing unit contains
the brains of the computer. The CPU can be divided
into three different units by their function. The
central control unit directs data from one place
to another and maintains overall control of the
G. Computers in Aircraft
The rapid advances in computer technology in
recent years have been applied to many different
aircraft systems such as cockpit displays,
autopilots, navigational computers, engine controls
ALERT MESSAGE
FIELD
ENGINE OIL
PARAMETERS
>PRIMARY ENGINE
PARAMETERS
SECONDARY ENGINE
PARAMETERS
Figure 1-85. The display screen for a heads up guidance

system (HGS) is a transparent plate that
displays the same kinds of information as
an ADI, but it allows the pilot to look out the
windshield through the HGS display. (Courtesy Flight Dynamics, Inc.)
ENGINE
VIRRATION
Figure 1-84. EICAS display screens. This system is used

on the Boeing 757 and 767.
CPU
CENTRAL CONTROL UNIT
INPUTS
MEMORY
OUTPUTS
3. ALU
Figure 1-86. The basic parts of a computer. The CPU contains the control unit, the memory and the arithmetic logic unit
which performs calculations.
52
(970) 726-5111
operations. The memory stores information on special computer chips. The ALU is the arithmetic logic
unit; it performs the mathematical calculations that
are required. The term peripherals is often used
in discussing computers. Peripherals are the various
input and output devices, examples of which were
given above.
The memory of a computer comes in two types
that are known as RAM and ROM. The RAM or
volatile memory temporarily holds data that is being
acted upon by the computer. It is called volatile
because it is lost each time the computer is switched
off. The operator can change and manipulate the
RAM memory with keyboard entries and other actions. The ROM or non-volatile memory is sometimes
called hard-wired. The data in the ROM area will
not be lost when the computer is switched off and
cannot be altered by a simple keyboard entry. An
example of ROM is the built-in startup test that
most computers have. When the computer is first
switched on, it tests itself for errors and checks
to see what peripheral devices are connected to
it. An example of RAM could be a term paper that
you are typing into a computer using a word processor program. If you forget to save the document
on a disk, it will be lost when the computer is
switched off.
2. Some Applications of
Computers in Aircraft
A modern jet airplane may have many different computers that perform a variety of functions. The use
of digital systems on aircraft is becoming more and
more common because it offers several advantages:
Fault Isolation faulty equipment can be isolated or bypassed

Operational Verification After Defect Repair
The last example is a type of BITE program that
maintenance personnel would use most often. After
changing a piece of equipment which is thought
to be the cause of the problem, a verification test
can be conducted to ensure that the system is
now operating normally. Running this particular
test usually involves just pushing the appropriate
button.
To simplify the troubleshooting and repair of
modern electronic equipment, it is installed in the
aircraft in the form of LRUs. An LRU is a line
replaceable unit which means a standard size container which slides easily in and out of a special
mounting rack. A typical arrangement for LRUs
and equipment installations is shown in figure 1 -87.
The LRUs use standard types of electrical connectors
and mounting attachments; this makes it easy to
locate and change one in a short period of time.
The BITE systems in an aircraft are designed to
identify faulty LRUs so that they can be changed
quickly and easily.
5. Digital Data Transmission

The increasing use of computers and sophisticated
electronic devices on modern aircraft requires that
these devices be able to communicate with each other
rapidly and efficiently. This rapid exchange of data
is accomplished with digital data transmission using
Increased reliability
Faster response
3. Reduced power consumption
Smaller and lighter weight equipment
Lower operating cost
Computers have become so common that they
are now used in many different aircraft systems
such as autopilot, engine controls, navigation, flight
planning, etc.
LRU
3. BITE Systems
One of the features of the effort to reduce operating
cost is the use of BITE (built-in test equipment).
The latest types of aircraft electronic equipment
and computers have special types of test equipment
as a part of the major units. BITE systems often
provide three different kinds of tests that can be
used to identify and correct faults.
1. Fault Detection continuous during equipment operation
Figure 1-87. Avionics equipment in modern aircraft is

installed in special racks that accommodate
standard sizes of line replaceable units or
LRUs. This makes changing the LRUs a
quick and simple procedure.
53

(970) 726-5111
digital data busses. Since the various pieces of equipment that use this data bus are manufactured by
many different companies, a uniform standard for
the method of data transmission is needed. The standard which is used by this type of equipment on modern
air carrier jets and bizjets is ARINC 429.
The initials ARINC stand for Aeronautical Radio
Incorporated. This organization has been in existence since the 1930s to provide certain services
to the airline industry.
The members of ARINC include the major airlines,
aircraft manufacturers and equipment manufacturers. They establish many study groups that investigate emerging technology and suggest
standards that can be applied to new types of equipment. When these standards are approved, they
will be followed by all the members of ARINC. In
INERTIAL
REFERENCE
SYSTEM
the case of ARINC 429, this means that computers

and similar equipment that utilize digital signals
will be compatible with each other. Since the airlines
often lead the way in the development of new types
of equipment, the manufacturers of equipment for
smaller aircraft often use ARINC standards also
even if they are not members of ARINC. Unlike
FAA and FCC regulations, ARINC standards are
not laws; but anyone who wants to sell airplanes
or equipment to the major airlines will comply with
these accepted industry standards. ARINC 429 has
been used as an example here because it applies
to digital information transmission systems used
on aircraft. Many of the newer types of equipment
described earlier such as EADI, EHSI, EICAS, BITE,
etc. will use digital data exchange systems that
are designed in accordance with ARINC 429.
CENTRAL
AIR DATA
COMPUTER
SYMBOL
GENERATOR
ADI
HSI
DIGITAL BUS SYSTEM

n_/
FLIGHT
MANAGEMENT
SYSTEM
AUTO FLIGHT
GUIDANCE
SYSTEM
THRUST
MANAGEMENT
SYSTEM
VHF
NAVIGATION
SYSTEM
0 En
no q o
o 0000
q q 1:111 q q
AFDS MODE CONTROL PANEL
RADIO
ALTIMETER
SYSTEM
110101:glinnnnnnnWIrAtt
.: 7,111.1
DIGITAL DATA BUS
Figure 1-88. A digital data bus permits rapid transmission of data between the various electronic systems on the aircraft.
The bus itself is a shielded twisted pair conductor which helps to prevent interference.
54
(970) 726-5111
CHAPTER II
Powerplant Instruments and Logic Gates
The information presented in chapter 2 will be in
three major topic areas: powerplant instruments,
logic gates and binary numbers, and position indicating and annunciator systems.
A. Liquid Quantity
Measuring Systems
Depending on the type of aircraft involved, there
may be just one or there may be many different
liquids carried on the aircraft for which a quantity
measurement is required. Most of the examples
given here will be fuel quantity systems because
they are the most common. It should be noted
that for each type of system described, it could
be used to measure fuel, oil, water, hydraulic fluid
or some other liquid quantity.
The float was often made of cork and it had

to be coated with a special shellac or varnish so
that it would not sink. Two disadvantages of this
quantity system are that the rod tends to bounce
up and down and there are no index markings
at all. A variation of this system was used in many
biplanes where the fuel tank was in the center
section and the rod stuck down below the tank
in a clear tube with an indicator fastened to it.
This inverted float system with the indicator below
the tank is shown in figure 2-3.
The gauge called the magnetic direct reading is
a float-type gauge which uses a gear system to
Most small, single engine airplanes only have

one liquid quantity indicating system in the cockpit
and that is for fuel. The simplest types of fuel quantity systems are those that use mechanical systems
and require no electrical power to give readings.
These will be described first.
Sight Glass Gauges

The simplest kind of liquid quantity system is the
sight glass gauge. In this system a small glass or
plastic tube is connected into the tank so that the
level of the liquid in the tube matches that in the
tank. Markings on the tube itself or a plate behind
it indicate the quantity. A sight glass gauge is shown
in figure 2-1.
Figure 2-1. A sight glass liquid quantity gauge.
This type of quantity system has no moving parts,

but the tank must be located in or near the cockpit
area for it to be practical. It has been used on
older aircraft for fuel and hydraulic fluid quantity
systems.
Float-type Mechanical Gauges

A number of different kinds of mechanical float
quantity systems have been used.
A very simple version utilized a float mounted
on a metal rod which projected through a hole
in the gas cap so that the rod would be visible
from the cockpit. The fuel tank was located directly
in front of the cockpit in the fuselage so that it
could be easily seen. This type is illustrated by
figure 2-2.
Figure 2-2. A mechanical float-type fuel quantity gauge

for a fuselage tank.
55

(970) 726-5111
the rest of the gauge in the cockpit was a piece

of aluminum with sealing gaskets. The magnetic
flux traveled through the aluminum and rotated
a piece of ferrous metal that in turn rotated the
pointer.
Resistance Gauges
The type of fuel quantity gauge most common on
modern small airplanes is similar to the kind used
in cars. It has a float in the tank that moves a
variable resistor. The variable resistor alters the
current flow in a DC circuit to operate a meter
movement that is somewhat similar to those used
in voltmeters and ammeters.
Figure 2-3. A mechanical float fuel quantity gauge for the
center section of a biplane.
rotate a pointer in a round gauge and uses a magnetic principle to isolate the glass face cover and
pointer from the fuel. This type of gauge was often
used on high wing airplanes where the fuel tanks
were in the butt end of the wing. The gauge was
installed so that the float was inside the tank and
the round face of the gauge was visible inside the
cockpit. It is shown in figure 2-4.
The float rotated a shaft through a simple gearing
system. On the end of the shaft was a U-shaped
magnet which rotated along with the shaft. Separating the magnet and shaft from the pointer and
Figure 2-4. Mechanical float-type gauge with a permanent magnet to isolate the fuel from the
cover glass and pointer.
The gauge used with the float operated variable

resistor is most often the ratiometer type seen in
figure 2-5. This gauge uses two opposing magnetic
fields so that the pointer reacts to the ratio of current
flow in the two sections. In this way, it is less
affected by fluctuations in system voltage caused
by voltage regulator settings or a weak battery.
Underwing Fuel Quantity Indicators

Many large aircraft have two totally different types
of fuel quantity measuring systems. One of these
operates the cockpit gauges and the other is an
underwing fuel quantity system. The underwing system can only be used on the ground and is most
often employed by maintenance and service personnel rather than by the flight crew. There are
three kinds of underwing fuel quantity systems,
but they all share certain features in common. They
all utilize a fuel quantity stick of some type which
can be extended below the bottom surface of the
wing. They measure the fuel quantity in terms of
volume and not mass. These underwing quantity
systems typically require no electrical power to obtain readings. This last characteristic would be an
advantage if it was necessary to take fuel readings
while working on the fuel system.
The oldest and simplest type of underwing fuel
quantity system is called a drip stick. It uses a
TANK
RESISTOR
-i- DC POWER
Figure 2-5. Ratiometer fuel quantity system using a float-operated variable resistor.
56
(970) 726-5111
hollow tube which extends from the bottom of the

wing up inside the fuel tank as illustrated in figure
2-6. The tube is normally stowed by being pushed
up inside the tank until the bottom of the tube
is flush with the bottom surface of the wing where
it is latched in the closed position. In order to
obtain a reading, the tube is unlatched and pulled
down until the upper end reaches the top of the
fuel level. When fuel begins to drip out the bottom
of the tube, a reading is taken using the markings
on the outside of the tube. This type of fuel quantity
system is not used on modern aircraft because
of the fire danger when fuel is allowed to drip on
the ground or hangar floor.
Another type of underwing fuel quantity stick
is the one which uses a clear Lucite plastic rod.
The main features of this device are shown in figure
2-7. The rod is made of clear plastic because it
obtains readings by transmitting light along the
rod. The principle involved is the refraction of light.
Fuel and air have different light refraction characteristics and if a specially shaped quartz tip is
installed on the top of the rod, it will produce a
particular light pattern when it is positioned at
the top of the fuel level. In order to take a reading,
the tube is pulled down from the bottom of the
wing until the light pattern on the bottom of the
rod is focused to a point of light. The reading is
then taken using the markings along the length
of the rod.
in alignment. This type of underwing fuel quantity

stick is shown in figure 2-8.
A fuel reading is taken by unlatching the stick
and pulling it down until the float and the top
Figure 2-7. An underwing fuel quantity measuring stick

that utilizes a clear Lucite rod.
The most common type of underwing fuel quantity

stick on modern aircraft is the one which uses
a float inside the tank that has a magnet fastened
to it. The upper end of the stick has a magnet
which will attract the float magnet when they are
LATCHING CAM
Figure 2-6. Older style drip stick underwing fuel quantity gauge.
Figure 2-8. Underwing fuel quantity stick which employs

a float and permanent magnets.
57

(970) 726-5111
of the stick are held in position by magnetic attraction. The reading is then taken from the markings along the tube. The magnetic force is not strong
enough to lift the float out of the fuel; so when
the stick is pushed up, the magnetic attraction
is broken and the stick can be pushed up and
stowed.
These types of underwing fuel quantity systems
are not usually as accurate as the cockpit fuel
quantity system, but they can be used for maintenance and troubleshooting purposes.
5. Capacitance Quantity Indicators

The most common type of liquid quantity measuring
system used on modern turbine engine aircraft is
the capacitance type. It has the advantage over
other quantity systems in that it can give accurate
readings in very large or unusually shaped tanks.
Another advantage is the fact that liquid quantity
is measured in terms of mass or weight rather
than in volume. Measuring fuel quantity in mass
is especially useful with large turbine engine aircraft
because the power produced by the engines is more
a factor of the mass of fuel consumed rather than
the volume. In very large fuel tanks, the volume
of the fuel will vary considerably due to thermal
expansion and contraction, but the mass would
remain the same.
The capacitance liquid quantity system gets its
name from the fact that the measuring probes located in the tank are capacitors. A simplified representation of this type of fuel quantity system is
shown in figure 2-9. In the real system, the probe
is usually constructed in the form of two concentric
metal tubes which are the two plates of the capacitor.
When this probe is located in a fuel tank, the two
plates of the capacitor will be separated by fuel
on the lower end and air on the upper end. Since
fuel and air have different dielectric constant values,
the amount of capacitance will change as the fuel
level rises or falls. The dielectric constant for the
fuel is also affected by density. Therefore any increase in density caused by thermal contraction
will result in an increase in capacitance. The probes
will automatically measure the mass or weight of
the fuel. A small, symmetrical tank like an engine
oil tank may only require one capacitance probe
to give accurate readings. A large, tapered wing
fuel tank might have 15 or more probes connected
in parallel to ensure accurate readings. The
capacitance fuel quantity system of figure 2-10 has
a total of 17 capacitance probes. Electronic circuits
measure the amount of capacitance in the probes,
apply any needed corrections, and send electrical
signals to the cockpit gauges to indicate the fuel

quantity in pounds. Capacitance fuel quantity systems usually include a totalizer. The totalizer gives
a reading of the total fuel on board the aircraft.
Some fuel systems will also give the fuel used since
takeoff.
B. Fuel Flow Indicators

There are a number of different gauges which might
be used for aircraft fuel systems depending on the
type and complexity of the particular kind of fuel
system used. All powered aircraft will have a fuel
quantity system. On small airplanes with gravity
flow fuel systems, this would be the only type of
fuel system instrument required. Aircraft with pump
fed engines will need a fuel pressure gauge in addition to fuel quantity. Aircraft with fuel-injected
or large radial piston engines and aircraft with turbine engines will usually have a fuel flow instrument.
Some aircraft with turbine engines that operate
in cold temperatures will also have a fuel temperature indicator to guard against the danger of ice
crystals in the fuel. The various types of fuel flow
indicator systems will be described in this section.
1. Fuel-injected Engine Flowmeters

The type of flowmeter commonly installed on aircraft
with fuel-injected reciprocating engines is not a
true flowmeter at all. The sensor used with this
instrument system actually measures pressure not
FUEL TANK
CAPACITOR
115V
400HZ
REFERENCE
CAPACITOR
Figure 2-9. Simplified circuit to illustrate the principle

of operation for a capacitance liquid quantity system.
58
(970) 726-5111
L.H. REAR
AVIONIC BAY
0%*%
OUTPUT FROM
00s SIGNAL CONDITIONER

TO INDICATOR
ws
3
SIGNAL FROM PROBE

TO SIGNAL CONDITIONER
ws
200
1111111111111111M111111111
111111111111111111111111111111111111111
ws
244 ws
277
CAPACITANCE
TYPE QTY.
TRANSMITTER
Figure 2-10. The major components and their location for a capacitance fuel quantity system on a corporate jet.
(Courtesy Canadair Group, Bombardier Inc.)
59
(970) 726-5111
flow rate would be decreased. A leak in an injector

line would decrease the restriction to flow and
decrease the indicated flow rate on the gauge but
the fuel consumption would actually increase.
flow rate. Since the injector lines and nozzles have

a certain restriction to flow, a given pressure supplied to the injection system will produce a given
flow rate for normal operating conditions. This type
of instrument uses a Bourdon tube in the gauge
which is connected by tubing and hose to the fuel
divider block on top of the engine. The line leading
from the fuel distribution manifold on the engine
can be seen in figure 2-11. The face of the instrument
usually has three different units of measurement:
PSI, gallons per hour (GPH) or pounds per hour and
percent of cruise power. The instrument face shown
in figure 2-12 has these three units. This instrument
will give accurate readings for all three of these
values as long as everything is operating normally.
The pressure at the fuel distribution manifold will
be proportional to the flow rate if the total restrictions to flow in the system are normal. If there
is any fault in the system which causes the restriction to the flow of fuel to increase or decrease,
the instrument can give erroneous readings. For
example, if an injector nozzle was blocked this would
cause a greater restriction to flow and an indication
of increased fuel consumption when the actual fuel
2. Vane-type Flowmeters
The vane-type flowmeter uses a sensor like that
in figure 2-13 that is installed in the line that feeds
fuel to the engine. The vane is mounted on a shaft
so that it will rotate through an arc as the fuel
pushes against it. The circular chamber that contains the vane has enough clearance between the
cylinder walls and the vane that the flow of fuel
is not retarded to any significant degree. The vane
type sensor will measure the volumetric flow rate
of the fuel.
The vane is rotated against a restraining spring
so that the amount of rotation of the vane corresponds to the volumetric flow rate. The cockpit
gauge is normally marked to show the flow rate
in gallons per hour. The position of the vane in
the sensor is transmitted electrically to the cockpit
gauge where it rotates the pointer to the correct
reading. The type of electrical system that transmits
CODE
MSS VAPOR RETURN AND EXCESS FUEL
LIED CROSSFEED FUEL
LEFT ENGINE

RIGHT ENGINE
VENT
- MECHANICAL LINKAGE
ELECTRICAL CONNECTION
_
FUEL FLOW
INDICATOR
- IFUEL
DISTRIBUTION
MANIFOLD
THROTTLES
MIXTURE
CONTROLS
FUEL-INJECTION
NOZZLE (TYP)
i
I
H 4_ J L
FUEL/AIR
CONTROL UNIT
FUEL/AIR
CONTROL UNIT
J L
FUEL
PRESSURE SWITCH
ENGINE DRIVEN FUEL
PUMP
THROTTLE
SWITCHES
i PRESSURE SWITCH
RELAY
FUEL-INJECTION
NOZZLE (TYP)
PRESSURE SWITCH
RELAY
FUEL
PRESSURE SWITCH
ENGINE DRIVEN FUEL
PUMP
Figure 2-11. The fuel flow indicator system for a fuel-injected reciprocating engine that measures pressure at the fuel
distributor manifold. (Courtesy Cessna Aircraft Co.)
60
(970) 726-5111
this positional information concerning the vane is

a type of synchro system. An example of a vane-type
flowmeter with a synchro system is shown in figure
2-14. Since these synchro systems are used with
many other types of aircraft instruments, they will
be described next.
3. Synchro Systems
There are three types of synchro systems and they
share the same basic features and are used for
similar purposes. A synchro system consists of
a transmitter unit and a receiver unit. The two
are connected to each other by electrical wiring.
The transmitter unit contains an input shaft and
it can be connected to anything which will rotate
BYPASS VALVE
FUEL
OUTLET
FUEL
INLET
METERING
VANE
Figure 2-12. Fuel flow indicator with three different

measurement units: pounds per hour, PSI
and percent of cruise power.
Figure 2-13. A vane-type flow sensor that measures

volumetric flow rate.
TRANSMITTER
1
1
1
INDICATOR
FUEL
FLOW
b
RESTRAINING SPRING
Figure 2-14. Vane-type flowmeter system for a large airplane which includes a synchro system.
61
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this shaft through an arc. The receiver unit has

a shaft which is connected to the pointer in the
instrument. If the shaft in the transmitter unit is
rotated 20 to the right, the shaft in the receiver
will also rotate 20 to the right. The operation of
a synchro system causes the receiver unit to move
in synchronization with the transmitter unit. A large
jet transport may have many different synchro systems for a variety of different instruments. The
transmitter unit can be connected to anything which
produces a rotation of the shaft through an arc.
Figure 2-15 shows how the rotor in the receiver
unit will position itself automatically based on the
magnetic field created by the three outer magnets.
The three different kinds of synchro systems will
now be described. They do differ in details of construction, but the basic operation of all three is
as described above.
a. DC Selsyn Synchro
The transmitter unit in the Selsyn synchro is a

variable resistor with three sections as seen in figure
2-16. The shaft is connected to the wiper arm. The
three sections of the variable resistor are connected
by wires to the three coils in the receiver unit. The
rotor of the receiver unit is a permanent magnet
that is connected to the instrument pointer. The
position of the wiper arm in the transmitter determines the voltages that are produced by the three
sections of the resistor. The permanent magnet in
the receiver unit will line up with the overall magnetic
field produced by the three coils surrounding it.
Any rotation of the shaft and wiper arm of the transmitter will cause different voltages to be applied
to the receiver unit. A new orientation of the magnetic
field in the receiver unit will pull the rotor into
the correct alignment.
Figure 2-15. An illustration of the basic operation of a synchro receiver unit. The rotor will align itself with the resultant
field of the three outer magnetic fields.
TRANSMITTER
INDICATOR
Figure 2-16. The DC-powered Selsyn synchro system.

62
(970) 726-5111
Magnesyn Synchro
The Magnesyn synchro system uses AC power,
most often 26 volts AC and 400 Hz. The use of
AC power eliminates the need for a variable resistor
and improves reliability because there are no
brushes to wear or get out of adjustment. The construction features of the transmitter and receiver
unit are similar, which can be seen in figure 2-17.
The rotors are permanent magnets and the three
section windings are connected together. The magnetic field produced in the receiver will pull the
rotor into a position that corresponds to the rotor
position in the transmitter unit.
Autosyn Synchro
The only difference between the Autosyn and Magnesyn synchros is that the Autosyn uses electromagnets instead of permanent magnets for the rotors.
Figure 2-18 shows an Autosyn synchro system. It
also uses AC power that is most often 26 volts AC
at 400 Hz. Many pressure and flow type instruments
on modern jet airplanes use a synchro system to
transmit the information to the cockpit gauge.
4. Mass Flowmeters
The latest types of turbine engine aircraft use a flowmeter that gives a reading of the mass flow rate
PERMANENT MAGNET

v SOFT IRON CORE
1/3
7:
\\
6
1/3
C71/3
B
26 V
400 HZ
POWER SUPPLY
TRANSMITTING
MAGNESYN
)13
DOWN
TOROIDAL
INDICATING WINDING
MAGNESYN
Figure 2-17. The AC powered Magnesyn synchro system.
Figure 2-18. The AC-powered Autosyn synchro system.
in pounds per hour rather than a volumetric reading

in gallons per hour. The mass flow rate is a more
useful indication for this type of aircraft. Refer to
figure 2-19 for a drawing of the mass flowmeter. The
mass flowmeter consists of a motor-driven impeller,
a turbine and a synchro system to transmit the data
to a cockpit gauge. In order to give accurate readings,
the impeller must be driven at a constant speed.
This is accomplished with an AC synchronous motor
or a similar device. As the fuel flows through the
impeller, it is given a spin or rotation by the spinning
impeller. When the fuel leaves the impeller, it strikes
the turbine which is rotated against a restraining
spring by the spin energy of the fuel. Because a
denser fuel would impart more spin energy to the
turbine, the degree of rotation of the turbine is a
measure of mass flow rate. The turbine is connected
to the transmitter rotor of a synchro system which
will cause the pointer on the cockpit gauge to rotate
to the proper position to indicate the correct mass
flow rate. The sensor for this and other types of flowmeters is installed in the fuel system downstream
of the fuel control device so that the flow rate represents the fuel consumption rate for that engine.
5. Computerized Fuel System

The computerized fuel system is a volumetric flow
measuring system found on some fuel-injected
reciprocating engines. The sensor is a small unit which
is installed on top of the engine in the fuel line that
feeds the fuel splitter or manifold. The sensor or
transducer contains a small rotor that has the same
density as the fuel to ensure accurate readings.
As the fuel flows past the rim of the rotor, it
spins the rotor at a rate which is proportional to
the volumetric flow rate of the fuel. The rotor has
notches on its rim which interrupt a light beam
from a light emitting diode (LED). This light beam
falls on a phototransistor which produces an output
signal with a frequency that matches the flicker
rate of the light beam. The electrical output of the
phototransistor is connected to the computer in
the cockpit instrument which processes the data
and displays information for the pilot. The input
signal to the computer has a frequency which is
an indication of flow rate, but the computer can
calculate and display fuel flow, fuel used and fuel
remaining in several different units of measurement.
By including a computer to process the signal from
the transducer, the computerized fuel system can
give the pilot a number of different kinds of useful
information. The cockpit indicator is usually a
lighted display like that shown in figure 2-20. This
is not a CRT but a digital lighted display. There
are three common types of lighted digital displays
63

(970) 726-5111
available that use light emitting diodes (LEDs), liquid

crystal displays (LCDs), or gas discharge tubes.
FAR 23.1337
Powerplant Instruments
1. Each line carrying flammable fluids under
pressure must:
6. FARs for Fuel Systems

In chapter 1, the requirements for powerplant
instruments were covered and it would be useful
to look over that section again to review the information appropriate to the instruments covered
in this section. Some additional FARs concerning
fuel systems are given here.
Have restricting orifices or other safety devices at the source of pressure to prevent
the escape of excessive fluid if a line fails;
and
Be installed and located so that the escape
of fluids would not create a hazard.
2. Each powerplant instrument that utilizes flammable fluids must be installed and located
so that the escape of fluid would not create
a hazard.
FAR 23.993
Fuel Systems
Each fuel line must be installed and supported
to prevent vibration and to withstand fuel pressure and flight loads.
Where relative motion could exist, fuel lines
must have provisions for flexibility.
3. Fuel Quantity Indicator There must be a

means to indicate to the flight crew members
the quantity of fuel in each tank during flight.
An indicator, calibrated in either gallons or
pounds, and clearly marked to indicate which
scale is used, may be used. In addition:
Each flexible hose must be approved or shown

to be suitable for the particular application.
Each fuel quantity indicator must be calibrated to read zero during level flight when
the quantity of fuel remaining in the tank
is equal to the unusable fuel supply.
No flexible hose that might be adversely

affected by exposure to high temperatures
may be used where excessive temperatures
will exist during operation or after engine
shutdown.
Each exposed sight gauge used as a fuel

quantity indicator must be protected
against damage.
DECOUPLING
DISK
TURBINE
IMPELLER
FUEL
FLOW
<=i1
!IMPELLER
!MOTOR
r
A
CALIBRATED
RESTRAINING
SPRINGS
TRANSMITTER
CD
I.
1
FLUID
PASSAGE
FLUID
PASSAGE
B
115 V.A.C.
C
MOTOR
CIRCUIT
INDICATOR
Figure 2-19. A fuel flowmeter system that measures the mass flow rate of fuel for a turbine engine.
64
(970) 726-5111
Each sight gauge that can collect water

and freeze must have a means to allow
drainage on the ground.
Tanks with interconnected outlets and airspaces may be considered as one tank and
need not have separate indicators.
4. Fuel Flowrneter System Each metering component must have a means to bypass fuel
if a malfunction of that component severely
restricts fuel flow.
FAR 23.1553
Fuel Quantity Indicator
If the unusable fuel supply for any tank exceeds
one gallon, or five percent of tank capacity,
whichever is greater, a red arc must be marked
on its indicator extending from the calibrated zero
reading to the lowest reading obtainable in level
flight.
FAR 23.1557
Miscellaneous Markings and Placards
1. Fuel and oil filler openings.
Each fuel filler opening must be marked
on or near the filler cover with the word
"fuel" and the acceptable fuel grades.
For pressure fueling systems, the maximum
permissible fueling and defueling pressures
must be indicated.
c. Oil filler openings must be marked at or

near the filler cover with the word "oil".
C. Temperature
Measuring Systems
There are a number of common methods of measuring temperatures on an aircraft. All of them will
have a limit as to how high a temperature they
can be used to measure. The common types of
temperature measuring systems will be described,
but not all of the possible applications can be included. Aircraft temperature indicators may give
readings in degrees Fahrenheit or in degrees Celsius.
Most of the temperatures given here will be in
degrees Fahrenheit for ease of comparison.
1. Bimetallic
The bimetallic temperature system is limited to
measuring temperatures up to a maximum of 140F.
The outside air temperature gauge (OAT) or free air
temperature gauge is an example of the bimetallic
system. The device that reacts to changes in temperature is a bimetallic sensor that consists of two thin
strips of metal joined together. The strips are made
of different metals that have different coefficients of
expansion. The metals iron and brass are often used.
As the temperature changes, one of the metal strips
will expand or contract more than the other causing
the device to bend and move the indicator pointer.
The basic principle of a bimetallic temperature sensor
is shown in figure 2-21. The two metal strips are
BRASS
n-n
IRON
BEFORE HEATING
FUN'
FLOW
I_
I
1_I
I_
A I
OPH
F tilELTRON
TICSITNT
WOW
**WM
VS WY
WES
L'(;;)
gen
*ESE,
AFTER HEATING
Figure 2-20. The lighted digital display instrument for a
computerized fuel flow system.
Figure 2-21. An illustration of the basic principle of operation for a bimetallic temperature sensor.
65

(970) 726-5111
often formed into a spiral shape so that a temperature

change will cause a rotating motion of the sensor
strips. A typical bimetallic outside air temperature
gauge is shown in figure 2-22. This type is often
installed through the windshield.
3. Wheatstone Bridge
This method of measuring temperature is powered
by electricity and limited to about 300F. The
Wheatstone bridge system is illustrated in figure 2-24.
The bridge circuit consists of three fixed resistors
2. Mechanical Bulb
The mechanical bulb utilizes the principle of the increase in pressure of a confined gas with temperature
increases to measure temperatures. As shown in figure
2-23, the mechanical bulb system consists of a bourdon tube gauge to measure pressure, a thin-walled
bulb which is at the point of measurement and a
thin tube (capillary tube) to connect them together.
BOURDON
TUBE
The system is filled with a chemical such as methyl

chloride which will be part liquid and part gas. The
system is sealed with the proper amount of the
chemical so that the change in pressure with
temperature changes will give an accurate reading
on the bourdon tube gauge. The mechanical bulb
system is found as an oil temperature indicator
system on many smaller airplanes that don't have
an electrical system. A mechanical bulb is also found
on some jet engines where it transmits compressor
inlet temperature (CIT) data to the fuel control unit.
The maximum temperature for this type of system
is about 300F.
ANCHOR
POINT
Afi:10 ADM.
TEMPERATURE
PROBE
Figure 2-23. A mechanical bulb temperature measuring

system which measures the vapor pressure
of a special chemical.
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE-TYPE RESISTANCE THERMOMETER
Figure 2-22. An outside air temperature gauge for a small

airplane. This gauge uses the bimetallic
principle.
Figure 2-24. The Wheatstone bridge system is used to

measure temperatures with a variable resistance probe.
66
(970) 726-5111
and one variable resistor. The variable resistor is the

temperature probe which contains a coil of fine nickel
wire. As the coil of wire is heated, its resistance increases
and alters the current flow in the bridge which moves
the needle in the gauge. Electromagnetic attraction and
repulsion will move the pointer whenever the current
flow through the meter changes. A disadvantage of
the Wheatstone bridge is that any added resistance
due to bad connections or any fluctuations in the system
voltage can cause inaccurate readings. For this reason,
it has been largely replaced by the ratiometer.
Ratiometer
The ratiometer uses the same kind of electrical
power and the same kind of probe that the Wheatstone bridge uses. The difference is in the meter
movement that moves the indicator pointer. The
ratiometer has two opposing magnetic fields that
combine to produce a resultant field that moves
the pointer. The resultant field is a ratio of the
two opposing fields so that a lower voltage applied
to the system will not cause inaccurate readings.
The ratiometer can measure temperatures up to
300F. and is used for oil temperature indicators
and other similar requirements. The schematic for
a ratiometer is shown in figure 2-25.
Thermocouples
When it becomes necessary to measure temperatures of about 500F or more the thermocouple
is most often used. The principle of the thermocouple is shown in figure 2-26. When a junction
of two dissimilar metals is heated, it will produce
a difference of potential or voltage. The amount
of voltage produced is proportional to the temperature. The terms "hot junction" and "cold junction"
are used with thermocouples. The hot junction is
where the temperature measurement is being taken,
while the cold junction is at the opposite end of
the wires in the instrument. The voltage output
of the thermocouple is a result of the temperature
difference between the hot junction and the cold
junction. It sometimes is necessary to compensate
for any temperature variances at the cold junction

in order to obtain accurate readings. Only a few
combinations of metals are used for thermocouple
hot junctions. The metals must not only withstand
the high temperature being measured, but they
must produce a usable amount of voltage. The chart
in figure 2-27 shows the three commonly used pairs
of metals and their voltage output at various temperatures. The actual voltages produced are very
low, particularly at lower temperatures. This is why
the thermocouple system is not usually used for
temperatures below about 400F. The three types
of thermocouples are the iron-constantan, the copper -constantan and the chromel-alumel. Notice that
the chromel-alumel can measure much higher temperatures than the other two types. Thermocouple
leads are available in standard lengths with specific
values of resistance. The length of a thermocouple
lead should not be altered in the field.
An application of the thermocouple on piston
engines is the cylinder head temperature (CHT)
gauge. This gauge is used to monitor the cooling
of an air-cooled engine. If only one probe is used,
it will be installed in the hottest running cylinder.
This would usually be a rear cylinder on a horizontally opposed engine. One type of CHT probe
is a gasket that goes under the spark plug, another
type fits in a special fitting in the cylinder head.
These two types are shown in figures 2-28 and
2-29 respectively. It is better to install CHT probes
in all the cylinders. In addition to monitoring all
the cylinders, it can be used to troubleshoot some
types of engine problems. Another application for
the thermocouple is as an exhaust gas temperature (EGT) gauge. All turbine engines have an
THE VOLTAGE GENERATED IN A THERMOCOUPLE

SYSTEM IS PROPORTIONAL TO THE TEMPERATURE
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE TWO ENDS.
Figure 2-25. The circuit for a ratiometer temperature system that can operate on 14 or 28 volts DC.
Figure 2-26. An example of a simple thermocouple system showing the hot junction and cold
junction.
67

(970) 726-5111
EGT gauge or gas temperature gauge because

turbine engines can be severely damaged by high
temperatures in the turbine sections. A number
of terms and abbreviations are used for the gas
temperature gauge on turbine engines. Turbine
inlet temperature (TIT) refers to a system where
the probes are installed ahead of the turbine
stages. Inter turbine temperature (ITT) means the
probes are located between the different sections
of the turbine. Turbine outlet temperature (TOT)
and EGT refer to measurements that have the
probes installed downstream of all the turbine
stages. These locations and abbreviations are
shown in figure 2-30. Turbine engines use multiple thermocouple probes that are connected in
parallel to give an average temperature as seen
in figures 2-31 and 2-32.
Some aircraft use the term measured gas
temperature (MGT) for the required gas temperature
indicator. An MGT gauge for a turbine engine
helicopter is shown in figure 2-33.
On reciprocating engine aircraft, the EGT gauge
has a different purpose. It is used to manually lean
the fuel-air mixture for better economy. The thermocouple probe is installed in an exhaust pipe and
connected to a simple gauge in the cockpit. The
actual procedure for leaning the engine will vary
from one aircraft to another, the example given here
is for purposes of illustration. When ready to set

the fuel-air mixture, the pilot watches the EGT gauge
as the mixture control knob is pulled back. The
temperature will rise as the mixture is leaned because more efficient combustion is taking place.
When the EGT reaches a peak, the proper mixture
for maximum economy has been reached. If only
one probe is installed for the EGT system, the indication is really the average EGT for all the cylinders
and they can vary. It is best to have an EGT probe
for each cylinder as this gives more information
and permits the use of EGT for troubleshooting engine faults. When the EGT gauge is used for leaning,
there is usually no redline at all on the gauge. This
can be seen on the gauge in figure 2-34 which
is an EGT system for a reciprocating engine airplane.
However, a turbo-supercharged reciprocating engine
will have a redline because the turbo-supercharger
can be damaged by high temperatures.
In aircraft schematics, the thermocouple wires
are given standard color codes for ease of identification. The standard colors for the wires are:
IRON Black
CONSTANTAN Yellow
COPPER Red
CHROMEL White
5. ALUMEL Green
50
I
CHROMEL-ALUMEL
OMEL-ALUMEL

42 --I.
IRON-CONSTANTAN
30
22.5
0
-J
15
COPPER-CONSTANTAN
300
500
410
DEGREES CELSIUS
Figure 2-27. Voltage output versus temperature for different combinations of thermocouple metals.
68
(970) 726-5111
1000
D. Position Indicating Systems

There are many different components and systems
on aircraft that might have a position indicating system. There are a relatively small number of different
methods that are used to obtain these indications.
The basic operation of common types of position indicating systems will be explained and some specific
applications will be discussed.
Some of the different methods used to operate
position indicating systems are:
Mechanical Rods, levers, cables, etc.
limit
Microswitches Sometimes
called
switches (figure 2-35).
Variable Resistance Wheatstone bridge and
ratiometer.
Proximity sensors Mainly on larger, more
modern aircraft.
5. Synchro Systems Selsyn, Magnesyn and
Autosyn.
YELLOW
(CONSTANTAN)
RED
(COPPER)
YELLOW
(CONSTANTAN)
BLACK
(IRON)
Figure 2-29. A cylinder head temperature system that
uses a bayonet-type probe which fits into a
special recess in the cylinder head.
ITT
JJJu
TOT OR EGT
JL
Figure 2-28. A cylinder head temperature (CHT) system

for a small reciprocating engine. The thermocouple probe is in the form of a spark
plug gasket.
Figure 2-30. The measurement points in the turbine section for turbine inlet temperature, inter-turbine
turbine
outlet
temperature,
temperature and exhaust gas temperature.
69

(970) 726-5111
ALUMEL
/*\
CHROMEL +
AMPLIFIER
ITT
COCKPIT INDICATOR
Figure 2-31. Turbine engine gas temperature systems such as the ITT gauge use multiple probes in parallel and an
amplifier to supply signals to the cockpit indicator.
EGT
THERMOCOUPLE
PROBE
CHROMEL-ALUMEL
WIRING HARNESS
Figure 2-32. Turbine engines use multiple EGT probes of the chrome) / alumel type to take an average EGT for the
exhaust section of the tailpipe.
70
(970) 726-5111
All the systems and components in an aircraft

that might have a position indicating system can
be divided into two categories: those that only have
two operating positions and those that have many
or an infinite number of different operating positions. Some examples follow:
Landing Gear 2 Positions
Cabin and Cargo Doors 2 Positions
Thrust Reversers 2 Positions
Ground Spoilers 2 Positions
Trailing Edge Flaps Many Positions
Flight Control Surfaces Infinite Positions
7. Trim Tabs Infinite Positions
On smaller aircraft, the systems that only have
two operating positions most often use microswitches. Landing gear position indicators are usually lights that are operated by microswitches on
the landing gear. This type is shown in figure 2-36.
A problem with microswitches is that they are prone
to damage from rocks, sand, water, etc. that are
thrown up onto the landing gear in service. They
also have problems with arcing and burning of the
small contact points. For these reasons, most larger
aircraft employ proximity sensors instead of microswitches. Figure 2-37 illustrates the operation of
one type of proximity sensor. The proximity sensor
is a sealed unit that operates in conjunction with
a metal target. The proximity sensor produces an
electromagnetic field that is distorted when the target piece of metal moves close to it. This change
is detected by an electronic circuit to give an indication of gear-up, gear-down etc. The target never
touches the proximity sensor and there are no small
contacts to cause problems. About the only disadvantages of the proximity sensor systems are
that they cost more and since they use electronic
circuits, adjustment is more complicated than for
a simple microswitch.
On simple aircraft, the systems that have many
or an infinite number of operating positions will
use mechanical or variable resistance position indicating systems. An example of a mechanical trim
tab position indicator is shown in figure 2-38. The
wheel that the pilot rotates to move the trim tab
contains a spiral groove which moves a small wire
pointer to show the position of the trim tab. The
ratiometer type variable resistance system is used
as a flap position indicator on small airplanes. It
works like the ratiometer system already described
except that the variable resistor is moved by a part
of the flap mechanism.
On the more sophisticated aircraft, the systems

that have many or an infinite number of operating
positions use synchros. Surface position indicators
are usually found on bizjets and air carrier jets
to show the flight crew the position of the flight
control surfaces. These use a synchro system with
the transmitter unit attached to the mechanical
linkage of the flight control surface and the receiver
unit in the cockpit gauge or indicator. This type
of system is shown in figure 2-39.
E. Tachometers
Most types of aircraft have at least one tachometer
to indicate the rotational speed of the engine. Aircraft
with reciprocating engines have tachometers that indicate the crankshaft RPM. This is true for engines
with reduction gearing also; the tachometer gives engine crankshaft RPM, not propeller RPM. Helicopters
have a tachometer for the main rotor or rotors to
enable the pilot to maintain a safe rotor RPM. Turbine
engines use tachometers that give readings in percent
of RPM rather than actual revolutions per minute.
300 - 750 C CONTINUOUS OPERATION

750 - 780 C TAKEOFF (5 MINUTES)
780 C MAXIMUM TAKEOFF
900 C MAXIMUM FOR STARTING
(12 SECONDS)
Figure 2-33. Some gas temperature gauges are labeled
MGT for measured gas temperature. The
maximum operating temperatures are often
time limited for specific operations.
71

(970) 726-5111
REAR VIEW
TAN
CALIBRATION SCREW (AFT)

THERMOCOUPLE WIRE

3. PROBE
4. CLAMP
5. EXHAUST STACK
6. CALIBRATION SCREW (FORWARD)
Figure 2-34. The components in an EGT system for a twin-engine airplane with reciprocating engines. This instrument
is sometimes referred to as a mixture indicator. (Courtesy Cessna Aircraft Co.)
Split spool turbine engines contain more than one
main shaft in the engine. They usually have two
spools or shafts, but there are some turbine engines
with three. The split spool engines will have a
tachometer for each main shaft. In the case of turbojet
and turbofan engines, these are referred to as the
N 1 and N2 tachometers. The N 1 tach is the low pressure
compressor tach and N2 is the high pressure compressor tach. The low pressure compressor and high
pressure compressor sections can be seen in the
drawing of a twin-spool turbojet engine in figure 2-40.
Turboprop and turboshaft engines may use different
designations for the tachometers such as gas producer
ACTUATING
PLUNGER
MOVABLE
CONTACT
STATIONARY
CONTACT
tach and power section tach. The gas producer tach

for a turbine engine helicopter shown in figure 2-41
shows some time limited permissible readings above
100%. All tachometers have a red radial line to indicate
the maximum permissible RPM. On turbine engines
this redline is not necessarily at 100%; it could be
above or below the 100% reading. The turbine engine
manufacturer will establish what engine section RPM
is equal to 100%. On one particular model of CF34
turbofan engine, a reading of 100% N2 is equal to
17,820 RPM. Some reciprocating engine tachometers
will have a red arc which denotes a range of engine
speeds that is prohibited due to vibration problems
at those rotational speeds. A triple tach for a twinengine helicopter is shown in figure 2-42. It is three
tachometers in one to give readings for the power
sections of both engines and the main rotor.
1. Mechanical Tachometers
Figure 2-35. A microswitch is designed so that the contact points open and close with a very small
motion of the plunger.
Most small general aviation aircraft use simple

mechanical tachometers that utilize a flexible drive
cable similar to the speedometer drive cable in a
car. This flexible drive cable is connected to a drive
gear in the engine accessory section and the other
end is connected to the tachometer in the cockpit.
Older style tachometers used rotating flyweights to
move the pointer in the tachometer instrument as
illustrated in figure 2-43. Later mechanical
tachometers use a rotating permanent magnet and
a drag cup to move the pointer. A tachometer drag
cup is shown in figure 2-44. The small permanent
72
(970) 726-5111
A
UP
LEFT
r - -0 - -11
I
M
A
I
N
LIMIT
SWITCHES I
IN
LU
B
U
S
25
A
DOWN
'-
UP
NOSE
1 r
NI I N
D J LU
r
II
II
I
1
II
II
I
O ulD
DOWN
QUID
I
UP
RIGHT
I
I
I
- 1
oNI IN
QUID
DJ L U_ I

DOWN
---
PUMP
MOTOR
Eli),
1
I
I
ONI
DJ
DOWN
AND
LOCKED
LIGHTS
HYDRAULIC
PRESSURE
SWITCH
r - 1
i
I
I E I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
L - - - -J
GEAR
DOWN
1
i
L _ _ _ _,
UP
I
I
L
L.G.
SELECTOR
SWITCH
/
_\
I
I--o
i GROUND
SQUAT
SWITCH
GEAR
UP
r DOWN
r -FLIGHT
UNSAFE
LIGHT
1
I
I
I
J
r OPEN 1
I
I
I
I
i-0
L CLOSED
r
I
I
I
I
I
LIGHT
DIMMING
RELAY
..
C
1
I
I
TO
NAV
LIGHTS
I
- :
THROTTLE
SWITCH
WARNING
HORN
AIRCRAFT IS IN THE AIR, LANDING GEAR IS DOWN AND LOCKED, GEAR SELECTOR SWITCH IS IN
THE GEAR UP POSITION
Figure 2-36. The landing gear indicating and warning system for a small airplane. A number of microswitches are
utilized.
73
(970) 726-5111
TARGET NOT IN PROXIMITY

LGCU
METAL TARGET
ELECTRONIC
SWITCH
OSCILLATOR
DETECTOR
MAGNETIC FIELD
PROXIMITY SWITCH
SENSITIVE
SURFACE
TARGET IN PROXIMITY
n 28V DC.
0/P
LGCU
OSCILLATOR
0
.
Lr
DETECTOR
METAL TARGET
(WITH INDUCED EDDY CURRENTS)
PROXIMITY SWITCH
SENSITIVE
SURFACE
PROXIMITY
SWITCH
TARGET
TYPICAL PROXIMITY SWITCH INSTALLATION

(NOSE GEAR WEIGHT ON WHEELS)
Figure 2-37. The operation of a proximity sensor installed on the landing gear system of a corporate jet airplane.
74
(970) 726-5111
magnet is fastened to the end of the drive mechanism

so that it produces a rotating magnetic field. Surrounding the magnet is a drag cup made of aluminum.
As the magnet rotates, it sets up eddy currents in
the aluminum drag cup and the magnetic fields of
the eddy currents interact with the rotating field of
the permanent magnet. The interaction of the two
fields causes a torque force or drag force to be applied
to the drag cup which rotates it against spring tension
to move the pointer. The main advantage of the drag
cup tachometer is that there is no direct mechanical
connection between the drive cable and the pointer
mechanism. This makes it smoother in operation and
less likely to break if some minor binding occurs.
2. Tachometer Generators
This type of tachometer system uses an electrical
generator that is mechanically driven by gears at
the engine and which transmits electrical energy to
the cockpit instrument to give an indication of RPM.
There are both AC and DC tach generator systems,
but the DC type is not found on modern aircraft.
The DC type had a small DC generator on the engine
and a cockpit gauge which indicated the voltage output
of the generator as RPM. The major disadvantage of
this type of tach generator is that any fault which
caused a lower than normal voltage would result
in an error in the indicated RPM. The AC tach generator
eliminates that problem by using an AC generator
on the engine and an AC synchronous motor in the
indicator. An AC tach generator system is shown
in figure 2-45. The primary determining factor in
the motor RPM is the frequency of the AC that powers
RUDDER TRIM
INDICATOR
RUDDER TRIM
KNOB
it. A lower voltage caused by loose connections for

example would not have much affect on the indicated
RPM. Both types of tach generator systems use permanent magnets so that they are totally independent
of the electrical systems of the aircraft.
3. Electronic Tachometers
There are several different types of electronic
tachometers used on aircraft. The kind used on
some reciprocating engines is operated by a special
set of points in the engine magneto. This set of
contact points opens and closes like the normal
points, but only supplies signals for the tach system.
The points in the magneto are connected by wiring
to the cockpit instrument. Since the frequency of
opening of the points is proportional to the engine
RPM, an electronic circuit measures the frequency
at which the points open and close and moves
the pointer to indicate the proper RPM of the engine.
Two slightly different kinds of electronic
tachometers are found on turbine engines. The first
type is often used as a fan speed sensor to measure
the RPM of the fan section of a turbofan engine.
Figure 2-46 shows this type. It uses a sensor which
contains a coil of wire that generates a magnetic
field. The sensor is mounted in the shroud around
the fan. As each fan blade goes by, it cuts the
field of the coil and this is sensed and measured
by an electronic circuit. The frequency at which
the fan blades cut across the field of the sensor
is directly proportional to the fan RPM.
Another type of electronic tach used on turbine
engines has a gear driven shaft on the engine which
turns a rotor with a permanent magnet embedded
in its rim. The sensor contains a coil which is located
close to the rotating magnet. Each time the field
of the rotating permanent magnet cuts across the
coil, it induces a voltage. The frequency of this
signal is measured by an electronic circuit and
used to position the pointer for the correct RPM
indication. This type of tachometer is used in figure
2-47 for the N2 indication for a large turbofan engine.
F. Oil Pressure Indicators
Figure 2-38. A mechanical position indicator for the rudder trim on a twin-engine airplane. (Courtesy Cessna Aircraft Co.)
The oil pressure gauges on small aircraft are usually

the direct reading type. The oil pressure line is connected into an oil passage in the engine and transmits
that pressure through tubing and hose to the cockpit
instrument which contains a bourdon tube to move
the pointer. Larger aircraft such as corporate turboprops, bizjets and air carrier jets will use instruments that do not rely on having fluids under pressure
in the cockpit area. These aircraft may use a bourdon
tube or similar pressure sensor, but it will be installed
75
(970) 726-5111
SURFACE POSITION INDICATOR
AILERON
R
ELEVATOR
RUDDER
Figure 2-39. A surface position indicator system for the flight control surfaces. Synchro transmitters and receivers are
used to transmit the information from the control surfaces to the cockpit indicator.
76
(970) 726-5111
LOW PRESSURE COMPRESSOR

AND TURBINE
-HIGH PRESSURE
COMPRESSOR
AND TURBINE
1..00000
C3O -,':,
O
c=,c=)c,..=--,

[00
0 00
C=. C=> 0 C,,a'f,'D
0 C=,Ca 0 0
Figure 2-40. Diagram of a twin-spool turbojet engine showing the low pressure compressor and high pressure
compressor.
70% 102% CONTINUOUS OPERATION

102% 104% TAKEOFF POWER
(5 MINUTES)
104% MAXIMUM TAKEOFF
105% ONE ENGINE INOPERATIVE
(30 MINUTE LIMIT)
106.5% MAXIMUM ONE ENGINE
INOPERATIVE
(2-1/2 MINUTE LIMIT)
Figure 2-41. The label Ng is commonly applied to the gas
producer tachometer for turboprop and turboshaft engines. Some maximum values are
time limited and some only apply when one
engine has failed on a twin engine aircraft.
Figure 2-42. Twin-engine helicopters often use a triple

tachometer that provides indications for
both engines and the main rotor. The engine
RPM is Np for twin spool engines since the
indication is for the power turbine section.
on the engine or wherever the pressure source is
located. The information will be transmitted to the
cockpit gauges by electrical signals from a synchro
transmitter or similar device that is located at the
sensor end of the system. Figure 2-48 illustrates an
oil pressure system with an Autosyn synchro. The
same basic principle of operation would apply to fuel
pressure gauges, hydraulic pressure gauges, and
similar instruments.
77

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SECTOR
GEAR
FLEXIBLE
DRIVE
SHAFT
4s1
FLYWEIGHTS
Figure 2-43. Older type of mechanical tachometer that used the centrifugal force of spinning flyweights.
2-49 is a triple torquemeter for a twin engine helicopter. It supplies readings of the torque for each engine
and the main rotor drive.
POINTER
Helicopters often have a torquemeter that is located at the rotor drive gearbox to indicate the torque
that is driving the main rotor. Large radial reciprocating engines like those found in DC-6s and Convair
240s also had torquemeters to accurately measure
the power developed by the engines.
PERMANENT
- MAGNET
DRAG CUP
DRIVE CABLE
Figure 2-44. The permanent magnet and drag cup of a

modern mechanical tachometer.
G. Torquemeters
Torquemeters are used to give an indication of the
torque being produced by an engine or the torque
being delivered to the main rotor drive of a helicopter.
Turboprop airplanes and aircraft with turboshaft
engines will have a torquemeter installed because
it is the best way to measure the power being
produced by these types of turbine engines. Figure
There are several techniques used to measure

torque for an aircraft torquemeter instrument. One
technique is to put sensors on a driveshaft, like
the main rotor drive shaft of a helicopter. The sensors
can be seen at the bottom of the main rotor drive
shaft in figure 2-50 which illustrates this principle.
The sensors measure the amount of twist in the
shaft which is caused by the torque force. The
electrical signals from the sensors are processed
and used to position the cockpit indicator. Another
technique which is used relies on a measurement
of torque pressure. The sensor for this type of system
is a small oil filled cylinder with a piston in it.
The sensor would be located in the reduction gearbox. The reduction gearbox for a turboprop engine
is shown in figure 2-51. The sensor is installed
in the reduction gearbox so that the torque reaction
force is applied to the piston and creates a build-up
of pressure that is proportional to the torque force.
Figure 2-52 shows another example of this type
of torque sensor. The torque pressure is measured
and causes the instrument pointer to show the
78
(970) 726-5111
corresponding torque reading. The cockpit indicator

for a torquemeter system may use a number of
different units of measure. Those units of measure
most often seen are horsepower, PSI, foot-pounds
and percent.
H. Engine Pressure
Ratio Indicators
This type of instrument is used on some kinds
of turbojet and turbofan airplane engines. Those
engines built by Pratt & Whitney and Rolls Royce
use an engine pressure ratio gauge (EPR) as a
primary engine instrument. Jet engines built by
GE and Garrett usually do not have an EPR gauge,
but use the N i tachometer in its place. As its name
implies, the engine pressure ratio gauge indicates
the ratio of two different pressures measured on
the engine. The two pressures are most often called
Pt2 and Pt7. The total inlet pressure at the front
of the engine is Pt2. The total outlet pressure at
the aft end of the engine is Pt 7 . Figure 2-53 illustrates the location of the probes and the differential pressure transducer. These pressures are
called total pressures because the probes measure
both static and dynamic pressure. The probes
operate like pitot tubes since they measure ram

pressure or total pressure in the airstream. The
two probes are connected by tubing to a transducer
mounted on the engine. The transducer is a differential pressure device that produces an electrical
output related to the ratio of Pt7/Pt2. The transducer
may use a synchro transmitter that is connected
to the synchro receiver in the cockpit instrument.
The Pt2 probe in the front of the engine is prone
to icing so it includes a heating system to prevent
blockage by ice. The transducer and cockpit gauge
for a typical EPR system is shown in figure 2-54.
Engine pressure ratio gauges often include an index
mark which can be set manually by the pilot. When
the correct power setting for takeoff has been determined, a knob is used to set the bug or index
mark to the correct value on the face of the instrument. During takeoff, the power is set by lining
up the EPR gauge pointer with the bug. This makes
it easier to set the correct level of engine power
for takeoff.
I. Manifold Pressure Gauges

Manifold pressure gauges are only found on certain
reciprocating engines where they are required to
SYNCHRONOUS
MOTOR FIELD
FLUX COUPLING
TACHOMETER
INDICATOR
TYPICAL ROTOR
DRIVE GEAR RATIO
N2 .343 TO 1 CW.
N I .489 TO 1 CW.
VERNIER
POINTER
SPRING
POINTER
YOKE
LOCATION TACHOMETER
GENERATOR
N2 ACCESSORY DRIVE PAD
Ni ACCESSORY DRIVE CASE
GENERATOR
FIELD
THE THREE-PHASE GENERATOR IS DRIVEN BY THE ENGINE TO PRODUCE AC WHOSE

FREQUENCY RELATES TO ENGINE RPM. THE INDICATOR HOLDS A SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
WHICH DRIVES A MAGNETIC DRAG TACHOMETER MAGNET.
Figure 2-45. AN AC tach generator system.

79
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C).
HOT
EXHAUST
INLET
DUCT
FORWARD-FAN TURBOFAN ENGINE
FAN BLADES
ELECTROMAGNETIC
SENSOR
Figure 2-46. Electronic tachometer which measures fan speed for the N1 tachometer. The sensors produce an output
signal each time a fan blade cuts through the magnetic field. The frequency of this output signal is
measured to provide indications of N1 RPM.
80
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PICK-UP
COIL
PERMANENT
MAGNET
GEAR
DRIVEN
ROTOR
Figure 2-47. Tachometer system for the high pressure compressor of a turbofan engine. The gear-driven rotor from the
accessory section has a permanent magnet which induces signals in a pick-up coil.
TO ENGINE OIL PUMP ..
OIL PRESSURE INDICATOR

(INSTRUMENT PANEL)
OIL PRESSURE TRANSMITTER (ENGINE)

D,
C
STATOR
STATOR
ROTOR
PRESSURE CONNECTOR
ROTOR

DIAPHRAGM
VENT ---o-i-
INDICATOR
POINTER
OPEN TO ATMOSPHERE
A.C. POWER
Figure 2-48. An oil pressure indicating system for a large airplane.
81
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Figure 2-49. A triple torquemeter for a twin-engine

helicopter. The torque for both engines and
the main rotor is given on the same instrument with readings in percent.
accurately set engine power. Aircraft with supercharged engines and aircraft with constant-speed
propellers will have manifold pressure gauges. The
manifold pressure gauge measures the absolute
pressure in inches of mercury at a specific point
in the induction system of the engine. Figure 2-55
shows the location of the manifold pressure (MAP)
measurement for a radial supercharged engine. Figure 2-56 shows the location of the MAP connection
in the induction system of a turbocharged horizontally opposed reciprocating engine. The pressure
is measured downstream of the carburetor or fuel
control unit and downstream of the supercharger
if so equipped. The pressure measuring port in
the induction system is connected by tubing and
hose to a bellows or diaphragm in the instrument.
Since the pressure in the induction system is below
ambient pressure at idle or low power settings,
the use of absolute pressure eliminates the confusion of having both positive and negative numbers
on the gauge. At idle, the reading on the MAP gauge
will be about 10 in. Hg. At full throttle with an
unsupercharged engine at sea level, the reading
will be about 28 in. Hg. With an unsupercharged
engine the full throttle reading will always be below
ambient pressure because of friction and pressure
INNER SHAFT
PLANET
GEARS
CRANKSHAFT
(SUN) GEAR
RING
GEAR
MAIN ROTOR
DRIVE SHAFT
DRIVE
GEAR
TORQUE
PRESSURE
GAUGE
SENSORS
Figure 2-50. Example of a main rotor mast torque system
for a helicopter. The two sensors measure
the amount of twist in the main rotor drive
shaft as an indication of torque.
Figure 2-51. An illustration of the basic operating principles of a torque pressure gauge. The
planetary reduction gears have a ring gear
which is prevented from rotating by the pistons in the oil filled cylinders. The torque
force on the ring gear causes pressure to be
applied to the oil in the cylinders. This pressure is a measurement of torque.
82
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REDUCTION GEARBOX
PROPELLER DRIVE SHAFT
TORQUE
PRESSURE
GAUGE
Figure 2-52. The torquemeter system for a turboprop engine. The ring gear of the planetary gear set is prevented from
rotating by the helical splines on the outer circumference that mesh with splines in the outer housing.
Torque force causes the ring gear to more rearward and push against the small piston. The piston applies
pressure to the oil in the cylinder and this pressure is a measure of the torque produced.
83
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loss in the induction system. A supercharged engine

will have a redline on the MAP gauge to indicate
the maximum permissible manifold pressure. The
redline might range from 35-75 in. Hg depending
on the type of engine.
J. Primary Power
Setting Instruments
The specific powerplant instruments installed in a
particular aircraft will vary considerably depending
on the type of powerplants it has and what kinds
of information the pilot needs to operate the engines
properly. The most important kinds of powerplant
instruments have been described and some information has been given concerning what types of
powerplants would use each kind of instrument. In
order to gain a better understanding of the application
of powerplant instruments to different powerplants,

the primary power setting instruments used with
various types of engines will be described.
A reciprocating engine with a fixed-pitch propeller
uses the engine tachometer as the primary power
setting instrument. This is normally the only instrument available on aircraft with this engine and
propeller combination that can be used to determine the power setting. The fixed-pitch blade angle
for the propeller is chosen so that full throttle
can be used for takeoff without over-speeding the
engine.
When a constant-speed propeller is fitted on a
reciprocating engine, the tachometer alone cannot
be used to accurately set engine power. The constant-speed propeller will automatically vary the
blade angle to maintain a selected RPM.
Figure 2-53. The engine pressure ratio system for a jet engine.
84
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Fairly large movements of the throttle lever can

be made without affecting the engine RPM, so that
the tachometer by itself cannot be used to set engine
power. The primary power setting instrument for
this type of aircraft is the manifold pressure gauge.
A cruise power setting would be made by first setting
the desired engine RPM with the propeller control
and then adjusting the manifold pressure gauge
Pt2
PROBE
EPR
TRANSDUCER
to the desired power setting. Information is available

in the Pilot's Operating Handbook so the pilot can
determine what settings will produce a given percent
of power for cruise. Common cruise settings would
be 55, 65 or 75 percent of maximum engine power.
Supercharged reciprocating engines also use the
manifold pressure gauge as the primary power setting instrument.
Pt7
PROBE
WIRING CONNECTION
TO COCKPIT GAUGE
Figure 2-54. The EPR gauge measures engine pressure ratio which is the ratio of Pt 7 / Pt2. It provides indications of the
thrust being produced by a turbojet or turbofan engine.
INTAKE PIPE
MANIFOLD
PRESSURE
INTAKE AIR DUCT
CARBURETOR
HEAT VALVE
CARBURETOR AIR
TEMPERATURE BULB
CARBURETOR
AIR CONTROL
CARBURETOR
CARB. TEMP.
THROTTLE VALVE
THROTTLE
SUPERCHARGER
IMPELLER
Figure 2-55. The measurement point for manifold pressure is downstream of the carburetor and downstream of the
supercharger in this radial engine.
85
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maximum power setting that can be safely used

is determined by the strength of the gearbox at
low altitudes and the gas temperature at higher
altitudes.
The primary power setting instrument for aircraft

with turboshaft and turboprop engines is the torquemeter. Engine RPM is not a good measure of engine
power because of the way these engines operate.
The gas temperature gauge is a very important instrument for these types of engines. The pilot needs
to monitor the gas temperature reading to prevent
damage to the engine by excessive heat. Turboshaft
and turboprop engines are often given a flat rating
for the maximum permissible engine power. For example, an engine might be rated at 575 SHP (shaft
horsepower) from sea level to 20,000 ft. This is in
effect a derating of the engine at lower altitudes.
The maximum power the engine can safely produce
at low altitudes is limited by the strength of the
reduction gearbox. At higher altitudes, the engine
is less efficient and must work harder to produce
horsepower. This results in higher engine temperatures; therefore, at higher altitudes, the maximum
safe throttle setting is determined by the redline
on the gas temperature gauge. The torquemeter is
the primary power setting instrument because it
has a direct relationship to engine horsepower. The
Turbojet and turbofan engines made by Pratt &

Whitney and Rolls Royce use the EPR gauge as
the primary power setting instrument. Those engines made by GE and a few other companies use
the Ni tach as the primary power setting instrument.
There is a standard placement of primary engine
instruments for virtually all air carrier jet airplanes.
The most important engine instruments are installed in the center of the instrument panel, toward
the top. The primary power setting instrument will
WASTE GATE
CONTROLLER
TO FUEL
FLOW GAGE
TO FUEL
DISCHARGE
NOZZLES
The primary power setting instrument for turbojet

and turbofan engines depends on who manufactured the engine. Some of these engines use the
EPR gauge and others use the N i tachometer as
the primary power setting instrument. There are
some advantages and disadvantages to each method
and the choice of which one to use is based on
conventional usage.
OIL RETURN
r)
i TO FUEL
PUMP
ENGINE-DRIVEN
OIL PUMP
TO MAN. 1,-
PRESS
T1 GAGE
THROTTLE
WASTE GATE
ACTUATOR
INTAKE AIR FROM COMPRESSOR)
WASTE GATE
PRESS.
RELIEF
VALVE
AIR FILTER
FLUSH AIR
SCOOP ,,t20.
TURBINE
COMPRESSOR
EXHAUST
t OVERBOARD
I
Figure 2-56. Manifold pressure is measured downstream of the supercharger and downstream of the throttle plate in
the fuel-air control unit for a turbo-supercharged, fuel-injected reciprocating engine. (Courtesy Cessna
Aircraft Co.)
86
(970) 726-5111
be the one at the top of this stack of engine instruments. The EPR gauge will be at the top of
the stack on some air carrier jets, and the N I tach
on other airplanes. Figure 2-57 shows the primary
engine instruments for an air carrier jet with Pratt
& Whitney engines. Figure 2-58 shows the primary
engine instruments for an air carrier jet with GE
engines.
Vibration Indicators
Aircraft with turbine engines often have a vibration
indicator system which monitors vibration from the
engines. Any significant imbalance in a turbine engine can cause serious damage due to the very
high rotational speeds of the rotors. Vibration
caused by an imbalance or other factors is indicated
to the crew in the cockpit so that they can take
appropriate action. The vibration indicator system
shown in figure 2-59 is typical of the type found
on modern jet airplanes. The sensor is a piezoelectric
crystal which produces an electrical signal when
it is vibrated. This signal is sent to a signal conditioner and then to the cockpit instrument to provide an indication of the amount of vibration at
the sensor location on the side of the engine.
and
Digital Systems
Logic Circuits
Logic circuits and microprocessors have made possible some of the very sophisticated electronic instruments and similar systems on modern aircraft.
They are used for many different applications from
relatively simple switching functions to complex
computer systems. Certain basic principles are involved in these advanced systems, and these will
be covered first.
1. Binary Numbers
The binary number system and binary codes are
the method used by logic gates to transmit and
process information. The word digital refers to the
use of binary numbers and codes. A simple example
of the concept of digital and analog type signals
is shown in figure 2-60. The values of voltage and
current in the circuits represent the digital and
analog systems. In a circuit with a variable resistor,
there are an infinite number of different values
for current flow. Another example of this would
be a simple fuel quantity system that uses a float
operated variable resistor. The resistor moves in
very small increments so that there are an infinite
number of different current flows that can occur
in the circuit. The circuit with the switch illustrates
the concept of digital values. The switch is either
on or off with no in-between settings. This follows

the binary or digital signal system because only
two different values are used. The two conditions
in a binary or digital circuit are called 1 and 0,
or high and low, or on and off.
The binary number system is a base 2 number
system. The decimal number system that we are
more familiar with is a base 10 system. The decimal
system uses 10 different digits to make up numbers.
The 10 numbers are 0 through 9. By showing some
examples of converting numbers from binary to
decimal and vice versa, the binary system will be
better understood.
The procedure for converting a number from binary
to decimal is illustrated in figure 2-61. We start
by writing down the binary number as shown by
row (A). Then just above each binary digit, the base
2 equivalent for that digit is written as shown by
row (B). In row (C), the decimal equivalents are
entered starting at the right and working back to
the left. Notice that the decimal equivalents start
with 1 at the right and are doubled each digit as
you move toward the left. Next you look at the binary
digits in row (A) and wherever there is a binary
1 you bring down the decimal equivalent as shown
in row (D). Where there is a binary zero in row
(A), you do not bring down any decimal equivalent
since binary zero and decimal zero have the same
value. Finally, the decimal equivalents are added
up to produce the decimal equivalent of 77.
The procedure for converting a decimal number
to binary will be illustrated by converting the decimal
number 77 to its binary equivalent. The technique
for converting from decimal to binary consists of
a series of divisions by the number two. We start
by setting up a table with three columns as shown
in figure 2-62. The first step is to divide 77 by
2 and enter the quotient and remainder in the
proper column. The quotient is then brought down
each time and divided by 2 and the values recorded.
The process is repeated until the quotient is zero.
The digits in the remainder column are read from
the bottom up and this will be the binary equivalent.
There are some terms used with binary numbers
that refer to how the binary digits are grouped. For
example, in the binary number 101 110 I, there
are two sets of three digits each. In digital or binary
terminology, we would say that there are three bits
in each byte. A bit is a binary digit, while a byte
is a group of bits together. As an analogy, we might
compare them to letters and words. The previous
example would be like a group of words with three
letters in each word. This is what is meant by binary
codes, how the binary digits are grouped.
87

(970) 726-5111
Figure 2-57. Powerplant instruments for an air carrier jet with Pratt and Whitney engines that utilize an EPR gauge.
88

(970) 726-5111
40 60 \
\ I /
0.....
\ %RPM
/ 80
cfe.--:
100
75.2
N1
40 \ 1 /60
0\ %RPM /80
40
60
\ I /
20\ %RPM /80
N2
Figure 2-58. Powerplant instrument layout for an air carrier jet with G.E. engines and the N1 tachs at the top of the stack.
89
(970) 726-5111
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90

(970) 726-5111
VARIABLE
RESISTOR
'\AA/V.\/
LAMP
ANALOG CIRCUIT
7.7
SWITCH
DIGITAL CIRCUIT
TIME
CIRCUITS
CURRENT GRAPHS
Figure 2-60. An example of the difference between analog and digital. The circuit with the switch represents digital
because it has two conditions: on and off. The circuit with the variable resistor is analog because it can
have an infinite number of different current flows between maximum and minimum.
(b)
(a)
64 32
25 25
1
64
16
24
8
23
4
22
2
21
division
quotient
remainder
20
77/2
38
38/2
19
19/2
9/2
4/2
2/2
1/2
. 77
Figure 2-61. An example of the method for converting a

number from binary to decimal notation.
Two common types of binary codes that are used

with logic circuits are Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)
and Octal. An example of BCD coding would be
1001 1101 1110 J. The rule for BCD is that there
are four bits in each byte. An example of Octal coding
is 100 111 101 J. This is the same as an earlier
example. There are three bits in each byte. The reason
that standard coding systems such as these are used
is that it is more efficient than having a variable
number of bits in each byte. The Octal code gets
its name from the fact that there are eight different
decimal equivalent numbers that can be encoded in
a three bit byte. For example, 000 is equal to decimal
0 and 111 is equal to decimal 7.
2. Logic Gates
Logic gates can be thought of as the most simple
and basic building blocks for digital control systems.
Figure 2-62. An example of converting a number from

decimal to binary notation.
A logic gate uses binary signals as its inputs

and outputs. It is a semi-conductor device which
is manufactured using techniques similar to those
used to produce diodes and transistors. Since logic
gates are found in all types of systems on modern
aircraft, it is useful to know something about them
so that their function in a circuit can be understood.
There are six basic kinds of logic gates that can
be identified by their standard schematic symbols.
All of them have certain things in common: they
may have different numbers of inputs, but each
logic gate has just one output. Logic gates can
91

(970) 726-5111
be thought of as special types of electronic switches,

in fact, they are often used to perform switching
functions. For simplicity, logic gates with no more
than two inputs will be described here.
AND Gate
The AND gate is shown in figure 2-63 along with
its truth table. The truth table shows all the possible
combinations of inputs and the output that will
be produced for each set of inputs. The truth table
can be explained with a statement: the AND gate
produces a binary 1 output only when all inputs
are binary 1. The name of this logic gate can make
it easier to remember the truth table.
OR Gate
The OR gate is shown in figure 2-64. The statement
which describes the truth table is: the OR gate
produces a 1 output when any input is 1. Notice
that in the truth table for the OR gate, the input
combinations are listed in the same order as they
were for the AND gate. This makes it easier to
remember the truth tables. All logic gates with two
inputs have the inputs listed in the same order.
c. INVERT Gate
The Invert gate is shown in figure 2-65. This is
a very simple logic gate, it only has one input and
the output is always the opposite of the input.
The Invert gate simply inverts any signal that is
applied to it. Notice the small open circle on the
output side of the Invert gate symbol. This will
be used in combination with the basic shapes already covered to identify other kinds of logic gates.
NAND Gate
The NAND gate is shown in figure 2-66. Notice
the small open circle on the output side. This distinguishes it from the AND gate and also tells how
it works. The NAND gate is just an AND gate with
the ouputs inverted. This can be stated as: the
NAND gate produces a 0 output only when all the
inputs are 1.
NOR Gate
The NOR gate is shown in figure 2-67. The NOR
gate is an OR gate with the outputs inverted. The
truth table can be described as: the NOR gate
produces a 0 output when any input is 1. Notice
the small open circle on the output side which
distinguishes it from the OR gate.
f. EXCLUSIVE OR Gate
The Exclusive OR gate is shown in figure 2-68.
The truth table can be explained by the statement:
the Exclusive OR gate produces a 1 output whenever
the inputs are dissimilar. It is the only logic gate
with two inputs that has equal numbers of ones
and zeros in the outputs column.
An aircraft schematic using logic gates is shown
in figure 2-75. It is evident that in order to
B
0
Figure 2-65. The INVERT gate and its truth table.
A
0
AB
0
0
Figure 2-66. The NAND gate and its truth table.
Figure 2-63. The AND gate and its truth table.
AB
11
>
B
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Figure 2-64. The OR gate and its truth table.
Figure 2-67. The NOR gate and its truth table.
92
(970) 726-5111
understand and troubleshoot this aircraft system,

the technician should be familiar with logic gates
and their truth tables.
Amplifier or Buffer
The buffer or amplifier is shown in figure 2-69.
It produces no change in the logic state of the
input signal. It is used to amplify or increase signal
strength. It can also be used to isolate one part
of a circuit from another part of the same circuit
or from some other unit.
Positive and Negative Logic

Logic gates use different values of voltage to represent
binary ones and zeros. The terms positive and negative
logic refer to whether the voltage value for a binary
1 is more positive or more negative than the voltage
value for binary 0. Figure 2-70(A) shows examples
of positive logic. The voltage value for binary 1 is
more positive (or less negative) than the value for
binary 0. Figure 2-70(B) shows examples of negative
logic which is the opposite situation.
years, the vacuum tube represented the state of

the art in delicate control of electron flow for radios
and early computers. The development of the transistor in the 1960s allowed much smaller and more
efficient electronic components to be made.
The transistor was made from a semi-conductor
material like silicon or germanium. In the 1970s,
the integrated circuit was invented. An integrated
circuit is a small chip of semi-conductor material
with the equivalent of many transistors on it. It
was no longer necessary to manufacture transistors
one at a time in individual units. Since the invention
of the integrated circuit, the technology has advanced rapidly by crowding more and more transistors onto this small chip of silicon or germanium.
3. Integrated Circuits
The evolution of electronic circuit technology is
shown in figure 2-71(A) and figure 2-71(B). For many
C
0
(A)
Figure 2-68. The EXCLUSIVE OR gate and its truth table.
Figure 2-69. The AMPLIFIER and its truth table.
A
B
Binary 1
+5V
+2V
+10V
OV
5V
Binary 0
OV
2V
+5V
5V
10V
Binary 1
OV
2V
+5V
5V
10V
Binary 0
+5V
+2V
+10V
OV
5V
Figure 2-70.
Example of positive logic.
Example of negative logic.
Figure 2-71
In the 1960s, transistors began to replace
vacuum tubes as a means to provide precise
control of electrical signals for amplifiers and
other electronic devices including computers.
An integrated circuit contains the equivalent of
many transistors on a small chip of silicon. Very
fine wires connect the chip to the outer pins.
93

(970) 726-5111
The term microprocessor refers to an integrated

circuit that has the equivalent of thousands of transistors on one tiny chip of silicon. The microprocessor has made possible the widespread use of
computer controls for cars, radios, and in airplanes
as well. The logic gates that we have been discussing
are not manufactured one at a time. Logic gates
are contained within integrated circuits. Integrated
circuits vary considerably in complexity. Simple integrated circuits that contain 6 or 8 logic gates
can be purchased for about 25 cents. The most
complex integrated circuits are those called
microprocessors, which would have the equivalent
of thousands of logic gates on one chip. A schematic
representation of the logic gates in a simple integrated circuit is shown in figure 2-72.
Integrated circuits are manufactured from silicon
that has been specially processed. The circuit that
will be placed onto the silicon is drawn with great
accuracy. The circuit drawing is then shrunk to
a small size using techniques similar to those for
reducing a photograph. The circuit tracings are
transferred to the chip of silicon by etching them
into the chip. The small chip of silicon is then
sealed in a housing of plastic or ceramic. The integrated circuit has connector pins along the sides
to carry signals to and from the small chip of silicon
within. Figure 2-71(B) shows these features of an
integrated circuit with very fine wires connecting
the chip to the outer contact pins along the sides.
One of the goals when designing integrated circuits is to make the chip as small as possible.
On a very high speed microprocessor, the time it
takes electrons to move the width of the chip limits

the speed of computation.
Integrated circuits are divided into categories
based on their complexity. The four categories normally referred to are:
Small scale integration (SSI)
Medium scale integration (MSI)
Large scale integration (LSI)
Very Large scale integration (VLSI)
If a digital system has many different integrated
circuits that are connected to each other, they must
be compatible with each other. Integrated circuits
that use the same values of voltage for binary ones
and zeros and operate at similar speeds are said
to be in the same family. Two of the more common
families are TTL (transistor-transistor logic) and
CMOS (complimentary metal oxide semi-conductor)
. The TTL family, for instance, uses positive logic
with binary 1
+5V and binary 0 = OV.
Dip Standards
Integrated circuits (ICs) are manufactured in standard sizes and shapes. This means that ICs made
by different companies can be installed in the same
way and simplifies replacement. The DIP (dual inline
package) standard concerns the numbering of the
connector pins and the shape and size of the integrated circuit. A typical DIP integrated circuit is
shown in figure 2-72. With the notch at the top,
the connector pins are numbered down the left side
and then up the right side. The spacing of the pins
fits the standard pattern. The total number of pins
varies from about 8 to more than 40 depending
on the complexity of the integrated circuit. Logic
gates can be used for many different purposes. The
smaller ones can be used as high speed switches.
Adders and subtractors are used in a computer
to perform mathematical calculations. Clocks are
logic gates that supply a set frequency to synchronize
the operation of different units. Latches and flip-flops
are used for memory functions. A typical computer
contains many integrated circuits that perform a
variety of functions such as those mentioned here.
ARINC 429 Digital Standards
Figure 2-72. An example of a relatively simple integrated

circuit (IC) showing logic gate functions and
pin connections.
The latest air carrier jets have many different computers and digital systems on board the aircraft.
These many digital systems must have a rapid and
efficient way to communicate using binary coded
signals. ARINC 429 is the standard for Digital Information Transfer Systems that is used on these
airplanes. This standard specifies the use of a dual
digital data bus where the various units connected
will receive messages on both sections of the bus
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but only transmit on one of them. The type of message transmission is serial which means different
messages are sent in a series one after the other.
The messages are separated by time intervals. This
industry standard also specifies what coding systems will be used such as binary, binary coded
decimal and discrete. The standard length of an
ARINC 429 word is 32 bits as shown in figure
2-73. The use of ARINC 429 by the equipment
manufacturers permits the airlines and other users
to purchase electronic equipment from different
sources and know that the different units will be
compatible with each other.
6. Digital Aircraft Systems

The trend in the design of modern aircraft and
aircraft systems is to make greater use of digital
circuits and digital signals because of the advantages they have over older style analog systems.
This follows another trend which is the use of more
automated monitoring and control systems.
Some of the fundamental concepts involved in
the design of electronic systems for current production aircraft are:
The use of proximity sensors to replace
microswitches.
The use of transistors to replace potentiometers, relays etc.
Designing equipment to fit in standard size
LRUs (line replaceable units).
The use of computer monitoring systems like EICAS

has permitted the elimination of a flight crew member
on many aircraft. The flight engineer is replaced by
the sophisticated computer monitoring systems and
automatic control systems to create what is called
the two-man cockpit in aircraft such as the Boeing
747-400 and McDonnell Douglas MD-11.
The use of ARINC 600 standard LRUs permits
more efficient installation and maintenance of
aircraft equipment. Many of the LRUs contain BITE
systems which can be used to troubleshoot
problems and identify faulty LRUs for replacement.
Maintenance technicians still need to be very
familiar with the aircraft systems so that they can
do a better job of troubleshooting and repair, and
so that the number of false removals of good LRUs
can be reduced.
M. Takeoff Warning Systems

A takeoff warning system is designed to sound
a warning if the flight crew tries to takeoff in
an airplane with the flaps or other important systems in an incorrect position for a safe takeoff.
Air carrier jets will have takeoff warning systems
while most simpler aircraft will not. The critical
items that are monitored by the takeoff warning
system are:
Pitch trim or stabilizer trim
Speed brake
Increased use of BITE (built-in test equipment).
Leading edge flaps and slats
Computer controls for navigation, engines, systems instruments, etc.
Trailing edge flaps
Electronic instruments (CRTs) to replace electro-mechanical instruments and displays.

7. LEDs and LCDs employed for lighted displays
that replace older style displays and controls.
BYTE 4
CNI
>1E
a.
BYTE 3
A schematic of a typical takeoff warning system

is shown in figure 2-74. The two series switches
are on the throttles and landing gear. When there
is weight on the wheels and the throttles are advanced for takeoff, both of these switches will be
BYTE 2
0 0)
C')
BYTE 1
0
0) CO
-J
<
-J
ORDER OF TRANSMISSION
Figure 2-73. ARINC 429 is the industry standard for digital information transmission systems. An ARINC 429 standard
word contains 32 bits.
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closed. If any of the parallel switches is closed,

a takeoff warning will be initiated.
A more detailed schematic of a takeoff warning system is shown in figure 2-75. Notice the use of logic
gate symbols on this relatively simple aircraft system.
There have been aircraft accidents caused by the
failure of the takeoff warning system and an
attempted takeoff with one of the critical systems
set improperly. It is an important system that should
be inspected regularly and maintained properly to

give warnings when needed.
N. Angle of Attack Indicators

The angle of attack indicator is a system that gives
an instrument indication in the cockpit of the angle
of attack for the wings of the airplane. Angle of attack
is the angle between the chord line of an airfoil and
the relative wind. The angle of attack instrument
e
PITCH TRIM
BUS BAR

SPEEDBRAKE

fr
L.E. FLAPS
e
THROTTLE
SWITCH
WOW
SWITCH
HORN

T.E. FLAPS
Figure 2-74. A simplified schematic of a takeoff warning system.
NUMBER 1 THROTTLE
ADVANCED
III
II
NUMBER 2 THROTTLE
ADVANCED
II
SLATS
NOT IN TAKEOFF POSITION
I I I
T.E. FLAPS
NOT IN TAKEOFF POSITION
I I I
SPOILERS
EXTENDED
HORIZONTAL STABILIZER TRIM

NOT IN THE GREEN BAND
01)
2 OR
AND
TO TAKEOFF
WARNING
HORN
AIRCRAFT ON THE GROUND
GROUND
SENSING
RELAY
NOTE: SWITCH LABELS SHOW THE SWITCH CLOSED LOGIC.
Figure 2-75. The takeoff warning system for an air carrier jet airplane. Logic gate symbols are often found on aircraft
schematics.
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can be very useful in critical flight conditions where

maximum performance must be employed. During
landing and takeoff from short runways and in an
encounter with wind shear, the angle of attack instrument can allow more precise control of the
airplane. There are two common types of sensors
used for AOA systems. The first type is a small vane
on a pivot that is installed on the forward fuselage
of the airplane. This type can be seen as a part
of the stall warning system shown in figure 2-76.

Angle of attack sensors can be used with a stall
warning system, an AOA gauge, or both. The vane
rotates to align itself with the relative wind and this
information is transmitted to the cockpit with a
synchro system where it moves a pointer on the AOA
instrument. The second type uses a sensor which
is a tube with two slots that projects out into the
airstream, normally from the forward fuselage. This
STALL PROTECTION
COMPUTER
LATERAL
ACCELEROMETERS
NO.1
NO.2
RIGHT AOA VANE
STICK PUSHER
CONTROL
COLUMN
LEFT AOA VANE
STICK SHAKER
ALTITUDE
TRANSDUCERS
NO.1 OUTBOARDS
Figure 2-76. The stall warning system for a corporate jet airplane that employs vane-type angle-of-attack sensors.
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type of probe, along with the AOA indicator, is shown

in figure 2-77. The two slots in the probe are connected
to two chambers. As the angle of attack changes,
the relative pressure in the two slots changes along
with the pressures in the air chambers. The difference
in air pressure rotates a vane in the unit inside the
PADDLE
POTENTIOMETER
SHAFT
PADDLE
CHAMBER
AIRFLOW THROUGH THE SLOTS IN THE PROBE

MOVE THE PADDLE WHICH ROTATES THE
POTENTIOMETER SHAFT TO CHANGE THE
RESISTANCE AS THE ANGLE OF ATTACK CHANGES.
fuselage which is connected by synchro to the cockpit

instrument. The units displayed on the cockpit instrument face can be a percent or decimal numbers
that indicate the angle of attack. The reading of 100%
or 1.0 would indicate a stall angle of attack, so the
pilot can readily determine if a safe margin is being
maintained from the stall angle-of-attack.
0. Stall Warning Systems

A stall warning system is required for all modern
airplanes. Several of the common types will be
described, but they all rely on some measurement
of angle of attack to activate the stall warning system. The airspeed of the airplane cannot be used
to operate a stall warning system because the
airplane can stall at many different airspeeds. An
airplane will stall at a higher airspeed in a steep
bank than it will in level flight because some of
the wing lift is being used to make the airplane
turn. The airplane will stall at the same angle of
attack in both straight and turning flight, so AOA
is a better indicator for stall warning than airspeed.
The stall warning system found on many older
airplanes used a vibrating reed and required no outside power source. Figure 2-78 shows this type of
system. A small hole in the leading edge of the wing
is connected by tubing to a reed and horn near the
cockpit. At high angles of attack close to a stall,
a low pressure or suction is produced at the opening
in the leading edge and this pulls air through the
reed to make it vibrate and produce a noise.
On later small airplanes, a vane operated switch
is located on the leading edge and this switch is
closed by the upward movement of the vane at
high angles of attack. This system uses DC power
to operate the stall warning horn. Figure 2-79 shows
this type of stall warning sensor.
ANGLE OF ATTACK PROBE.
Modern high performance airplanes use an AOA probe

as previously described which is connected to a stall
warning circuit. These airplanes usually have several
other sensors connected to the stall warning circuit
or computer. Sensors for flap and slat position are
used to give an accurate stall warning for any flight
condition. Most jet airplanes have a stick shaker as
part of the stall warning system. This device actually
shakes or vibrates the control column to warn the
pilot of an approaching stall. The stick shaker can
be seen at the left side of figure 2-76.
P. Annunciators
ANGLE OF ATTACK INDICATOR.

(C)
Figure 2-77 An angle-of-attack indicating system that

uses the air pressure type of AOA probe.
Other than simple single-engine airplanes, most

aircraft have an annunciator panel which groups
together a number of different indicator lights for
a variety of aircraft systems and equipment. There
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are usually three categories of annunciator indications

based on how important the information is to the
flight crew. Warnings are the most serious and normally activate a red light. For very serious conditions
like fires, a sound warning is also given. Caution
annunciators are usually amber in color. Status or
special purpose annunciators may be white or some
other color lights. If the airplane has a large number
of annunciators and the panel must be located overhead or some other location which is not in front
of the crew, master caution and warning lights are
employed. With this system, there is one red light
and one amber light in plain view in front of the
pilot and/or copilot. When any warning light on the
main panel is illuminated, the master warning light
also comes on. The crew is alerted to look up at
the main annunciator panel to find the source of
the warning. The master warning light is then reset
so it will be available to give any additional warnings
that might be needed. The master caution light works

in a similar manner. Some of the typical indications
for an annunciator panel for a small twin-engine
airplane are shown in figure 2-80
Q. FARs for Warning Systems

and Annunciators
Some of the FAA requirements for warning systems
and annunciators are given below to familiarize the
reader with the kinds of rules that apply to these
systems.
FAR 23.207
Stall Warning
A. There must be a clear and distinctive stall
warning with flaps and landing gear in any
normal position in straight and turning flight.
DOORPOST COVER
HORN
REED
ADAPTER
SCOOP
FELT SEAL
7. ADJUSTABLE PLATE
Figure 2-78. The components in a vibrating reed stall warning system. (Courtesy Cessna Aircraft Co.)
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The stall warning may be inherent buffet or

a device. If a device is used, visual indications
by themselves that require the pilot's attention
to be directed in the cockpit are not acceptable.
The stall warning must begin not less than
5 knots above stall speed; but not more than
10 knots or 15% above stall speed, whichever
is greater. The stall warning must continue
to the stall.
FAR 23.729
Retractable Landing Gear
There must be a position indicating system
for extended and retracted.
Warning system.
There must be a warning if one or more
throttles are retarded and the landing gear
is not down arid locked.
There must be a warning when the flaps
are extended to or beyond the approach
flap setting and the landing gear is not
down and locked.
A system to control the charging rate of

the battery automatically so as to prevent
battery overheating.
A battery temperature sensing and overtemperature warning system with a means
for disconnecting the battery from its charging source in the event of an over-temperature condition.
3. A battery failure sensing and warning system with a means for disconnecting the
battery from its charging source in the event
of a battery failure.
FAR 91.219
Altitude Alerting System or Device
Turbojet-Powered Civil Airplanes:
1. No person may operate a turbojet powered
civil airplane unless it is equipped with an
altitude alerting system or device that:
STALL WARNING UNIT
FAR 23.1203
Fire Detector System
STAGNATION POINT
For multi-engine, turbine-powered airplanes,

multi-engine reciprocating engine airplanes incorporating turbosuperchargers and all commuter
category airplanes:
THE VANE IS PLACED AT THE STAGNATION POINT

ON THE LEADING EDGE OF THE WING.
A. There must be a means which ensures the

prompt detection of a fire in an engine compartment.
FAR 23.1303
Flight and Navigation Instruments
The following are required flight and navigation
instruments:
E. A speed warning device for:
Turbine engine powered airplanes
Other airplanes for which Vmo/Mmo and
Vd /Md are established under FAR 23 if
Vmo/Mmo is greater than 0.8 Vd / Md.
FAR 23.1353
Storage Battery Design and Installation
g. Nickel cadmium battery installations capable
of being used to start an engine or auxiliary
power unit must have:
THE VANE ACTUATES A PRECISION SWITCH

INSIDE THE HOUSING.
Figure 2-79. The electrically powered stall warning system for a small airplane that uses a vane
operated switch.
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2. Will alert the pilot upon approaching a preselected altitude in either ascent or descent,
by a sequence of both aural and visual signals
in sufficient time to establish level flight at

the preselected altitude.
The control and operation of a typical altitude
alerting system are shown in figure 2-81.
AUTOPILOT OFF LIGHT (AMBER) Indicates the autopilot has disengaged.

DOOR OPEN LIGHT (RED) Indicates that the forward baggage compartment door, the cabin
entry doors and /or the emergency exit door are not secured safely for flight.
HEATER OVERHEAT LIGHT (AMBER) Indicates an abnormally high temperature has occurred
in the combustion heater and it has been automatically shut off. Once the light illuminates,
the heater will not operate until the overheat switch in the right forward nose section (accessible
in nosewheel well) has been reset.
LEFT ALTERNATOR OFF LIGHT (AMBER) Indicates the left alternator is not supplying electrical
current.
LOW VOLTAGE LIGHT (RED) Indicates electrical system bus voltage is less than 24.5 volts.
WING AND STABILIZER DEICE SYSTEM PRESSURE LIGHT (GREEN) Indicates pressure
is being applied to the surface deice boots to inflate them.
RIGHT ALTERNATOR OFF LIGHT (AMBER) Indicates the right alternator is not supplying
electrical current.
WINDSHIELD ANTI-ICE SYSTEM LIGHT (GREEN) Indicates that heating elements in the
windshield anti-ice system are operating.
RIGHT ENGINE FIRE LIGHT (RED) Indicates an excessive temperature condition or possible
fire has occurred in the right engine compartment.
RIGHT LOW FUEL LIGHT (AMBER) Indicates fuel quantity in right main fuel tank is 60
lbs. or less.
LEFT LOW FUEL LIGHT (AMBER) -- Indicaties fuel quantity in left main fuel tank is 60 lbs.
or less.
LEFT ENGINE FIRE LIGHT (RED) . Indicates an excessive temperature condition or possible
fire has occurred in the left engine compartment.
DAY/NIGHT SWITCH Sets brightness level of annunciator panel indicator lamps for either
day or night operation.
TEST SWITCH Tests operation of annunciator panel lamps, landing gear system position
indicator lights, and aural warning tones of landing gear, fire detection and stall warning systems.
Also, switch can be used to silence an activated engine fire detection warning tone.
Note: For Illustration only. Not to be used for operational purposes.
Figure 2-80. (Courtesy Cessna Aircraft Co.)

The annunciator panel for a small twin-engine airplane.
The meanings for the various annunciator lights
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(970) 726-5111
CHAPTER III
Communication and Navigation Systems
The avionics and radio equipment found in aircraft
has seen more change and advancement in recent
years than any other part of the aircraft. Most of
these changes have resulted from the same technology that has produced personal computers and
a world wide telecommunications industry. Although early radios were in use prior to World War
I, it is only since the 1940s that extensive use
has been made of radios for communication and
navigation in all types of aircraft. The basic VHF
communications and navigation systems that are
used in aviation were developed in the 1940s, but
the introduction of newer systems has been increasing dramatically in recent years. This chapter
will cover the types of avionics equipment that are
already in widespread use and the latest developments that are only beginning to be installed on
airplanes. Most of the systems described utilize radio
waves, so we will begin with the fundamentals of
radio systems.
A. Radio Fundamentals
The basic components found in radios and the
operating principles involved will be explained here
so that the specific aircraft avionics systems
described later can be understood more easily.
7. Airborne Collision Avoidance Warns the

pilot of nearby aircraft.
All of these examples use radio waves, but there
are other avionics systems that do not rely on the
use of radio waves.
2. Electromagnetic Waves
a. Frequency Bands
The range and diversity of electromagnetic waves,
or EM waves, is very broad. The entire spectrum
of EM waves includes not only radio waves but visible
light, gamma rays, infrared, etc. The range of radio
wave frequencies that we will be involved with is
illustrated in figure 3-1. The frequencies are divided
into bands which, starting at the low end, are: very
low frequency (VLF), low frequency (LF), medium frequency (MF), high frequency (HF), very high frequency
(VHF), ultra high frequency (UHF), super high frequency (SHF) and extremely high frequency (EHF).
Common aircraft radio systems are included on the
right side in figure 3-1. Notice that there is an aviation
application for all of the bands except EHF. The two
common radio broadcast bands are also listed for
purposes of comparison.
Approach Aids A specialized type of navigation to guide an aircraft down to the runway
in bad weather.
All EM waves consist of two different invisible

energy fields that travel through space. The electric
field and the magnetic field are at right angles to
each other and to the direction of propagation or
travel. Figure 3-2 shows the two fields and the
direction of propagation. Radio waves are produced
when a radio frequency electrical signal is sent
down a conductor to an antenna. The antenna transforms the electrical signal into EM waves which
propagate outward from the antenna through space.
The EM waves travel through space at the velocity
of light, which is 186,284 miles per second or
300,000,000 meters per second. When the EM
waves strike a receive antenna, they induce voltage
and current to produce an electrical signal that
matches the one applied to the transmit antenna,
but of course the signal is much weaker. The basic
operating frequency of a radio is called the carrier
frequency, because this is the signal that carries
the data or information that needs to be transmitted
from one place to another.
Altitude Measurement Gives precise altitude above ground level.
The wavelength of EM waves is often used in describing antennas and other radio components. The
1. Types of Aircraft Radio Systems

The first radios installed in airplanes were used
for communications and it was only much later
that navigational radio systems were developed.
Radio systems for other purposes have also been
developed, especially in the last 20 to 30 years.
Some of the uses for radio in modern aircraft can
be categorized as follows.
Communications Both voice and data.
Navigation Many different systems are in
use today.
ATC Radar The Air Traffic Control system
relies on radar.
Weather Avoidance Used to avoid areas of
adverse weather.
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3 KHz
OMEGA 10-14 KHz
VERY LOW
FREQUENCY
(VLF)
30 KHz

LORAN C 100 KHz

LOW
FREQUENCY
(LF)
....NDBs 190-500 KHz

300 KHz

MEDIUM
FREQUENCY
(MF)
AM BROADCAST 550-1800 KHz
3 MHz

HF COMM 2-30 MHz

HIGH
FREQUENCY
(HF)
::.

30 MHz
.....
MARKER BEACONS
75 MHz
FM BROADCAST 88-108 MHz

VHF NAV (VOR) 108-118 MHz
VERY HIGH
FREQUENCY
(VHF)
VHF COMM
300 MHz
GLIDESLOPE
DME
ULTRA HIGH
FREQUENCY
(UHF)
118-137 MHz
328-336 MHz
960-1215 MHz
TRANSPONDER 1030 AND 1090 MHz

RADAR ALTIMETER 4.3 GHz
3 GHz
MLS 5.0-5.1 GHz

DOPPLER NAV 8.8 GHz
SUPER HIGH
FREQUENCY
(SHF)
WEATHER RADAR 9.375 GHz
30 GHz
EXTREMELY HIGH
FREQUENCY
(EHF)
300 GHz
Figure 3-1. Radio frequency chart showing the operating frequencies of common aircraft systems.
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wavelength of an EM wave is the distance from peak

to peak for the invisible waves in the electric and
magnetic fields. Wavelength is measured in meters
and it is inversely proportional to the frequency. The
wavelength in meters can be found by dividing the
constant 300,000,000 by the frequency in hertz. At
higher frequencies, it is easier to use 300 divided
by the frequency in MHz to obtain the wavelength.
b. Modulation
If we design a radio transmitter that sends out a
steady carrier wave, we would not be able to transmit
VARYING
ELECTRIC
FIELD
VARYING
MAGNETIC
FIELD
any data or information. The receiver would only

produce a steady hum or nothing at all depending
on the design of the receiver. In order to transmit
any data or intelligence, it is necessary to vary or
alter the carrier wave in some way. The process
of changing or varying the carrier wave is called
modulation. When the Italian inventor Guglielmo
Marconi was developing the first practical radio system in 1896, there was no way to modulate the
radio wave in order to transmit voice, so he used
a method of switching the transmitter on and off
to transmit Morse code signals. This simplest form
of modulation is called CW or radio telegraphy since
it borrowed the Morse code from the telegraph industry. Figure 3-3 shows a radio carrier wave which
uses CW to send Morse code dots and dashes. Within
ten years, new inventions permitted voice and music
to be transmitted by radio using improved types
of modulation. Figure 3-4 illustrates the principles
DOT
Figure 3-2. An electromagnetic wave with the electric

field and magnetic field at right angles to
each other and the direction of propagation.
DOT
DOT
DASH
Figure 3-3. The simplest form of transmitting data with

radio waves is with Morse code dots and
dashes or CW.
TRANSMITTING
ANTENNA
RECEIVING
ANTENNA
TRANSMITTER
HEADSET
RECEIVER
MICROPHONE
LOUDSPEAKER
Figure 3-4. Simplified voice radio system.

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of a simple voice radio system. A microphone converts sound waves to electrical signals that are combined with the carrier wave using AM or FM
modulation. The receiver picks up the modulated
carrier wave and then separates out the audio frequency using a demodulator. The audio output of
the demodulator drives a speaker or headset to
reproduce the sound waves that were picked up
by the microphone in the transmitter. Current radio
systems use a number of different types of modulation, the two most common being amplitude modulation (AM) and frequency modulation (FM). When
amplitude modulation is used, the intensity or
amplitude of the carrier wave signal is varied up
and down as shown in figure 3-5. The frequency

of the carrier wave is changed when frequency
modulation is used. Figure 3-6 shows a carrier wave
with this type of modulation. The two commercial
broadcast radio bands are a good example here since
one uses AM and the other FM. One of the advantages
of FM is that it is less affected by atmospheric noise
from thunderstorms and other disturbances.
c. Audio and Radio Frequencies
Two terms that are often used in discussions about
radio systems are audio frequency (AF) and radio
frequency (RF). Audio frequencies are those of
20,000 Hz or less. They are called audio because
111,6,411.411,41,
THE CARRIER IS A HIGH-FREQUENCY
ALTERNATING CURRENT.
(A)
THE AMPLITUDE MODULATED CARRIER IS

PICKED UP BY THE RECEIVER IN THIS FORM.
(D)
THE SIGNAL IS PASSED THROUGH A DETECTOR

WHERE ONE-HALF IF IT IS REMOVED.
(E)
DC VARYING AT AN AUDIO FREQUENCY IS

PRODUCED IN THE MODULATOR.
A DEMODULATOR REMOVES THE CARRIER

AND LEAVES ONLY PULSATING DC.
011111
reireln
THE CARRIER IS MODULATED, OR CHANGED, IN

AMPLITUDE TO COINCIDE WITH THE AUDIO FREQUENCY.
THE SIGNAL IS TRANSMITTED IN THIS FORM.
THE PULSATING DC IS FED INTO AN AMPLIFIER WHERE

IT BECOMES AC, JUST LIKE THAT PRODUCED
BY THE MICROPHONE.
Figure 3-5. An example of the use of amplitude modulation (AM).
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these are approximately the frequencies of sound

waves that can be heard by the human ear. Radio
frequencies are those above 20,000 Hz. These terms
are most often used when discussing the electrical
signals that are produced and used by radio
receivers and transmitters.
d. Ground, Sky and Space Waves
The behavior of radio waves as they travel through
the earth's atmosphere and beyond are classified
by the terms ground, space and sky waves. The
propagation characteristics of ground waves, sky
waves and space waves are illustrated in figure
3-7. Radio waves at frequencies below the HF band
(below 3 MHz) are called ground waves because
they will follow the curvature of the earth and bend.
Radio waves that operate in the HF band from
3 MHz to 30 MHz are called sky waves. They tend
to travel in straight lines and will not follow the
curvature of the earth. Sky waves will bounce or
refract off the ionosphere. The ionosphere is made
up of layers of ionized particles from about 60-200
miles high. When sky waves strike a layer of the
ionosphere in the right way, they will be refracted
so that they will come back to earth hundreds of
miles away. This characteristic of sky waves can
be used to achieve long range transmission of radio
signals. Space waves are the result of transmissions
of radio waves at frequencies above 30 MHz or
above the HF band. Space waves travel in straight
lines, but they will not bounce off the ionosphere.
The radio signals used to communicate with orbiting
satellites are above 30 MHz. A good example can
be given here for those who are familiar with AM
and FM radio receivers. The commercial broadcast

stations known as AM broadcast in the MF band
so that the EM waves behave as ground waves.
At night, it is not unusual to pick up an AM station
that is hundreds of miles away because the signal
has followed the curvature of the earth. Commercial
FM stations operate in the VHF band and the reception range is limited to line-of-sight or straight lines
because they are space waves. The maximum reception range for these stations is usually about 60
miles because they are blocked by the earth's surface at greater distances.
3. Basic Radio Components

a. Amplifiers
An amplifier is a device that increases the strength
of a signal. They are found in both transmitters
and receivers. A transmitter must increase the
strength of the signal sent to the antenna so that
the EM waves will travel a useful distance outward
from the antenna. A receiver needs amplifiers because the strength of the signal from the antenna
is very low and must be increased to enable the
signal to be heard. Up until the 1960s, most
amplifiers relied on vacuum tubes to increase the
strength of signals. The transistor has replaced the
vacuum tube for most amplifier applications.
Amplifiers can be categorized as Class A, Class
B and Class C. The difference between these is
the shape of the output waveform. Figure 3-8 shows
the output of a Class A amplifier, it is complete
sine waves just like the input. The Class B amplifier
has an output which shows only half of each sine
wave as shown in figure 3-8. The Class C amplifier
Figure 3-6. An example of the use of frequency modulation (FM).
107
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has an output waveform which is less than half

of the sine wave as shown at the bottom in figure
3-8. The Class C amplifier is often used as a power
amplifier because of its higher efficiency. The output
of the Class C amplifier can be sent through an
LC circuit or other device to restore the complete
sine wave shape.
b. Oscillators
An oscillator is a device that produces the frequencies needed by both receivers and transmitters. A
simple oscillator is an LC circuit or tank circuit
made up of a capacitor and inductor in parallel.
The LC circuit will have a resonant frequency which
matches the desired frequency. An LC circuit by
itself will not continue to oscillate because of resistance in the components and wires. Figure 3-9
shows an LC tank circuit which can be connected
to a battery to produce oscillations. If the switch
in figure 3-9 is moved to position A, the capacitor
will be charged by the battery. If the switch is
then moved to position C, the tank circuit will start
to oscillate as energy is transferred rapidly back
and forth between the capacitor and inductor. The
oscillations will become weaker and die out because
of the resistance in the circuit. In order to maintain
oscillations, some energy must be fed back into
... p. NOSPHER
.:::::...::.:::.
the tank circuit. In earlier radios a vacuum tube

was used to supply the needed feedback. A transistor is used instead of a vacuum tube in newer
radio designs as shown in figure 3-10. The resonant
frequency or oscillation frequency is determined
by the values of capacitance and inductance in
the tank circuit. The LC circuit will not be stable
over a period of time and may drift off the correct
frequency. A common technique to stabilize the
oscillator and produce a more accurate frequency
is to use a crystal as shown in figure 3-11. The
piezoelectric effect of the crystal will produce a more
accurate and consistent output frequency from the
oscillator.
c. Modulators and Demodulators
We will use a voice communications radio as an
example of the purpose and function of modulators
and demodulators. In the radio transmitter, a device
is needed which will combine the AF signal with
the RF carrier wave signal before it is sent to the
antenna. This is the function of a modulator, it
combines the AF and RF signals so that information
can be transmitted. The output of the modulator
is called modulated RF. The signal produced by
the antenna in a receiver will be modulated RF.
In order to hear the voice as an output of the
".
ry
:.:-.-.
OF
...A. 0,,
IT
RADIO
STATION
GROUND WAVE
(A)
RADIO
STATION

SKY WAVE
(B)
::::IONOSPHERE
DOES NOT FOLLOW

EARTH'S CURVATURE
RADIO
STATION
SPACE WAVE
(C)
Figure 3-7. The propagation characteristics of ground waves, sky waves and space waves.
108
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receiver, the AF component must be separated out.

The demodulator removes the RF component of the
modulated RF signal and produces an AF output.
When the AF and RF signals are combined in
the modulator, they must have the proper relative
CLASS A
AMPLIFIER
Cl
7.-
CLASS B
AMPLIFIER
Figure 3-10. An oscillator circuit with feedback supplied

by a transistor.
ACC
CLASS C
AMPLIFIER
(C)
Figure 3-8. An example of the output waveform for Class

A, B and C amplifiers.
A 411. w ...n
ill III
DAMPED OSCILLATION CAUSED

BY RESISTANCE IN THE CIRCUIT
OUTPUT
w
CRYSTAL
Figure 3-9. A parallel LC tank circuit. Without feedback,

the oscillations will be weakened by resistance in the circuit and die out.
IC I
Figure 3-11. A crystal controlled oscillator.
109
(970) 726-5111
will also be low. If the modulation rate is over 100%,

there will be distortion in the signal due to the
gaps created. Figure 3-12 gives examples of 50%,
100% and more than 100% modulation rates with
strengths for maximum efficiency. The amount of

modulation is called the modulation rate. If the
AF signal is too weak compared to the RF signal,
the modulation rate will be low and the efficiency
1
0
1V
1.5V
s-1
2V -
(A)
1
1V -

2V
JJ
(B)
+ 2V -
+ 1V -
n.n
1V -
\ -0
2V -
(C)
Figure 3-12. Examples of different modulation rates.
50%
100%
(C) Over 100%
110

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AM modulation. Most radio transmitters are adjusted to about 90-95% modulation to provide a
little margin to prevent distortion. Shouting into
a microphone when using a radio can cause overmodulation and should be avoided.
Filters
A filter is used in a radio circuit to remove or filter
out unwanted frequencies. The signals that are
processed by the circuits in a radio often have additional frequencies present that are not needed.
If the proper filter is installed, it will filter out the
frequency or frequencies that are not wanted. A
filter is usually made up of an arrangement of inductors and capacitors as shown in figure 3-13.
A low pass filter will remove all frequencies above
a certain value and pass the low ones. A high pass
filter does the opposite. If a range of frequencies
must be blocked, a band reject filter will be used.
A bandpass filter will allow a certain band of frequencies to go through and block frequencies either
above or below that range.
basic characteristics. Two of the more common types

are the Hertz dipole antenna and the Marconi
monopole antenna. The Hertz dipole antenna has
two metal conductors in a straight line with the
connection in the middle. It is called a half-wave
antenna because the overall length is equal to one
half the wavelength of the EM wave it is designed
to be used with. Figure 3-14 is an example of a
Hertz dipole antenna. The Marconi antenna is a
single metal conductor with a length of 1/4
wavelength as illustrated in figure 3-15. In order
to work properly, the Marconi antenna must have
metal surrounding the mounting base. The metal
at the base is needed for efficient operation of the
antenna. The necessary metal at the base is called
the groundplane or counterpoise. In figure 3-15,
the groundplane is the four metal rods at the base
of the antenna; the metal skin of an aircraft is
used as a groundplane for most aircraft antennas.
Most antennas must be installed with the correct
Antennas
An antenna is a device that transforms electrical
signals into EM waves in the case of a transmit
antenna, or transforms EM waves into electrical
signals in the case of a receive antenna. Depending
on the particular radio system involved, an antenna
may be used for transmit only, receive only, or
both. The maintenance, inspection and installation
of antennas is usually the responsibility of the
airframe technician since they are attached to the
structure or skin of the aircraft. Antennas often
have general names that describe some of their
FOR MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY, THE LENGTH OF

THE ANTENNA SHOULD BE EXACTLY ONE-HALF
OF A WAVE LENGTH.
WHEN THE VOLTAGE IS MAXIMUM AT THE ENDS

OF THE ANTENNA.
A
M
P
S
THE CURRENT WILL BE MAXIMUM AT THE CENTER

OF THE ANTENNA.
(C)
Figure 3-13. Radio frequency filters are combinations of

inductors and capacitors.
Figure 3-14. The Hertz dipole antenna is a half-wave

antenna.
111

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polarization. Polarization refers to the orientation

of the electric field relative to the earth. If the electric
field is vertical, it has vertical polarization.
The Marconi antenna will produce a vertically
polarized radiation pattern as shown in figure 3-16.
Horizontal polarization means that the electric field
will be parallel to the earth's surface. The horizontally polarized pattern of a Hertz dipole antenna
is shown in figure 3-17. Another way to understand
polarization is that the polarization of the aircraft
antenna should normally match the polarization
of the ground based antenna and the EM waves
it will utilize. An aircraft VHF communications antenna is an example of a Marconi antenna with
vertical polarization. The common example of a Hertz
antenna is the VHF navigation antenna found on
small airplanes. It is a V-shaped dipole antenna
with horizontal polarization.
Antennas must not only be matched to the
proper radio, but the conductor that connects
the radio and antenna is very critical. A special
type of conductor used to connect radios and
antennas is called a coaxial cable or coax. Figure

3-18 shows the basic parts of a coaxial cable
designed to carry RF signals. It consists of a center
conductor covered by a special kind of insulation
and an outer conductor around the insulation.
Plain wires cannot be used for radio frequency
signals because the energy loss would be too great
at these frequencies. The antennas and coaxial
cables must be maintained in good condition to
ensure proper performance from the radio system.
The connection between an antenna and a radio
normally requires a coupler in order to give the
best transfer of energy between the two of them.
Two common types of antenna couplers are the
LC circuit and the transformer types. A transformer
type of antenna coupler is shown in the antenna
connection in figure 3-19. The use of an LC circuit
as a coupler between the coax and antenna is shown
in figure 3-20. Most aircraft antennas are speedrated. For example, an antenna rated at 250 mph
should not be installed on an aircraft with a higher
Vne speed.
ANTENNA
A
GROUND PLANE
MINIMUM
RADIATION
MAXIMUM
RADIATION
Figure 3-15. The Marconi antenna is a 1/4-wave monopole

antenna that requires a groundplane.
Figure 3-17. A horizontally polarized Hertz antenna will
produce this type of radiation pattern.
SOLID
CENTER
CONDUCTOR
INNER INSULATOR
Figure 3-16. A vertically polarized marconi antenna will

produce this type of radiation pattern.
BRAID
OUTER
JACKET
Figure 3-18. Coaxial cable is used to carry radio frequency electrical signals between radios
and antennas.
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Tuning Circuits
An antenna will intercept many different EM waves
of different frequencies so some method must be
used to separate out the desired frequency. The
tuning circuit performs this function. A simple
tuning circuit is shown in figure 3-21, it consists
of a variable capacitor and an inductor in parallel.
As the tuning knob is rotated on the radio, it moves
the variable capacitor until the resonant frequency
of the circuit matches the frequency of the desired
station. This signal is passed into the radio and
the other frequencies are blocked out. A better type
of tuner which is found on most modern radios
uses a frequency synthesizer which contains a number of crystals that can be combined to match the
desired frequency. The basic operation of a frequency synthesizer is shown in figure 3-22. Each
crystal has a particular frequency and by using
switches the crystals can be combined to produce
many additional frequencies. When two frequencies
are combined, two new frequencies are created that
are equal to the sum and the difference of the
two frequencies. By using this technique, hundreds
of frequencies can be created using a relatively small
number of fixed frequency crystals.
Transmitters
The components that have been described will be
combined in a block diagram to see how they work
together. A voice radio transmitter is shown in figure
3-23. The microphone changes the sound waves
of a human voice into AF signals that are amplified
and then sent to the modulator. The oscillator in
this radio operates at one half the carrier frequency,

so its output is amplified and then doubled. The
modulator combines the AF and RF signals which
are then amplified in the power amp before being
sent down the coax to the antenna.
h. Receivers
In the 1920s, a new type of radio receiver was
invented that produced better sound quality. It was
called the superheterodyne or superhet radio. The
only major difference between the superhet and
earlier radios was that it reduced the modulated
RF signal from the antenna to an AF signal in
more than one jump or stage. Since modern radio
components are much smaller and more efficient
than in the 1920s, virtually all modern radio
receivers are superhet. Figure 3-24 shows a block
diagram of a VHF superhet aircraft receiver. The
RF signal from the antenna is combined with a
local oscillator frequency to produce a lower IF frequency. The intermediate frequencies found in a
superhet radio are abbreviated as IF. The basic
principle of the mixer is that when two different
frequencies are combined, two new frequencies are
created; the sum and the difference of the two combined frequencies. In this example, the output of
the mixer is the difference between the RF frequency
and the local oscillator frequency. The IF signal
is amplified and then sent to the detector and
demodulator. The detector chops off half of each
sine wave to produce a varying DC signal from
an AC signal. The AF signal is amplified and used
to drive the speaker.
IC(

4111,
II Ft-

111111111I+
B
Figure 3-19. An isolation transformer can be used as an antenna coupling device.

113
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Speakers and Microphones

Aircraft radios often supply an audio output for
the pilot and voice transmitters require an audio
input from a microphone. A speaker is a device
that transforms electrical signals into sound waves.
A dynamic speaker is shown in figure 3-25.
When the audio frequency signal is applied to
the windings in the speaker, it sets up a magnetic
field that expands and contracts at an audio rate.
This field causes the metal diaphragm to vibrate
at a corresponding rate to produce the movement
of air that generates sound waves. Dynamic microphones are available which operate in the opposite way. Many newer and more efficient types
of microphones are now being manufactured, but
they all work by transforming the vibrations of
sound waves into varying electrical signals.
Audio Control Panels

When an aircraft has more than one radio, an efficient
means of switching the microphone and speaker
connections from one radio to another is needed.
The audio control panel performs this function. A

typical audio control panel is shown in figure 3-26.
An audio control panel is not a radio because it
only uses audio frequencies, but it is associated with
the radios in the aircraft. This audio control panel
has a row of toggle switches that can be used to
connect the audio output of the various radios to
the speaker or headphones. It also has a rotary selector
switch to connect the microphone audio output to
the different radio transmitters and intercom systems
available for the aircraft. The audio control panel
illustrated also has three lights that are the indicators
for the marker beacon system on the aircraft. The
marker beacon system will be described later.
B. Regulations and Standards

for Radios
Aircraft avionics equipment might have to comply with
a number of different regulations and standards depending on the type of equipment and the type of
aircraft in which it is installed. Regulations from the
FAA and the FCC apply to the manufacture and use
of most types of equipment and carry the force of law.
FAA standards for equipment are usually in the form
FCC
of TSO (Technical Standard Order) approvals.
rules generally apply to equipment which produces radio
waves. An FCC Station License is required for aircraft
Figure 3-20. An LC circuit can be used as an antenna

coupler.
111
CRYSTALS
Figure 3-21. This simple radio receiver uses a variable

capacitor to tune in different frequencies by
changing the resonant frequency of the tank
circuit.
Figure 3-22. The frequency synthesizer is a crystal controlled tuning device found on many modern radios and other electronic units.
114
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that have radio transmitters other than ELT. Each

different type of transmitter must be listed on the
license that is displayed in the cockpit. The role
of ARINC in established standards has been described earlier. These standards apply to the equipment in air carrier jets and bizjets primarily. In
addition to the rules for the equipment itself, there
are some FAA Regulations concerning the use of
radio equipment in flight. Some of these FAA rules
are given here. Others will be covered later when

the specific types of equipment to which the rules
apply are discussed.
FAR 91.130 (c)
No person may operate an aircraft in an Airport

Radar Service Area (ARSA) unless two-way radio
communication is established and maintained with
ANTENNA
POWER
AMP
1/2 RF
FREQUENCY
BUFFER
AMP
OSCILLATOR
FREQUENCY
FREQUENCY
DOUBLER
MODULATOR
SPEECH
AMP
MICROPHONE
Figure 3-23. Simplified block diagram of a VHF voice radio transmitter.

ANTENNA
RF
AMP
MIXER
11.4 MHz
11.4 MHz
IF
AMP
IF
AMP
LOCAL
OSCILLATOR
DETECTOR &
DEMODULATOR
AF
AMP
SPEAKER
500 OHMS
Figure 3-24. Simplified block diagram of a superheterodyne VHF voice radio receiver.
115
(970) 726-5111
ATC. A transponder with Mode C automatic reporting of aircraft pressure altitude is also required
in all ARSAs.
minutes or 100 nautical miles from the nearest

shoreline, must have:
1. Radio communication equipment appropriate
to the ground facilities.
Two transmitters.
(d)
FAR 91.131 (c) and
Two microphones.
No person may operate an aircraft in a Terminal

Control Area (TCA) unless it has:
A two-way radio with appropriate frequencies
available.
Two headsets (or headset and speaker).

Two independent receivers.
6. If needed, one HF transceiver.
An operable transponder with Mode C altitude

reporting.
C. Intercom and
(e)
Minimum Equipment Requirements for IFR
Interphone Systems
FAR 91.205 (d) and
Two-way radio communications and navigation equipment appropriate to the ground facilities that will be used.
At and above 24,000 ft. MSL; approved DME
(distance measuring equipment).
FAR 91.511
Large and turbine-powered, multi-engine
airplanes, if operating over water more than 30
THIN STEEL
DIAPHRAGM
PERMANENT
MAGNET CORE
/1
AUDIO
FREQUENCY
AC
Figure 3-25. A dynamic speaker produces a magnetic

field that varies at an audio rate, causing the
diaphragm to vibrate and produce sound
waves.
Hi
A
I 1 COM 2
0
TEST
1 NAV 2
Intercom and interphone systems are not radio systems, they use audio signals to permit communication
between various points in and around the aircraft.
The two systems operate in a similar manner, the
difference is who uses the systems and where the
phone jacks are located. The intercom system is used
for voice communications from one point to another
within the aircraft. Large aircraft have intercom systems so that the cockpit crew can communicate with
the cabin crew and vice versa. On small airplanes,
the intercom is used to communicate within the cockpit area and is needed because of noise in the cockpit
area. The interphone system permits conversation
between the cockpit and someone outside the aircraft,
usually maintenance or service personnel. The operation of intercom and interphone systems is the same.
Phone jacks are available at different locations where
a handset or headset can be connected. The handset
or headset contains a microphone, a small speaker
and a push-to-talk switch (PTT). The phone jacks
and wiring are connected to an audio amplifier so
that the volume can be controlled. Switches are available to select the desired system and a ringing system
like that of a telephone is used for alerting the other
party. On larger aircraft, a PA (passenger address)
system is included so that announcements can be
made to the passengers by the flight crew or cabin
crew. Figure 3-27 shows the interphone system for
C2 AUX
MKR ADF DME AUX IONIC; Li EU
PHONE
M A, )30
Figure 3-26. An audio control panel performs the switching functions between radios and the microphones and
speakers. (Courtesy Terra Corp.)
116
(970) 726-5111
a bizjet airplane. External interphone jacks are located

in the nosewheel area, avionics equipment bay area
and in the aft fuselage near the auxiliary power unit
(APU). These external jacks permit communication
between the cockpit and maintenance personnel at
these locations outside the aircraft.
D. Communications Radios
There are a number of different radio communications systems available for aircraft use. They differ
primarily in the frequencies used and the type of
communication involved. The most important use
of communications radios is for Air Traffic Control
since the controllers need to be in contact with
the pilots to give necessary instructions. The general
trend since the 1930s has been the use of higher
frequencies and the development of specialized communications for other than ATC purposes.
1. HF Communications
Up until the 1940s, most aircraft radio communications utilized frequencies in the LF, MF and HF
bands because suitable equipment was not available
to use higher frequencies. Aircraft HF radios operate
on frequencies between 2 and 30 MHz. The only
modern aircraft that carry HF comm radios are
those that operate long distances over water or
in the remote regions of the earth. Air carrier jets
and bizjets that routinely fly the Atlantic and Pacific
oceans will have HF comm radios for ATC purposes.
The HF comm radios have a maximum reception
range of about 1,500 to 2,000 miles compared to
a maximum of about 250 miles for VHF comm.
The reception range of VHF comm radios is restricted
to line-of-sight distances as shown in figure 3-28.
The probe and flush mount antennas used for HF
comm require a special antenna tuning and coupling
device. This is automatically repositioned each time
a new frequency is selected in order to tune the
antenna for that particular frequency. Smaller
aircraft with HF comm will use a long wire antenna
that usually extends from a wing tip up to the
vertical fin. Up to the 1960s, many aircraft used
a long wire trailing antenna which extended out
the aft fuselage of the airplane. This antenna could
be run in and out to select the proper antenna
length. It is not suitable for high speed aircraft,
so it is little used today. HF comm radios utilize
ground and sky waves to achieve their greater reception range. Aircraft HF transmitters produce an
output power of 80-200 watts which is much higher
than the output power typically found with VHF
transmitters. This is necessary to achieve long distance communication. A disadvantage of HF is that
it is more affected by atmospheric interference than
VHF. Sometimes an aircraft in the middle of the

ocean will lose communication because of
thunderstorms or other disturbances.
2. VHF Communication
The use of frequencies in the VHF band for aircraft
communication was developed in the 1940s. VHF
provides much clearer reception and is much less
affected by atmospheric conditions. EM waves in
the VHF band are space waves so that the reception
range is limited to line-of-sight distances. At 1000
ft., the reception range is about 30-40 miles. The
maximum reception range using ground based stations is about 250 miles at altitudes above 35,000
ft. Much less power is required for VHF than for
HF comm. Aircraft VHF transmitters have an output
power of 5-20 watts. The standard radio communications system in the U.S.A. for ATC purposes
is VHF. This is also true for most other countries
of the world. The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) has designated VHF as the standard radio communication system for ATC purposes
over land.
The range of frequencies used for VHF comm
is 118-137 MHz using AM modulation. In the 1950s,
an aircraft VHF comm radio could tune only 90
channels or different frequencies. Later the separation between channels was reduced to produce 360
channels. Modern VHF comm radios have 720 or
760 channels available. The spacing between channels is now 25 kHz, so that adjacent usable frequencies would be 120.15, 120.175, 120.20 etc.
The latest models of aircraft VHF comm radios use
lighted displays that employ LEDs (light emitting
diodes), LCDs (liquid crystal displays), or gas discharge tubes. Figure 3-29 shows a complete set
of radios that might be found on a typical general
aviation airplane. The radios use lighted displays
for the frequencies and other information that is
needed. The use of lighted displays and crystal
controlled tuning has eliminated the complex
switching systems employed on earlier tuners. The
modern radio displays two different frequencies,
the one on the left is the active frequency and
the one on the right is the standby frequency that
is held in memory. This is a very nice feature which
allows the pilot to switch the two numbers in the
display by simply pushing a transfer button. The
transfer buttons can be seen in figure 3-29 on
the VHF comm and NAV radios. Technicians should
be familiar with the use of aircraft radios for
troubleshooting purposes and also because they
might have to taxi an airplane which may require
the use of the radio. The antennas used with VHF
comm are Marconi 1/4 wave monopoles that use
117

(970) 726-5111
PILOTS
CO-PI LOTS
HEADPHONES
& BOOM MIC.
OXYGEN
MASK
DME 1
PILOTS AUDIO
CONTROL UNIT
HEADPHONES
& BOOM MIC
OXYGEN
MASK
CO-PILOTS AUDIO
CONTROL UNIT
DME 2
A
VOR/LOC

CO-PI LOTS
PTT SWITCH
PILOTS
PTT SWITCH
NAV 1
MKR
VOR/LOC
NAV 2
MKR
1110ND-
1111.
ADF 1
AUDIO
FLIGHT DECK
SPEAKERS
ELECTRONICS
UNIT
VHF 1
VHF 2
r-
r
I
AURAL WARNING
SYSTEM
VHF 3
--- - -I
HF 1
HIE
HF 2
roe-
NOSEWHEEL BAY
INTERPHONE
ADF 2
AVIONICS BAY
INTERPHONE
APU
INTERPHONE
r
GPWS
I
tI
r
PA
rn- - -
OBSERVER
INTERPHONE
INPUTS/OUTPUTS
PROVISIONED FOR
Figure 3-27. The intercom and interphone system for a corporate jet. The external interphone jacks are shown in the
lower right. (Courtesy Canadair Group, Bombardier Inc.)
118
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vertical polarization. There is a separate antenna

for each VHF comm radio.
Radiotelephone
Aircraft often carry a radiotelephone system which
is somewhat similar to the portable cellular phone
available for cars. It employs radio signals to permit
telephone calls to be made from the aircraft in
flight. The frequencies used are 450-500 MHz in
the UHF band. The antenna used is a Marconi
antenna of a slightly different shape and size compared to a VHF comm antenna.
SATCOMM
A very recent development in aircraft systems is Satellite Communications or SATCOMM. A UHF radio is
installed in the aircraft to communicate with commercial satellites in orbit overhead. To date, it is
being used primarily for telephone calls from bizjets
and air carrier jets. It is beginning to be used for
datalinks from an aircraft in flight to the airline computer system. This permits monitoring of the progress
of the flight and the status of the aircraft systems.
In the future, SATCOMM will be used to replace HF
comm for communications and ATC purposes for
aircraft over the oceans or remote areas. The equipment currently available is very expensive, usually
costing hundreds of thousands of dollars. The antenna
used with SATCOMM is a special type that must
be installed on the top of the aircraft.
5. Selcal
Selcal is an abbreviation of selective calling, a special
communications system for air carrier aircraft. Selcal is not a separate radio system, it is a piece
of equipment that is connected to the existing comm

radios on the aircraft. It is connected to the VHF
and HF radios on the aircraft.
The system is used for communications between
aircraft in flight and certain airline managers. It
is called selective calling because it works somewhat
like a telephone system. An example of a SELCAL
decoder and the connections to the aircraft's VHF
and HF radios is shown in figure 3-30. Each aircraft
is assigned a code number which is a part of the
SELCAL equipment. When the proper code is
received, a tone is heard in the cockpit to tell the
crew that someone is calling them. They pick up
a handset in the cockpit and talk to the person
that has called them. The code consists of four tones
that are transmitted to the aircraft in series. Each
of the four tones has twelve possible frequencies,
so that over 20,000 different codes are available.
An example of a SELCAL communication will illustrate the operation of the system. The head dispatcher for the airline is sitting in his office in Chicago
and needs to call the flight crew of one of the airline's
aircraft to give them a message. According to the
schedule, the airplane is somewhere between Boston
and Atlanta. The dispatcher picks up his telephone
and dials a special access code and the code for
that airplane. The signal is sent out over many different ground transmitters and received by hundreds
of airplanes in flight. The phone will ring only in
the cockpit of the airplane he is calling and he
will pass on the message when they answer. The
SELCAL system is a great help to the airline when
they must reroute a flight or pass along important
information to the crew in flight.
VHF LINE OF SIGHT PATH
AT LOWER
ALTITUDE CANNOT
COMMUNICATE
WITH VHF
LOW FREQUENCY
GROUND WAVE
Figure 3-28. Example of the line-of-sight restriction that applies to VHF and other space wave transmissions.
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E. Emergency Locator
Transmitters (ELTs)
The ELT is a self-contained transmitter that is
designed to help locate an airplane after a crash.
A typical ELT with its antenna and coaxial cable
is shown in figure 3-31. It is required on most small
airplanes, but is not required on air carrier jets and
bizjets. The ELT is battery powered and is automatically turned on by crash forces. It will transmit a
special swept tone for 48 hours on two different emergency frequencies. The two frequencies are 121.5 MHz
and 243.0 MHz; 121.5 is the civilian emergency frequency and 243.0 is the military emergency frequency.
The transmitter is activated by an acceleration
operated switch when a rapid deceleration force is
applied along the longitudinal axis of the aircraft.
The ELT must be installed as far aft as possible
but in front of the tail surfaces since this area has
been shown to remain intact in most airplane crashes.
The batteries in the ELT must be replaced or recharged
at specific intervals as required by the FARs. There
are times when an aircraft technician may need to
test an ELT so he should be familiar with the procedure. If possible, the ELT should be tested with
MODE
the antenna disconnected or shielded to prevent the

transmission of emergency signals into the air. If this
cannot be done, it is still permissible to test the
ELT, but only during the first five minutes of any
hour and for three audio sweeps maximum. A VHF
comm radio is turned on and tuned to 121.5 MHz.
The ELT is then switched on manually until the signal
is heard on the receiver and then switched off again.
FAR 91.207
Emergency Locator Transmitters
No person may operate a U.S. registered civil
airplane unless it meets the applicable requirements
listed below for ELTs.
Each emergency locator transmitter must be
in operable condition and meet the requirements of TSO-C91 or TSO-C91A and it must
be installed as far aft as practicable.
Batteries used in the ELT must be replaced
or recharged as appropriate:
When the transmitter has been in use for
more than one cumulative hour; or
When 50% of the useful life has expired.
ITMEA
titimikv
oSS,,v0111
MOPE
OSSIVOR
711NAV
t IM E
Figure 3-29. A typical set of radios and associated equipment for a small airplane. The VHF corn and na y radios show
both active and standby frequencies. (Courtesy Terra Corp.)
120
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The expiration date for the replacement or

recharge of the battery must be legibly marked
on the outside of the transmitter and entered
in the aircraft maintenance record.
Scheduled air carrier flights.

Training flights conducted entirely within 50
nautical miles of the airport of operations.
Design and test flights.
The requirements for ELT do not apply to:
Delivery flights of new aircraft.
A newly acquired aircraft that must be ferried

to a place where the ELT will be installed.
Aircraft engaged in aerial application of

chemicals for agricultural purposes.
An aircraft with an inoperative ELT that

must be ferried to a place for ELT repair.
Research and development aircraft.

j. Exhibition and air racing aircraft.
c. Turbojet powered aircraft.
H.F.
1
H.F.
2
V.H.F
1
V.H.F.
2
VHF
3
Self test
0
Reset
(5 wires)
Code
select
(4 x 4
wires)
Self test
Lamp
drive
(5 wires)
V.H.F. 1
V.H.F. 2
V.H.F. 3
Decoder
H.F. 1
H.F. 2
Lamp
switches
Interrupter
circuit
Channel
amps
0
Chime
switch
To
chimes
Supply
Figure 3-30. A typical SELCAL decoder unit showing the connections to the VHF and HF com radios.
121
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k. Aircraft equipped to carry only one person.

I. An aircraft during any period in which the
ELT has been temporarily removed for inspection, repair, modification or replacement, subject to the following:
A maintenance record entry must be
made that includes the date of removal,
the serial number and the reason for
removal.
A placard must be placed in view of the
pilot which states "ELT not installed".
3. The aircraft must not be operated more
than 90 days after initial ELT removal.
F. Cockpit Voice Recorders

and Flight Data Recorders
The cockpit voice recorder (CVR) and the flight data
recorder (FDR) are designed to automatically record
information in flight that can be used during an investigation following an accident or serious incident.
They are installed on all air carrier jets and some
commuter airliners and privately owned aircraft. The
recorders are installed in the aft fuselage as shown
in figure 3-32 since this area is least likely to be
severely damaged in an accident.
The CVR is designed to record sounds in the
cockpit and communications on the intercom and
radio systems. It has a hot microphone in the cockpit
which is always activated to record voices, warning
sounds, engine noise etc. The CVR is also connected
to the intercom so that conversations between the
members of the crew can be recorded. It is also
connected to radios so that communications with
ATC are recorded. The CVR has a continuous recording system that holds approximately the last
30 minutes of data. It is located in the aft fuselage
for better survival and it is waterproof and protected
against fire and impact forces.
The flight data recorder has many more inputs

than the cockpit voice recorder. It has a recording
time of 8 hours on smaller aircraft and about 24
hours on larger aircraft. The CVR and FDR are
located in the same area of the aft fuselage and
have similar protection from water, fire etc. Some
of the typical types of data that are recorded on
the FDR are listed below.
Air carrier jets have been required to carry CVRs
and FDRs for some years, but recently new regulations have gone into effect that require these
devices on smaller aircraft. Some of these new regulations are summarized here.
FAR 91.609
Flight Recorders and Cockpit Voice Recorders
Multi-engine turbine powered airplanes or rotorcraft with 10 passenger seats or more manufactured after October 11, 1991 must have
a digital flight data recorder with 8 hours storage.
After October 11, 1991, multi-engine turbine
powered airplanes and rotorcraft with 6 passenger seats or more and with a required minimum flight crew of 2 pilots must have an
approved cockpit voice recorder with minimum
storage of 15 minutes.
3. If an accident or incident occurs, the operator
must hold the data 90 days or longer if requested.
FAR 91 Appendix E
Flight Recorder Specifications
The flight recorder required for certain aircraft
under FAR 91.609 must record the following items:
Airspeed.
Altitude.
Magnetic Heading.
Vertical Acceleration.
Longitudinal Acceleration.
Pitch Attitude.
Roll Attitude.
Pitch Trim Position.
N I , EPR or Prop
RPM
and Torque.
Vertical Speed.
Angle of Attack.
Autopilot Engagement.
TE Flap Position.
LE Flap Position.
Figure 3-31. An ELT transmitter for small airplanes with
the antenna and coaxial cable.
Reverse Thrust.
Spoiler/Speedbrake Position.
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CVR AND FDR

RECORDERS
Figure 3-32. Large commuter aircraft and air carrier jets have a Cockpit Voice Recorder and Flight Data Recorder
installed in the aft section of the fuselage.
G. Navigational Systems
There is a much wider variety of navigational systems available to aircraft than communications systems. There is a wide range of capabilities for the
various systems and some of them are very specialized. Some of them have been around for 50
years and others are much newer. We will start
with a brief description of a NAV system that is
now obsolete. A basic understanding of this older
system will make clearer the greater capabilities
of more modern NAV systems.
1. Four-course Radio Range

The four-course radio range was the first radio
navigation system developed in the U.S. to guide
aircraft in poor weather conditions. Before its invention, the standard navigation system consisted
of powerful light beacons that the pilot followed
during either day or night flying. The four-course
radio range gets its name from the fact that only
four pathways or courses were usable with this
system. The ground stations transmitted signals
in the LF band, so the signals could be very difficult
to use when atmospheric conditions caused interference. The antenna arrangement on the ground
transmitted four different directional radio beams
as shown in figure 3-33. The signals transmitted
north and south of the station were modulated
with the Morse code letter "N". The signals transmitted east and west were modulated with the letter
"A". If the pilot was flying in any one of these sectors
and listening to the signals, the Morse code keying
for the letter A or N, as appropriate, would be heard.
If the aircraft was exactly along a line where the
signals merged, a steady hum or tone would be
heard in the headphones. The pilot navigated by
listening to the sounds and aligning the airplane
along the centerline of one of the four courses.

As long as the aircraft was on course, the pilot
would hear the steady tone in the headphones.
Since the radio signals were affected by atmospheric
noise, the pilot often had to fly for hours on end
listening to noise and static and trying to pick out
the correct signals. The system was not very easy
to use and the last one in the U.S. was taken
off the air in the 1970s.
2. Automatic Direction Finder (ADF)

The ADF system has been in use since the 1930s
and even though it is not as accurate or easy to
use as the more common VOR system, it is still
widely used because it is inexpensive. Many smaller
\
/
/
/ /
/
CONE OF
SILENCE
CLEAR "A"
SIGNAL
BISIGNAL
ZONE
ON COURSE
SIGNAL
/ /
\ \
/
z /
z
/
CLEAR "N" SIGNAL
/
/
/
/
.\
Figure 3-33. The first radio navigation system was the 4

course radio range which operated in the LF
band.
123

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airports that have no other radio aids to navigation

will have a transmitter that can be used with ADF
equipment. The term automatic direction finder applies to the aircraft equipment and the term nondirectional beacon (NDB) refers to the associated
ground based equipment. For our purposes, we
can use ADF and NDB to mean the same thing
since the overall system requires both airborne and
ground based equipment to operate. The ADF
receiver can receive signals transmitted in the range
of 190 to 1,800 kHz. The signals are in both the
LF and MF bands. The ADF equipment on the
aircraft can receive two different types of transmitted
signals. The range 190-500 kHz is used by NDB
transmitters that are specifically designed for
aircraft use. The range of 550-1,800 kHz is the
band used by commercial AM broadcast stations.
The broadcast stations can be used for navigation,
but are not as good as the NDBs because the pilot
does not always know exactly where the transmitter
site is located. The NDB locations are shown on
aeronautical charts so the location of the transmit
antenna can be determined more accurately. The
signals transmitted from the ground sites are omnidirectional. The ADF equipment determines station direction through the use of a directional
antenna. The directional antenna is called a loop
antenna. The older versions were actually shaped
like a loop as shown in figure 3-34. The strength
of the output signal from the antenna depends on
the angle between the plane of the loop and the
direction of travel of the EM wave. When the EM
wave is at right angles to the plane of the loop,
the signal is minimum or a null. When the EM

wave and the loop antenna are parallel, the signal
strength is at a maximum. As the loop antenna
is rotated, there will be a rise and fall in the signal
strength received. If the loop is rotated 360, there
will be two peaks and two nulls in the signal strength
as shown in figure 3-35. The null is used to determine station direction rather than the peak because
there is a greater change in the signal strength
when the null is reached than when a peak is
reached. With a loop antenna alone there would
be two nulls for each 360, which means the station
could be in one of two directions. This ambiguity
problem is removed by using a second antenna
called the sense antenna. Figure 3-36 shows how
the signals from both antennas are combined to
determine the direction of the transmit station.
Older loop antennas were rotated by electric motors.
The newer types of loop antenna do not rotate themselves, they use an electronic system to cause rotation of the signal. In either type, the principle of
operation is the same. The simple type of cockpit
indicator used with an ADF is called a radio compass
indicator or ADF indicator. This type of simple ADF
indicator can be seen in figure 3-37. It has a compass
rose with degree markings and a pointer which
points in the direction of the transmitter site. When
the pointer is straight up, it shows that the station
is directly in front of the aircraft. If the pilot keeps
the pointer at the top of the instrument, it will
guide him to the location of the transmitter. On
newer types of ADF equipment, the cockpit indicator
is called a radio magnetic indicator (RMI).
PLANE OF LOOP PARALLEL TO

DIRECTION OF WAVE TRAVEL
PLANE OF LOOP PERPENDICULAR

TO DIRECTION OF WAVE TRAVEL
r1
MINIMUM
POSITION
MAXIMUM
Figure 3-34. Example of the directional characteristics of a loop antenna.
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The appearance of this RMI is illustrated in figure

3-38. The RMI has two pointers that can be operated
by two ADF signals, two VOR signals, or one of
each. It also includes a compass card which is
slaved to a remote DG and flux gate compass as

described in chapter 1. The primary use of ADF
is for approaches to airports that don't have any
better radio aids to navigation available.
3. Very High Frequency

Omnirange (VOR)
90
180
270

*I
360
I
Figure 3-35. If a loop antenna is rotated 360, two peaks

and two nulls will occur.
The VOR system is the standard IFR radio navigation

system for cross-country flying in the U.S. and most
of the rest of the world. The VOR system was
developed to overcome some of the problems with
the old four course radio range. The major advantages of VOR over the older system are:
An infinite number of radials or courses are
available, not just four.
Since it operates in the VHF band, the VOR
is much less affected by thunderstorms and
atmospheric conditions.
The VOR is much more accurate.
The VOR is much easier to use, the pilot follows
an indicator needle instead of listening to
Morse code signals for navigation.
The first VOR was installed in Indianapolis in
1939 and by the 1950s, coverage was almost complete over the entire U.S. Since the reception range
of VOR is limited by the same line-of-sight considerations that apply to VHF comm, about 1,500
VOR ground sites are required for nationwide
coverage. The range of frequencies used by VORs
is 108-118 MHz. The ground sites transmit two
kinds of signals, a reference signal and a rotating
signal. The reference signal uses FM and the rotating
signal uses AM. The two signals are aligned so
that they will be in phase when the receiver is
straight north of the ground site. The phase angle
FIELD PATTERN OF THE LOOP ANTENNA
FIELD PATTERN OF THE SENSE ANTENNA
I,
Jr4
.1111
COMBINED FIELD PATTERN OF THE LOOP

AND SENSE ANTENNA
(C)
Figure 3-36. When the signals from the loop and sense
antennas are combined, the ambiguity
problem is eliminated.
Figure 3-37. An ADF radio receiver and its indicator instrument.
125
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for east is 90 and for south it is 180. No matter

where the aircraft is in relation to the ground site,
the direction can be determined by measuring the
phase angle between the two signals. The cockpit
indicator for VOR is shown in figure 3-39. This
indicator has three different parts: the course deviation indicator (CDI), the omni bearing selector (OBS)
and the TO-FROM indicator.
OBS The omni bearing selector is a knob
that the pilot rotates to select the desired radial
from the station.
CDI The course deviation indicator is the vertical needle or pointer. When it moves to the
left of center, the pilot must turn left to get
back on the desired radial set with the OBS.
3. TO-FROM Indicator The to-from indicator
is a small window where one of three words
is displayed: TO, FROM or OFF. The word
TO means that the pilot is flying toward the
station. The word FROM means the pilot is
flying away from it and the word OFF means
that usable signals are not being received or
the indication is changing between the TO and

FROM conditions.
The procedure for tuning in a station with the
VOR is similar to that used for tuning an ADF.
The pilot locates the station on an aeronautical chart
or other reference and determines the frequency.
The pilot then tunes in the desired frequency
and listens for the Morse code identifier. Both VORs
and ADFs transmit a two or three letter identifier
in Morse code. When the station has been identified,
the pilot is ready to use it for navigation by means
of the appropriate cockpit indicator instrument.
The latest types of VOR indicators use light bars
instead of a needle for the CDI. A VOR indicator
that uses light bars can be seen in figure 3-29
on the left side. On aircraft equipped with an HSI
or EHSI, the VOR steering commands are displayed
on the HSI instead of the more simple VOR indicator.
The aircraft VOR equipment must be tested for
accuracy if it is used for IFR (this is covered in
the FAR section later on).
LUBBER
OFF-WARNING

LINE
FLAG
SINGLE BAR POINTER

(YELLOW)
DOUBLE BAR POINTER
(GREEN)
COMPASS CARD
MODE SELECT
SWITCHES
Figure 3-38. The RMI can display either ADF or VOR radio navigational information. (Courtesy Canadair Group,
Bombardier Inc.)
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Distance Measuring
Equipment (DME)
The military services have their own radio navigation
system which operates on principles similar to those
of VOR. The system is known as TACAN (Tactical
Air Navigation) and it uses signals in the UHF band.
An additional feature of TACAN that is not a part
of the VOR system is the use of distance measuring
equipment as an integral part of TACAN. The DME
portion of TACAN is used by civilian aircraft to augment the information available from the VOR. The
VOR and TACAN transmitters are usually located
at the same ground sites and referred to as
VORTACs. The frequencies utilized by DME are in
the range of 960-1,215 MHz. The basic operation
of DME is illustrated in figure 3-40. The airplane
DME transmitter sends out a pulse signal in all
directions. This is referred to as the interrogation.
When a DME ground station receives a valid interrogation from an aircraft, it sends back a reply
after a fixed delay of 50 microseconds. The aircraft
DME equipment measures the travel time for the
signals to be sent and received back, and calculates
the distance in nautical miles. The distance information is displayed on an indicator in the cockpit
for the pilots. The distance measurement given by
DME is a slant range distance so some error will
result from the altitude of the aircraft. The amount
of difference between slant range distance and
horizontal or map distance is normally small and
the error can be ignored. If the aircraft is at a high
altitude and almost directly over the DME ground
site, the error will be at its greatest. For example,
if the aircraft is directly over the DME site and
18,000 ft. above it, the DME will indicate 3 nm
(1 nm = 6,080 ft.). With the use of microprocessors,
a modern DME can give other indications in addition
to distance. If the DME distance is known, then
groundspeed and time to station can be found
through mathematical calculations. The pilot can
select which readout is needed; distance in nautical
miles, groundspeed in knots or time-to-station in
minutes. Due to the fact that most DME ground
sites are located in the same place as a VOR, the
two radios are tuned at the same time. When the
pilot selects the proper frequency for the VOR that
is being used, the DME equipment is tuned automatically to the proper DME channel.
requires that the aircraft be flown directly from one

VOR site to the next. Since the VOR sites seldom
line up directly along the desired flight path, the
aircraft ends up flying a zigzag course to get from
one place to another over long distances. The use
of RNAV equipment permits the aircraft to fly directly
to the destination without having to fly straight to
and from each of the VOR sites. This more direct
routing is illustrated in figure 3-41. The RNAV computer processes signals from VOR and DME transmitters and displays steering information to the pilot
to guide the aircraft along a direct route of flight.
RNAV Area Navigation

The RNAV equipment in aircraft contains a computer
that processes the signals received from VOR and
DME ground sites. The main advantage of RNAV is
that it permits random direct routes of flight. The
use of conventional VOR navigation along airways
Figure 3-39. The VOR indicator contains the CDI needle,

the TO-FROM indicator and the OBS knob
to select the desired radial.
127
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Before takeoff the pilot will program the computer

with the desired waypoints that establish the desired
route of flight. A waypoint is established as a direction
and distance from a VOR and DME site. For example,
the waypoint OMN 240/25 would indicate a point
that is 25 nautical miles southwest of the OMN transmitter site. The pilot programs the RNAV computer
by designating a number of waypoints along the
desired flight path. During flight, the RNAV computer
performs the calculations needed to display guidance
commands using a CDI or HSI that will guide the
aircraft from one waypoint to the next. Even though
the RNAV equipment is designed to permit direct
routes, the aircraft must be able to receive usable
signals from VORTAC sites. Waypoints cannot be used
if they would take the aircraft beyond the line-of-sight
reception range. A limitation on the use of RNAV
for IFR flight is the ATC system. In congested areas
with a lot of air traffic, the direct routes of flight
may not be approved by air traffic controllers.
6. Transponders
The transponder equipment found on aircraft is
designed to make it easier for air traffic controllers
to identify specific aircraft so that they can prevent
mid-air collisions and provide guidance to the
aircraft. The transponder is a device which is related
to radar, so we will begin with a short history
of the use of radar to identify aircraft. The use
of radar to locate aircraft in flight dates back to
the 1930s. The principle used is called primary
radar or echo location radar. The radar transmitter
sends out a brief pulse of EM waves which travel
outward at the speed of light and bounce off the
metal parts of an airplane. The reflected energy
or echo is received back at the radar site where
it produces a spot of light on the radar scope.
The problem with this primary radar is that all
the blips on the radar scope look the same. During
World War II, a system was developed to make
it easier to distinguish the friendly aircraft from
DISTANCE READOUT
DME ANTENNAS
DME
1 2 3!51
,,..n
NAUTICAL MILES /
Indicator
Control Panel
PULSE PAIR GROUPSRandomly Spaced

//
fi
STATION delays signal 50 microseconds then
retransmits 63MHz ABOVE or BELOW received frequency.
DME
GROUND
FACILITY
Figure 3-40. The operation of the DME radio system using pulse signals.
128
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the enemy aircraft. The system was known as IFF

(identification friend or foe) and it is still called
that by the military. This type of radar is also
called secondary radar. A small radar frequency
receiver and transmitter unit is installed in each
airplane. When the radar pulse from the ground
site strikes the aircraft, the IFF equipment sends
a coded signal back to the ground site. The basic
operation of the primary and secondary radar systems is shown in figure 3-42. The coded signal
received at the radar site from the aircraft permits
it to be identified. In the years since World War
II, both primary and secondary radar have been
adapted for ATC purposes. Transponder is the
name of the secondary radar equipment installed
on aircraft.
WITHOUT AREA NAVIGATION

VOR DME
CRL
ACTUAL FLIGHT PLANik
VOR DME
SLT
VOR/DME
JFK
c41
EWR
DESIRED FLIGHT PLAN
USING AREA NAVIGATION

VOR DME
CRL
0
VOR DME
PMM
VOR DME
St T
0
VOR DME
OBK
DAD
VOR DME
JFK
WAYPOINTS
EWA
Figure 3-41. The use of RNAV equipment permits direct flights using way points.
129
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PSRPrimary Surveillance Radar

SSRSecondary Surveillance Radar (ATC)
cr===.- '
ATCAir Traffic Control

\\\
A A \\
N
A
ATC
\\
1/
ICIIIIPSR Reflection
\
\-
\\
A\
\\A
\\\
\\
\\
SSR Interrogation
PSR
ATC RADAR
ANTENNAS
TYPICAL ATC REPLY
NO ATC REPLY
ATC RADAR TRANSMITTER
RECEIVER
Ground Surveillance
Radar Scope
Figure 3-42. Both primary and secondary radar are used for Air Traffic Control purposes.
The aircraft transponder system uses only two

different frequencies, one to transmit and one to
receive. The transponder receives on 1030 MHz and
transmits on 1090 MHz (it is a UHF system). The
ground radar site sends out a coded interrogation
pulse which in effect asks the airborne equipment
to answer or reply. When the transponder receives
a valid interrogation, it sends back the proper reply
signal. The coding used in the transponder signals
is digital or binary. Each interrogation and reply
signal consists of a number of pulses in a pulse
train as illustrated in figure 3-43. For each location
in the pulse train, a pulse can either be present
or absent. The cockpit controls for the transponder
permit the pilot to set one of 4096 different numerical codes. The numbers set into the transponder
represent an octal coding so there are no 8s or
9s in the code setting window. The possible code
settings range from 0000 to 7777. The computer
in the ground radar site can identify the aircraft
by the code its transponder is sending out.
Some transponder codes are reserved for special

purposes; 0000 is used by the military, 1200 is for
VFR aircraft and 7500,7600 and 7700 are reserved
for specific types of aircraft emergency situations.
There are several different operating modes associated with transponder equipment. They are:
Mode 3/A This is the basic transponder mode
that can utilize one of 4096 different codes.
Mode C This mode includes the above capabilities but adds a coded message giving
Reply Altitude or Code

2 to 14 PULSES 1090MHz
-Lit:--
20.3 microseconds
IDENTIFICATION PULSE
Figure 3-43. The reply from an aircraft transponder uses
binary coded pulses of very short duration.
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the aircraft's pressure altitude using an altitude encoder.

3. Mode S This is the latest development in
transponders and is not yet fully operational,
it will have the capability of sending additional
messages such as ATC instructions or weather
reports that can be viewed on a CRT or printed
on paper in the cockpit. Mode S also increases
the number of different identification codes
for the aircraft to over one million.
7. FARs for VOR and Transponder

The FAA regulations which apply to testing and
operation of VOR and transponder equipment are
summarized here.
FAR 91.171
VOR Equipment Check for IFR Operations
(a) No person may operate a civil aircraft under
IFR using the VOR system of radio navigation
unless the VOR equipment of that aircraft:
1 Is maintained, checked and inspected
under an approved procedure; or
2. Has been operationally checked within the
preceding 30 days and was found to be within
the limits for bearing error set forth below.
All aircraft transponders must meet the

appropriate requirements of TSO-C74b,
TSO-C74c or TSO-C112.
After July 1, 1991, all initial installations
of ATC transponders in aircraft must meet
the requirements of TSO-C112 (Mode S).
Note: Due to development delays this requirement
has been dropped.
(b) Airspace requirements all aircraft operating
in the following airspace must have a 4096
code transponder with Mode C altitude reporting or a Mode S transponder.
Terminal Control Areas TCAs
Airport Radar Service Areas ARSAs
3. In all controlled airspace above 10,000 ft.
MSL and over 2,500 AGL.
FAR 91.413
ATC Transponder Tests and Inspections
No person may use an ATC transponder that
is required by the rules of this Chapter unless
it has been tested and inspected within the
preceding 24 calendar months and meets the
requirement of Part 43 Appendix F.
An approved FAA or Repair station ground

test signal
Following any installation or maintenance

which could have introduced errors, the integrated system must be tested in accordance
with paragraph (c) of Appendix E, Part 43.
Designated VOR checkpoint on the airport

surface 4.
(c) The above tests and inspections must be conducted by:
(b) The check must use one of the following:
3. Designated airborne checkpoint 6.

An airborne check using a VOR radial and
prominent ground point that can be seen
from the air as established by the person
doing the check 6.
If two separate VOR receivers are installed,
they can be checked against each other
4.
(c) Maintenance record entry
Each person performing one of the above
checks shall enter the date, place and bearing error in the aircraft log or other record
and sign it.
If a test signal from a repair station is used,
the repair station certificate holder must
enter the bearing transmitted and date in
the aircraft log or other record.
FAR 91.215
ATC Transponder and Altitude Reporting
Equipment and Use
(a) TSO requirements
An appropriately rated repair station; or

A holder of a continuous airworthiness
program as provided in Part 121, 127,
or 135; or
3. The manufacturer of the aircraft, if the transponder was installed by that manufacturer.
H. Long Range Navigation Systems

The navigation systems in this section all have
usable ranges that exceed those of the VOR, ADF
and other systems already covered. Some of these
long range navigation systems do not rely on ground
based transmitters and some do not use radio signals at all. All of them have been developed since
the 1960s so they are relatively more modern than
most of the systems previously described. The long
range navigation systems use geographical coordinates to establish aircraft position and waypoints
along a desired flight path. As shown in figure 3-44,
geographical coordinates are based on the grid system of lines of latitude and longitude. Longitude
131

(970) 726-5111
is expressed either east or west of the prime meridian

that runs through Greenwich, England. The maximum longitude is 180 which is the International
Date Line exactly half way around the earth from
the prime meridian. Latitude is measured north
and south of the equator with a maximum value
of 90 at the poles. Since 1 is equal to approximately
60 nm, for accurate positions each degree is divided
into 60 minutes and each minute into 60 seconds.
An example of a lat/ long position is 29, 10 minutes,
51 seconds North latitude by 81, 3 minutes, 22
seconds West longitude. This coordinate position
locates the airport at Daytona Beach, Florida.
1. Loran C
The first Loran system was developed in the 1940s
by the U.S. Navy for use by ships. Modifications were
made to produce Loran A, B, C and D. Loran C
is the only one that has any large scale use by aircraft.
All the early transmitter sites were located along
coastlines since it was a system for ships. Starting
about 30 years ago, pilots of privately owned airplanes
began modifying Loran C units from boats and ships
for aircraft use. The system has been improved and
newer equipment is now available that make Loran
C a very useful radio navigation system. Within the
last several years new ground sites have been installed
Figure 3-44. Long range navigation systems define aircraft position in terms of latitude and longitude.
132
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in the western U.S. to give nationwide coverage. The

primary aircraft users of Loran C continue to be
general aviation aircraft.
The Loran C system uses ground transmitter sites
that all transmit on the same frequency-100 kHz.
The EM waves produced are ground waves. The
operation of this system involves transmitter chains
in which each chain consists of one master station
and two or more slave stations. For purposes of
explanation, we will consider a chain with two slave
stations like that shown in figure 3-45. Each transmitter uses a tower about 1,000 ft. tall and has
an output power of approximately 4,000,000 watts.
The transmissions are sequenced so that the
master transmits first and then the slaves transmit.
The location of the master and slaves are hundreds
of miles apart. The signals received by the aircraft

will have a time separation that is determined by
the aircraft location relative to the transmitter sites.
A computer in the Loran C receiver performs the
calculations that determine location. The location
determination has an accuracy on the order of 4001,000 ft. in most cases. The Loran C equipment
in the aircraft does not have to be tuned since
all signals are received on 100 kHz. Each chain
can be identified by the time delay between transmission pulses and the information is stored in
the computer memory of the aircraft receiver. The
reception range is 1,000 miles or more. An advantage of this system is that signals can be received
at any altitude, even with the aircraft on the ground.
The use of microprocessors has made the modern
Loran C unit a very powerful and versatile navigation
SLAV E
X
X-2000
Is -3000
01111111111F,
COMMON
MASTER
X -Z
ti
o00
SLAVE "Y"
Both slaves have a common master
Figure 3-45. A Loran C chain consists of one master station and two or more slave stations.
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system. A Loran C receiver contains a large amount

of memory which stores the location of every airport
and VOR in the U.S. The memory often includes
extra information for each airport such as radio
frequencies available, runway direction and length,
fuel available etc. The memory can also store pilot
designated waypoints to enable direct routes to be
flown. The output of the Loran C includes a CDI
type indicator which can be used to guide the aircraft
along the desired route of flight. A Loran C receiver
and its digital lighted display can be seen at the
bottom of the radio stack in figure 3-29.
2. Omega
The Omega radio navigation system was developed
by the U.S. Navy for use by ships and aircraft.
There are only eight Omega transmitter sites scattered around the earth, but they provide worldwide
coverage. The maximum usable reception range is
approximately 10,000 miles. The signals are transmitted in the VLF band by powerful ground based
transmitters. Each ground station transmits on
several different frequencies between 10 and 14 kHz
in a repeating pattern. The transmissions from the
eight stations are sequenced so that two different
stations don't transmit on the same frequency at
the same time. The accurate timing required for
this is maintained by atomic clocks. When an aircraft
Omega receiver is turned on, it automatically selects
the strongest signals for navigational use. The
processing of signals is performed by computers
and the display of position and guidance information
is similar to that used with Loran C. The U.S. Navy

also operates a VLF communications system that
utilizes seven sites around the world. Many aircraft
navigation receivers can pick up both Omega and
VLF comm signals. The Omega signals are more
accurate for navigation and are used as the primary
source, the VLF communications station signals are
used as a back-up or secondary means of navigation.
The locations for the eight Omega stations and the
seven VLF stations are shown in figure 3-46.
3. Inertial Navigation System INS
The inertial navigation system or INS is a long range
NAV system that does not rely on the reception
of radio waves. The system is totally self-contained
within the aircraft. The key to the operation of
INS is the very accurate measurement of acceleration forces. The accelerometer sensors measure acceleration in directions parallel to the earth's
surface. The INS unit can calculate direction and
velocity of the aircraft by measuring acceleration
forces, but it cannot determine where the aircraft
is when the unit is first turned on. For this reason,
the INS must be aligned and calibrated before
takeoff. When the INS is first turned on before
flight and before the aircraft is moved, the position
of the aircraft is entered on a keyboard so the
unit can align and calibrate itself. During flight
the INS calculates direction and velocity, which
when applied to the beginning position gives the
present position. During very long flights, the INS
will develop a cumulative error. Toward the end
VLF COMMUNICATION STATIONS
OMEGA STATIONS
Frequency
Letter No. Location
Latitude Longitude
No. Location
Latitude Longitude
(kHz)
Pwr (KW)
6625'N
1308'E
Maine
4439'N
6717'W
17.8
1026
618'N
1040'W
Japan
3458'N
13701'E
17.4
48
Haiku, Hawaii, USA
2124'N
15750'W
Washington
4812'N
12155'W
18.6
124
La Moure, North Dakota, USA
4622'N
9820'W
Hawaii
2126'N
15809'W
23.4
588
La Reunion
2058'S
5517'E
Maryland
3860'N
7627'W
21.4
588
Golfo Nuevo, Argentina
4303'S
6511'W
Australia
2149'S
11410'E
22.3
989
Australia
3829'S
14656'W
Great Britain
5222'N
0111'W
16.0
40
Tsushima, Japan
3437'N
12927'E
Aldra, Norway
Monrovia, Liberia
Each station transmits a specific frequency.

Each station transmits three basic frequencies: 10.2 kHz,
11.33 kHz, and 13.6 kHz. To prevent signal interference
between stations, transmisisons are timed such that only one
station is transmitting a particular frequency at a time.
Figure 3-46. There are eight Omega transmitter sites that provide world-wide coverage. The seven VLF stations can be
used as back-ups.
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of a long flight the error might be 20 miles. To

eliminate this cumulative error, modern INS units
can be updated using radio signals received from
ground stations where they are available. The simple
type of INS sensors are small weights which react
to acceleration forces by movement about a hinge
point as shown in figure 3-47. In order to give
accurate readings, the accelerometers must be
mounted on a gyro stabilized platform so that they
only measure horizontal forces. This stable platform
and the control panel for an INS system is shown
in figure 3-48(A) and figure 3-48(B). In effect, the
accelerometers measure north-south and east-west
accelerations in order to determine aircraft position.
The newest type of inertial navigation system does
not use conventional spinning gyroscopes and does
not need a gyro stabilized platform. A modern Inertial
Reference Unit (IRU) for an INS system contains three
accelerometers and three ring laser gyros (RLGs). The
three accelerometers measure acceleration forces
along the aircraft's three axes; vertical, lateral and
longitudinal. The RLG is a device with no moving
parts that replaces a conventional gyro with a spinning
rotor. As shown in figure 3-49, the laser gyro uses
a triangular housing and two different laser beams.
The mirrors at the corners direct the two laser beams
in opposite directions around the triangular course.
Sensitive detectors measure the Doppler frequency
shift that occurs when the unit is rotated. Three
of these RLGs are needed to measure rotation around
the three axes of the aircraft. A computer processes
the signals from the three accelerometers and the
three laser gyro sensors to determine aircraft heading,
position and groundspeed.
This modern type of IRU is referred to as a strapdown system because it does not require a gyro
stabilized platform like that shown in figure 3-48(A).
The corrections that are needed are calculated by
the computer. Like any inertial navigation system,
the strapdown INS must be given the geographical
coordinates for present position during the alignment before takeoff.
GHz. The arrangement of the radar beams is shown

in figure 3-50. Notice that two beams are projected
forward and two to the rear. When the aircraft is
in motion, the frequency of the received signals
will be shifted upward or downward compared to
the frequency that was transmitted. The change
in frequency of a wave when there is relative motion
between the source of the wave and the observer
is the Doppler effect. Figure 3-51 illustrates the
Doppler effect with sound waves where the observer
hears a change in pitch or frequency of the sound
waves as the ambulance goes by his position. The
Doppler effect is the same for both sound waves
and radio waves. That is where this system gets
its name. If the aircraft is traveling forward over
the surface of the earth and not drifting right or
left, the frequency of the two forward beams is
shifted upward equally and the frequency of the
two rearward beams is shifted downward equally.
If the aircraft is drifting, there will be a difference
in the received frequency between the right side
and left side beams. By measuring all four beams,
the groundspeed and side drift of the aircraft can
be calculated accurately. This information can be
used to make a continuous determination of position. Like INS, Doppler NAV systems must be aligned
before takeoff and will develop cumulative errors
in flight. Doppler can be updated using available
ground based radio signals as is done with INS.
Doppler navigation units were common in the past,
but have now been largely replaced by INS and
other newer long range navigation systems.
5. Satellite Navigation
The latest development in long range navigation
systems is the use of satellites in earth orbit. Two
TORQUER
TO INS
COMPUTER
>AMPLIFIER
Inertial navigation systems can be programmed with

complete routes of flight and can be coupled to the
aircraft autopilot to provide steering commands.
SIGNAL
PICKOFF
4. Doppler Navigation
The Doppler navigation system does not rely on
the reception of radio signals from ground based
transmitter sites, but it does use radio waves.
The Doppler system uses radar beams that are
projected downward and received back at the
aircraft after they have bounced off the surface
of the earth. The frequency commonly used is 8.8

ACCELERATION
FORCE
NULL
POINT
Figure 3-47. One simple type of INS accelerometer.
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AZIMUTH
SYNCHRO
INNER
ROLL
GIMBAL
AZIMUTH TORQUE
MOTOR
PITCH
Al SYNCHRO
Z PLATFORM
INS ROLL
AXIS Nr'''n
PITCH
211Pr AXIS
PITCH
GIMBAL
OUTER ROLL
SYNCHRO
INNER ROLL
TORQUE MOTOR
INNER ROLL
RESOLVER
OUTER ROLL
TORQUE MOTOR
SYNCHRONOUS
MOTOR
ROLL AXIS
ALIGNMENT
SURFACE
OUTER ROLL
GIMBAL
PITCH TORQUE
MOTOR
Z ACCELEROMETER
YAW
AXIS
Z GYRO
X-Y PLATFORM
+ PITCH
CO-ORDINATE
RESOLVER
X-Y PLATFORM
RESOLVER
- ROLL
X GYRO
Y ACCELEROMETER
Illf X ACCELEROMETER
Y GYRO
(A)
CDU
(B)
+ AZIMUTH
HSI
Figure 3-48.
The gyro stabilized platform of INS accelerometers.
The keyboard and controls for the INS system and the HSI which can be used to display INS navigational
information.
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systems began development in the 1970s, one by

the USSR and one by the U.S. The U.S. system
is called GPS (global positioning system) and the
Russian system is called GLONASS.
Both systems are still incomplete although some
satellites are in orbit now and can be used. The
two systems are very similar in terms of the frequencies and principles of operation. The GPS system was designed to include 24 satellites, 21 primary
and 3 spares. Due to delays caused by the Space
Shuttle Challenger disaster and other factors only
18 satellites were in place as of the middle of 1992.
The GLONASS system was also designed to use
a total of 24 satellites, but only about 15 were
in place by the middle of 1992. The satellites of
both systems orbit at an altitude of about 10,000
nm with a period of 11 to 12 hours. The position
and altitude of the satellites is known with great
precision. The aircraft with a satellite navigation
system communicates with the satellites using frequencies in the 1.6 GHz range. For accurate navigation, the aircraft must be able to communicate with
at least four different satellites as seen in figure
3-52. Currently the coverage in most areas is over

90%. Since the altitude of all the satellites is known,
this system can provide altitude as well as position
information. The accuracy is on the order of 80
ft. which makes the system potentially more accurate than the other systems so far described.
The GPS system was developed and is operated
by the Department of Defense. A possible limitation
on the use of GPS for IFR is the difficulty in monitoring the accuracy of the satellite signals. Satellite
navigation systems can be purchased now, but they
are primarily used for VFR navigation or as a secondary system. The use of this system as a sole source
for IFR navigation has not yet been approved. It
has been predicted that within a few years satellite
navigation may become the dominant long range
NAV system and may also be used for precision
approach guidance to airport runways.
I. Instrument Landing
System (ILS)
An instrument approach procedure is a method
used to guide an aircraft to an airport runway for
ANODE
READOUT DETECTOR
LIGHT
BEAMS
MIRROR
(1 OF 3)
-41F-CATHODE
L
GAS DISCHARGE
REGION
CORNER
PRISM
PIEZOELECTRIC
DITHER MOTOR
ANODE
Figure 3-49. A laser beam !RU (inertial reference unit) which uses laser beams to replace conventional gyros for an INS
navigation system.
137
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landing in bad weather conditions. The procedures

must be FAA-approved and are published in special
books for pilots to use. There are two basic types
of instrument approach procedures: precision approaches and non-precision approaches. The difference is that precision approaches give the pilot
vertical or descent guidance while non-precision
approaches do not. Signals from VORs and NDBs
can be used for non-precision approaches. The
standard type of precision approach system used
in the U.S. and most of the world for civilian aircraft
is the ILS. The military still uses a form of precision
approach radar, but that kind of system is no longer
operated by the FAA. Instrument approaches have
weather minimums which specify the minimum ceiling (cloud height) and visibility needed to successfully complete the approach. The weather minimums
for a Category I standard ILS are 200 ft. ceiling
and 1/2 mile visibility. The minimums for a nonprecision approach would be about twice as much.
The ground equipment needed for an ILS system

has four parts.
Localizer A radio beam for lateral guidance.
Glideslope A radio beam for vertical guidance.
Marker Beacons Radio signals that give distance to the runway data.
Runway and approach lights.
The lights will not be discussed further because
they require no equipment on board the aircraft.
The first three parts will be described in order.
The localizer layout is shown in figure 3-53 with
a view from above to show the localizer beam.
The signals transmitted by the localizer are on frequencies between 108 and 112 MHz. A dual beam
is transmitted outward from the far end of the runway.
The right half of the signal is modulated at 150 Hz
and the left half is modulated at 90 Hz. The aircraft
receiver measures the relative strength of the 90 and
Figure 3-50. The orientation of the four radio beams projected from the bottom of the aircraft by a Doppler navigation
system.
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150 Hz signals that are received. When they are equal,

the aircraft is lined up with the centerline of the
runway. The cockpit indicator is a vertical needle
just like a VOR indicator, in fact it is often the same
one. If the needle swings to the left, the pilot must
turn left to get back on course.
to 336 MHz in the UHF band. A side view of the

glideslope and runway is shown in figure 3-54.
The glideslope signal uses 90 Hz modulation above
the glidepath and 150 Hz modulation below the
glidepath. The center of the glidepath would produce
equal parts of 90 and 150 Hz signal in the receiver.
The cockpit indicator for glideslope is a horizontal
needle as shown in figure 3-55 which shows a simple
ILS indicator. A needle deflected upward means
the pilot must fly up or decrease his rate of descent.
The actual glidepath angle used in an ILS system
is about 2 1/2-3. This angle permits both large and
small aircraft to use the ILS. The glideslope and
localizer frequencies for an ILS are paired together
in set combinations. The glideslope receiver is usually slaved to the localizer receiver so that when a
localizer frequency is tuned in, the correct glideslope
frequency is automatically set in the glideslope
receiver.
The glideslope uses a principle like that of the

localizer, but it transmits on frequencies of 328
MEDIAN SPACING
IF VEHICLE WERE
STATIONARY
SOUND WAVES
EQUALLY BUT
WIDELY SPACED
SOUND WAVES
EQUALLY AND
DENSELY SPACED
The marker beacons are low powered transmitters

that transmit a cone shaped pattern straight up
into the air. When the aircraft flies directly over
the marker beacon site, an indication is given in
the cockpit to show the pilot the distance to the
approach end of the runway. This is illustrated
in figure 3-56 which gives the approximate distances
for the outer, middle and inner markers. All marker
II
NI:11)))i))111114
VEHICLE
APPROACHING
VEHICLE
DEPARTING
Figure 3-51. Example of the Doppler principle applied to

sound waves rather than radio waves.
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
/
\ /
7/in
Figure 3-52. When using satellite navigation, the aircraft usually needs to communicate with four satellites for accurate
information.
139
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beacons transmit on 75 MHz so different modulations must be used to identify the inner, middle
and outer markers. The aircraft receiver does not
need to be tuned and in fact is often turned on
automatically with the electrical system. The outer
marker is modulated with a frequency of 400 Hz
and a Morse code sequence of dashes. It also causes
a blue light to illuminate in the cockpit so it can
be identified by sound or with the blue light or
both.
The middle marker is modulated with a frequency
of 1300 Hz and a sequence of Morse code dots
and dashes.
only. If an airport has an ILS for runway 9, the

full ILS is only available for landings to the east
on runway 9 (090). The back course of the localizer
would be available for landings on runway 27 (the
opposite end of the same runway). The back course
approach is a localizer only approach which will
have higher minimums than the ILS because it does
not have the glideslope. The sensing of the indicator
needle is backwards on the back course approach.
The pilot would have to use opposite corrections
on the back course compared to the ILS.
The amber indicator light comes on over the middle marker. The inner marker is not used with
all ILS systems. It uses a modulation of 3000 Hz
and a sequence of Morse code dots. The white light
comes on over the inner marker. The three marker
beacon indicator lights can be seen on the left side
of the audio control panel in figure 3-26.
Some ILS systems place an. NDB type transmitter
at the outer or middle marker locations. These make
it easier for the pilot to navigate to the proper location to begin the approach. These are examples
of what are called transitional navigational aids.
When an NDB transmitter is associated with a
marker beacon location, it is called a compass
locator. The pilot would tune it in on his ADF receiver
and follow the indications as he would for any NDB.
The signals produced by the localizer system are
projected in opposite directions so that the localizer
is usable from either direction as shown in figure
3-57. The course that is used with the ILS is called
the front course and the other is called the back
course. The glideslope is projected in one direction
150 Hz
90 Hz
Figure 3-53. The localizer course is modulated by 150 Hz

on the right side and by 90 Hz on the left side
of the center line.
Figure 3-54. The glideslope signal is modulated by 90 Hz

above and 150 Hz below the middle of the
glidepath.
Figure 3-55. The ILS indicator has two needles: a vertical

needle for localizer and a horizontal needle
for glideslope.
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INNER MIDDLE
RUNWAY
.3
NM

.6
NM
OUTER
5
NM
Figure 3-56. The marker beacon transmitters send signals upward which provide indications in
the cockpit of distance to the runway.
RUNWAY
::::: . : . : : '

BACK
COURSE
FRONT
COURSE
Figure 3-57. The localizer transmits signals that provide

guidance on both the front course and the
back course. Only the front course is used
for an ILS.
J. Microwave Landing
System (MLS)
The microwave landing system is a recently
developed precision approach system that is in
limited use at this time with about eight systems
in service in the U.S. The MLS was designed to
overcome some of the problems with ILS. A major
problem with ILS is that not enough frequencies
are available to install the system in all the places
it might be needed. ILS is affected by some bending
of the beams by obstructions and can only have
one glidepath angle that all aircraft must use. The
MLS transmitters operate at frequencies between
5.0 and 5.1 GHz. Many new frequencies are available
in this range and the signals do not suffer the
same kind of interference or bending that affects
ILS signals. The principle of operation of the MLS
is called a time referenced scanning beam system.
Two beams are used: one that scans side to side

and one that scans up and down. The aircraft
receiver measures the time difference between
reception of the TO and FRO scans for the two
beams in order to determine lateral and vertical
position. The scanning beams used by the MLS
are illustrated in figure 3-58. The cockpit display
works in a way similar to the one used with ILS.
Because of delays in development, only a few MLS
approach systems are in use. One of the first was
installed at a small airport in Colorado that is served
by a commuter airline. The airline operates STOL
(short takeoff and landing) aircraft and the glideslope that is used is steeper than normal. This allows
a steep approach which gives greater terrain
clearance in mountainous areas. The glidepath
angle for MLS is determined by the processing of
the signals by the aircraft equipment. It is not determined by the installation of the ground antennas.
This means that with MLS a different glidepath
angle could be used by aircraft with different flight
characteristics. It will probably be many years before
MLS has replaced ILS to any great extent, in fact,
the FAA just recently ordered new ILS equipment
for installation at a number of U.S. airports. The
use of MLS requires different receivers and antennas
than ILS, but both types of equipment may be found
on some aircraft.
K. Radar Altimeter
The radio altimeter or radar altimeter is a system
which measures the aircraft's height above ground
level (AGL) with an accuracy of about 5 ft. A conventional altimeter is not that accurate and it
measures MSL not AGL altitude. The usable range
for a radar altimeter extends up to 2,500 ft., but
it is mainly used during instrument approaches in
bad weather. The basic Category I ILS minimums
are 200 ft. ceiling and 1/2 mile visibility. There are
other categories of ILS with lower minimums. A
Figure 3-58. The MLS system has two scanning beams. The lateral beam that scans side to side is shown here.
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Category II ILS has minimums of 100 ft. ceiling and

1/4 mile visibility. The minimums for Category III are
even lower. When the aircraft is flying below 200
ft. in bad weather, a better method of measuring
altitude than a barometric altimeter is needed for
safety. This is the main use for a radar altimeter,
as a precise way to measure AGL altitude during
IFR approaches. The radar altimeter uses antennas
that are installed on the belly of the aircraft. The
transmitter sends out radio waves at 4.3 GHz which
strike the earth and bounce back to the receive antenna. By measuring the travel time for the radio
waves, an accurate calculation can be made of AGL
altitude. The basic parts of a radio altimeter or radar
altimeter system and one type of cockpit indicator
are shown in figure 3-59. Another type of cockpit
indicator for a radar altimeter that uses a round
display is shown in figure 3-60. This instrument has
a bug that can be set at 200 ft. or some other altitude
to give a warning to the pilot during an instrument

approach.
L. Ground Proximity Warning

System (GPWS)
The ground proximity warning system is designed
to provide warnings to the flight crew when the
aircraft is in danger of striking the ground due
to excessive descent rate or rising terrain. This
equipment is required on all air carrier jets and
it is found on some bizjets and other aircraft as
well. The main component in a GPWS system is
a computer which monitors numerous inputs and
makes calculations to determine if the aircraft is
in danger of hitting the ground. Some of the inputs
to the computer are barometric altitude, radar altitude, rate of climb or descent, flap position and
landing gear position. The GPWS is one of the few
Low Range Radio Altimeter Receiver/Transmitter

1.1nnnn
BEAT FREQUENCY
MODULATOR
COUNTER
TRANSMITTER
RECEIVER/MIXER
Indicator
Figure 3-59. The aircraft radar altimeter system is also called a radio altimeter.
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systems on a civil aircraft that gives a spoken voice

command to the flight crew. When it is determined
that a warning must be given, a recorded voice
on tape is activated which tells the flight crew to
"PULL UP, PULL UP" or a similar type of message.
M. Weather Radar
A radar weather unit is another piece of equipment
which is required for all air carrier jets and is common on many other types of aircraft. Aircraft weather
radar is a pulse radar that typically operates at
9.375 GHz. The radar antenna is installed on the
front of the aircraft where it sends out brief pulses
of radar frequency EM waves in order to locate
and avoid thunderstorms. There must be something
present in a thunderstorm which will reflect the
radar pulse. Clouds are invisible to radar, but ice,
hail and especially rain will reflect the energy back
to the aircraft radar antenna. The strength of the
return is affected by the size of the raindrops and
the rainfall intensity. Color radars use different colors for different intensity levels. Green, yellow and
red are often used with red indicating the highest
intensity of rainfall.
Radar signals can also be reflected from the
ground and the radar system can be used to locate
surface features on the earth below. This mapping
feature is especially effective when used to pick
up well defined coastlines.
Weather radar is called a pulse radar system
because it transmits very brief pulses of energy.
This is necessary in order to use the same antenna

for transmit and receive and to produce a usable
maximum range. The transmitter sends out a pulse
that has a duration of about one microsecond. Then
the antenna is switched to the receiver for a period
of about 2,500 microseconds. The receiver must
be connected long enough for the pulse to travel
out to the maximum range and back again. The
use of pulse radar also makes the system more
efficient since the transmit energy is concentrated
in brief pulses which permits much higher values
of peak power than would otherwise be possible.
The major components and their location for a
weather radar system on a business jet airplane
are shown in figure 3-61.
The major components of a weather radar system
and their functions will now be listed:
Antenna The antenna is a parabolic reflector
or a newer and more efficient flat plate antenna. It does not rotate 360 like ATC radar,
but scans side to side through an arc of approximately 120.
Radar screen or display This shows the returns picked up on the radar, usually in 3
or 4 different colors.
Cavity magnetron This is a special device
used to produce the radar frequency EM waves
for the radar system (figure 3-62).
Synchronizer The antenna and the screen
must be synchronized in order to show the
correct location of the returns.
Duplexer This unit rapidly switches the antenna between the transmitter and receiver.
Stabilization System The antenna unit
needs to be gyro stabilized so that pitch and
roll attitudes of the aircraft will not cause incorrect display presentations.
7. Waveguide because of the power and frequency of the EM waves, coaxial cables cannot
be used to connect the antenna with the R /T
unit. A hollow tube called waveguide is used
for this purpose (figure 3-63).
The weather radar has a maximum range from
200-300 miles on a typical installation. The controls
allow the pilot to select different ranges and different
settings so that the best indications of thunderstorms can be produced depending on the conditions encountered.
Figure 3-60. Some radar altimeters use a round indicator

instrument.
A tilt control is included so that the antenna

can be tiled up and down to gauge the vertical
extent of the storm cell. The radar antenna is
protected by a plastic or fiberglass radome which
must be carefully maintained to prevent adverse
effects on radar performance. The radome often
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ANTENNA
11
\Tr -I- 088E1A-
WEATHER RADAR DIGITAL INDICATOR
WEATHER RADAR RECEIVER/TRANSMITTER
Figure 3-61. The major components of a weather radar system. (Courtesy Canadair Group, Bombardier Inc.)
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has conducting strips fastened on the outside to

conduct static charges and lightning strikes away
from the radome. A typical arrangement of lightning
diverter strips is shown in figure 3-64. The radome
should only be painted with approved types of paint
which will not interfere with the radar frequency
signals that must pass through the radome.
Personal safety is very important when working
on aircraft with radar systems. Some of the components in the receiver/ transmitter unit can hold
very high voltages and should be worked on only
by personnel that are familiar with the necessary
safety precautions. The emissions from the radar
antenna can be very hazardous to human beings.
The radar should never be turned on while on the
ground unless special precautions are taken. The
manufacturers maintenance instructions usually
include some information on the MPEL. The maximum permissible exposure level gives safe distances from aircraft radar antennas. The best procedure
is to never walk in front of an aircraft when the
radar might be turned on.
N. Stormscope
The Stormscope is a weather avoidance system that
uses completely different methods to locate
thunderstorms than a radar system. The Stormscope is designed to receive the radio frequency
EM waves produced by lightning discharges. It uses
a directional antenna system similar to that used
by the ADF equipment. In fact in some cases it
is possible to connect the Stormscope to the aircraft
ELECTRONS
ADF antennas with special couplers. The direction

of the lightning is determined using the directional
antenna and the relative intensity of the discharge
is measured. The intensity is used as pseudo range
on the display. It is not actual range like that obtained from weather radar, but it does give useful
information to the pilot. The display instrument
in the cockpit is normally a small round LCD display
that shows a light dot for each lightning strike
that is detected. From the patterns on the display
the pilot can determine where the worst areas are
located and avoid them. Figure 3-65 shows the
appearance of a typical Stormscope display instrument. The purpose of all weather detection systems
is avoidance. A very strong thunderstorm cell has
the capability of tearing apart even the strongest
of aircraft.
Since the Stormscope and the weather radar react
to different aspects of thunderstorms, the best
weather avoidance system would be to have both
installed in the aircraft. Many corporate aircraft
in fact do have both systems installed.
0. TCAS Airborne Collision

Avoidance System
The full meaning of the abbreviation TCAS is traffic
alert and collision avoidance system. The prevention
RECEIVER-TRANSMITTER UNIT
WAVEGUIDE
ANODE
HEATED
CATHODE
RADAR ANTENNA
CAVITIES
Figure 3-62. A cavity magnetron produces the powerful
SHF band EM waves for a weather radar
transmitter.
Figure 3-63. Waveguide is used to carry the radar frequency energy between the R/T unit and the
antenna in a weather radar system. (Courtesy Piper Aircraft Co.)
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of collisions between aircraft is the primary responsibility of the ATC system. This TCAS system was
developed because both the FAA and the airlines
were interested in having a system which would
display collision threats to the pilots. This type
of equipment is being installed at the present time
in air carrier jets. About half of them have had
the equipment installed already. The TCAS equipment uses some of the same equipment and principles as the transponders discussed earlier. The
TCAS equipment on the aircraft includes a computer, a display screen in the cockpit and a directional antenna system. The unit sends out
interrogations in all directions around the TCAS
aircraft. Any transponder equipped aircraft within
range will send back a reply and the TCAS calculates direction, range and altitude of the other
aircraft. Of course it can only determine altitude
if the other aircraft is Mode C equipped. If the
other aircraft does not have a transponder, it will
not be detected at all. Each aircraft that has been
detected within a certain range will be displayed

as a lighted symbol on the display screen. If the
other aircraft gets closer and creates a threat, the
symbol will change color and shape. If the TCAS
equipment determines that a sufficient danger level
is present, it will display an avoidance maneuver
command to the pilots. The avoidance maneuver
will be in the vertical plane only, the present equipment is not able to suggest turns as avoidance
maneuvers. The pilot will be told on the display
to climb or descend at a certain rate to avoid the
threat aircraft. The general appearance of the cockpit indicator for a TCAS is shown in figure 3-66.
The aircraft symbols are different shapes and colors
with an altitude and climb or descent arrow next
to the symbol. The position of the TCAS equipped
aircraft is shown by the airplane symbol at the
center of the range circle. The installation of TCAS
in an aircraft normally uses a Mode S transponder
and a special type of directional antenna just for
the TCAS equipment.
Figure 3-64. Lightning diverter strips are installed on nose radomes to prevent damage due to lightning strikes and
static electricity.
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-04
Figure 3-66. Simplified example of a TCAS display. The

symbols for threat aircraft use different
shapes and colors.
Figure 3-65. The type of display normally used with a
Stormscope.
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CHAPTER IV
Aircraft Antennas and Autopilots
This chapter contains three major topic areas: recommendations for installing and inspecting avionics
equipment, additional information concerning
aircraft antennas and aircraft autopilot systems.
A. Installation and Inspection

of Avionics
There are a number of factors which make the
installation of avionics equipment more critical than
the installation of other types of equipment. Radios
and avionics are very sensitive to electromagnetic
interference which can be created by nearby wiring
and other electrically operated devices. The installation and maintenance of good bonding jumper
connections is important to ensure proper operation
of avionics units. Avionics equipment is easily
damaged by excessive heat which requires that
provisions be made for adequate air circulation.
The most common cause for failures in avionics
equipment is probably overheating. Figure 4-1
shows the avionics cooling arrangement for a small
airplane. The tubing and plenums in this type of
system must be maintained properly to ensure that
adequate cooling airflow is available to the equipment. Other types of avionics cooling systems use
electric motor driven fans, these must be maintained
in good condition to prevent overheating. A thorough
knowledge of these and other important considerations is necessary to ensure proper performance
from installed avionics equipment in aircraft. The
repair of avionics equipment is accomplished by
appropriately rated FAA repair stations, but the
installation, inspection and routine maintenance
on these units is often performed by A&P technicians. Some of the important considerations when
installing and inspecting avionics equipment will
be discussed next.
1. Cleaning of Electronic Equipment

Cleaning of electronic equipment is important in
order to remove accumulations of dust, dirt and
lint that can block cooling holes and cause overheating. Dirt and lint which collects on open terminal
strips and other electrical connections can absorb
moisture and cause short circuits. Open terminal
strips like those shown in figure 4-2 should be
cleaned regularly to prevent the accumulation of
dirt and lint that can cause these types of problems.
Electrical connections should be kept clean and

free of corrosion and oxidation which can add unwanted resistance. When a mild abrasive is needed
to remove corrosion and oxidation on terminal strips
and mating surfaces, emery cloth is recommended.
Commutators and slip rings should be cleaned
with crocus cloth or very fine sandpaper.
Older electronic equipment made extensive use
of rotary selector switches and similar devices with
many sets of contacts. Spray cans of a special cleaning solvent are available for cleaning the contacts
of these devices. Before using a spray can contact
cleaner, you should ensure that it is compatible
with any plastic or non-metallic parts of these
switches.
Routing Wires
Wiring of all types should be routed above lines
that carry fluids and clamped securely to the aircraft
structure. The wires should be routed so as to
prevent abrasive damage from control cables,
mechanical linkages and other moving parts in the
aircraft. Frequent clamps and ties should be used
to prevent excessive wire movement due to in-flight
vibration and other factors. The proper installation
of clamps to prevent excessive wire movement is
illustrated in figure 4-3. Where wires terminate at
pieces of equipment, enough slack should be left
after the last clamp to allow for shock mount motions. If wires are clamped tightly too close to the
termination point, normal aircraft motions and
vibration will put bending loads on the wire connectors and cause premature failure in the wires.
Another factor to consider when routing wiring
for electronic equipment is electromagnetic interference (EMI). Antenna leads and other wiring sensitive to EMI should be routed away from the wires
for inverters, power supplies, strobe lights, motors
and other components that are known to cause
interference. When troubleshooting a noise or interference problem in aircraft radios and sensitive
electronic equipment, it is often necessary to reroute
wires away from the source of the EMI once it
has been located.
Switches and Circuit Breakers

The radios on aircraft are usually connected to an
avionics master switch. This switch is separate from
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the normal master switch as shown in figure 4-4,

This is a useful feature which makes it easier for
the pilot to ensure that all the radios are turned
off when starting and stopping the engine. The
radios should be turned off when the engine is
started and stopped in order to prevent damage
caused by surge currents and spikes of high voltage

that can occur during engine starts and engine
shut down. When installing switches in aircraft circuits, the rating of the switch must be adequate
to handle both the type and amount of current
and voltage for the circuit. Figure 4-5 shows a typical
Figure 4-1. Avionics cooling installation for a small airplane that uses vents on the sides of the fuselage to move air
across the radios.
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aircraft toggle switch. Whether the circuit is AC

or DC makes a significant difference in the proper
selection of switches.
Figure 4-2. Open terminal strips should be kept clean

and free of corrosion. Check for metal objects that could fall across the terminals and
cause shorts.
For example, there is a common aircraft quality

switch that is rated for 10 amps at 125-250 volts
AC. The same switch is rated at 0.3 amps when
it is used in a DC circuit up to 125 volts DC.
If this switch was installed in a 10 amp DC circuit
the points would quickly burn and fail. The reason
for this difference in ratings is that the current
in an AC circuit drops to zero twice each cycle,
this greatly reduces the problem of arcing as the
points in the switch are opening. The proper rating
of a switch in terms of both current flow and AC
el
1/2-INCH MAXIMUM WITH

NORMAL HAND PRESSURE
Figure 4-3. Wires and antenna leads should be supported with proper clamps and ties.
Figure 4-4. An avionics master switch supplies electrical power to the avionics bus. It should be off when starting and
stopping the engine.
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versus DC rating is very important to ensure adequate performance and service life. The condition
of switches can be checked during an inspection
by operating the switch and checking the "feel"
during operation. Many switches have over-center
mechanisms and other devices that produce a distinct feel to the switch. When the switch is getting
worn and ready to fail, it often starts to feel sloppy
in operation.
determined. Most types can be manually opened

to interrupt current flow. Even a small general
aviation airplane may have a large number of
switches and circuit breakers as shown in figure
4-7. These should be inspected for proper operation
and for any abnormal "feel" which could indicate
an impending failure.
Circuit breakers for aircraft circuits should be

the "trip free" type. This means that the circuit
breaker cannot be overridden by holding it in the
engaged position. It will open the circuit regardless
of the position of the control toggle or push button.
Various types of circuit breakers are available as
shown in figure 4-6 and the correct selection of
circuit breaker ratings for the particular circuit
is important to prevent dangerous overloads in
the aircraft's circuits. During inspections, the
proper operation of the circuit breaker should be
Radio reception can be completely blocked or severely interfered with by improper bonding and shielding
in the aircraft. The source of the noise interference
that affects aircraft radios is both inside and outside
the aircraft. Outside interference comes from
precipitation static and thunderstorms. Inside interference can be produced by current flow in other
circuits and EMI emitters like ignition systems. The
proper installation and maintenance of bonding
jumpers is a key factor in preventing radio interference. Both braided wire bonding jumpers and
thin metal straps are used for bonding connections.
An installation of a braided bonding jumper on
a shock mount is shown in figure 4-8. All parts
of the aircraft that could create noise problems
should be bonded. Electrical equipment that is
shock mounted should have adequate bonding
jumpers to carry the ground path current without
producing excessive voltage drop.
Figure 4-5. Switches used in aircraft circuits should

have the appropriate AC or DC rating to
prevent premature failures.
4. Bonding and Shielding
When the bonding jumpers carry ground path

currents, always use more than one. If there is
only one and it breaks, the radio or other piece
of equipment will be inoperative. When attaching
bonding jumpers all dirt, grease, paint and coatings
such as anodizing should be removed to ensure
good electrical contact. A heavy bonding jumper
for installation on airframe parts is shown in figure
4-9. The general rule is that the maximum resistance
for a bonding jumper connection should be .003
ohms. The FAA in AC 65.15 does state that if a
bonding jumper is only used for static electricity
purposes and does not carry ground path currents,
0.01 ohms maximum is acceptable. Bonding
jumpers accomplish a number of different functions
on aircraft, some of these are listed below.
Supply the ground path for current flow for
shock
especially
equipment,
electrical
mounted equipment.
Reduce radio interference.
TOGGLE-TYPE
PUSH-TO-RESET PUSH-PULL-TYPE
CIRCUIT BREAKER CIRCUIT BREAKER CIRCUIT BREAKER
(A)
(C)
(B)
Figure 4-6. Circuit breakers should be the trip-free type

and inspected regularly for proper operation.
Decrease possibility of lightning damage (at

control surface hinges, for example).
Allow static charges to equalize between different parts of the airframe. This can reduce
the fire hazard caused by arcing near fuel
tank vents, etc.
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ICING EQUIPMENT
SWITCHES
LIGHTING EQUIPMENT
SWITCHES
AVIONICS POWER
SWITCHES
STARTER
SWITCHES
AUXILIARY PHONE
AND MIKE JACKS
PRIMER
SWITCH
GENERAL
CIRCUIT
BREAKERS
(TYPICAL)
EMERGENCY
ALTERNATOR
FIELD SWITCH
ALTERNATOR
OUTPUT CIRCUIT
BREAKER
(60-AMP SYSTEM)
MAIN BUS
ISOLATION
CIRCUIT
BREAKERS
AVIONICS
CIRCUIT
BREAKERS
(TYPICAL)
MAIN BUS
TIE CIRCUIT
BREAKER
EMERGENCY
AVIONICS
POWER
SWITCHES
ALTERNATOR
OUTPUT CIRCUIT
BREAKERS
(95-AMP SYSTEM)
Figure 4-7. Typical circuit breaker panel for a twin-engine airplane. (Courtesy Cessna Aircraft Co.)
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A number of factors should be kept in mind when

installing and inspecting bonding jumpers. Some
recommendations concerning bonding jumpers are:
Bonding jumpers should be as short as possible (however, allow for any necessary motion
as with a control surface).
Do not solder bonding jumpers. It makes them
brittle and they break.
Do not paint bonding jumpers. This also makes
them brittle.
Ensure good contact by removing dirt, grease,
paint and other coatings.
Use compatible hardware to prevent corrosion.
Use compatible bonding jumpers (aluminum
alloy for aluminum alloy structures and copper
or brass jumpers for parts made of steel, stainless steel, brass or bronze).
Shielding is an important part of noise suppression for aircraft radios. Shielding can be applied
at the source of the noise or at the component
or circuit that is sensitive to EMI. Shielding consists
of a metal outer cover for a wire or component.
Electromagnetic fields that could cause interference
are captured in the metal cover and sent to ground.
The ignition system of an aircraft engine can produce
serious interference and so all parts of the ignition
system need to be shielded.
On a reciprocating engine, for example, the magneto, ignition wires, spark plugs and "P" lead need
to be shielded as illustrated in figure 4-10. The
magneto and spark plugs are shielded by being
made with a metal housing or outer cover. The
ignition wires use an outer wire braid shielding.
The primary or "P" lead is the wire that connects
the magneto to the cockpit ignition switch. It should
be a shielded wire to prevent noise. If all parts
of the ignition system have been shielded and ignition noise is still present, it may be necessary
to install a filter capacitor on the magneto. This
is a condenser or capacitor of the correct size which
will help to filter out noise at the source. Other
aircraft components may require filters also, such
as certain motors and power supplies.
Under certain circumstances noise and interference can be caused by the shielding on electrical
wiring. The use of shielded wires can sometimes
result in a phenomenon known as ground-loop interference. This ground-loop problem is illustrated
in figure 4-11.
Figure 4-8. Bonding jumpers on shock mounts must

allow freedom of movement on the shock
mounts and should be inspected regularly to
detect breakage or corrosion.
Figure 4-9. Heavy duty bonding straps are often required for bonding of major airframe components.
Circuit A in figure 4-11 uses a shielded wire

with the shielding grounded at both ends. Circuit
B is a single-wire circuit with ground connections
at both ends. There is nothing to prevent the ground
path currents for circuit B from flowing along the
wire shielding of circuit A. Depending on the types
of electrical signals involved, groundloops can cause
interference between different circuits in the
aircraft. The way to prevent groundloop problems
is to leave one end of the shielding "floating" or
ungrounded. If one of the grounds for the shielding
in circuit A was disconnected, currents for circuit
B could not use the shielding as a current path.
Special precautions are recommended in AC 43.132A for the installation of inverters to prevent these
kinds of problems. The recommended procedures
to prevent inverter interference are:
Install inverters in separate areas, away from
sensitive electronic circuits.
Separate the input and output wires of the
inverter.
3. Properly bond the inverter case to the airframe.
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SHIELDED
IGNITION
HARNESS
SHIELDED
SPARK PLUG
LEAD
SHIELDED
SPARK PLUG
MAGNETO
IGNITION
SWITCH
SHIELDED
P LEAD
Figure 4-10. All parts of the ignition system should be shielded to prevent radio noise.
CIRCUIT "A" WITH SHIELDED WIRE

GROUNDED AT BOTH ENDS
CIRCUIT "B" WITH

AIRFRAME GROUNDS
Figure 4-11. Example of how "ground loop" interference

can occur.
4. Use shielded wires for inverter output wires
and ground the shielding at the inverter end
only.
A number of items of aircraft equipment can create
special interference problems, examples include inverters, motors, strobe lights, rotating beacon lights
etc. Sometimes trial and error is necessary to
eliminate noise and interference problems. The use
of shielded wires and physical separation are basic
techniques that can be used to prevent or eliminate
noise and interference between different aircraft
systems and equipment.
Figure 4-12. Static wicks are installed on the trailing

edges of the flight control surfaces to help
remove static charges in flight in order to
prevent noise in the radios.
5. Static Dischargers
A common cause of noise in aircraft radios and
related equipment is P-static interference. Precipitation or P-static noise is caused by static electricity
that builds up on an aircraft in flight. The static
electricity is produced by friction and can build
up to 80,000 volts or more under certain conditions.
Friction between the metal skin of the aircraft and
particles in the atmosphere is a common cause
of P-static. Flying through rain, snow, ice or even
dust particles can result in a static charge on the
airframe. The exhaust stream of a turbine engine
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can cause static electricity due to friction between

particles in the exhaust and the metal tailpipe.
P-static is a greater problem for high speed aircraft
because higher speeds produce more friction and
higher charges. High speed aircraft usually require
more static dischargers to reduce the static charge
on the aircraft. Static dischargers are small devices
fastened to the extremities of the aircraft that are
designed to discharge the aircraft to the atmosphere.
They are commonly installed on all classes of aircraft
that operate IFR and require all weather radio
reception. Static dischargers are fastened to the

trailing edges of the primary flight control surfaces:
ailerons, elevators and rudders. A recommended
installation of static dischargers for a small airplane
is shown in figure 4-12. High speed aircraft may
have additional static dischargers on the outboard
tips of the wing and horizontal stabilizer. The static
dischargers reduce the threshold for discharge to
the atmosphere so that the voltage on the aircraft
is reduced. The locations of the static dischargers
for a business jet are shown in figure 4-13.
STRAIGHT WICK
STABILIZER TIP WICK
Figure 4-13. The installation of static dischargers for a corporate jet airplane. (Courtesy Canadair Group, Bombardier Inc.)
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Corona is a term associated with P-static charges

on aircraft. Corona refers to the glow that is sometimes visible on the extremities of the aircraft when
static electricity is discharging to the atmosphere.
St. Elmo's Fire is an older term that means the
same thing. The installation of static dischargers
will eliminate or reduce corona by controlling the
discharges to the atmosphere.
There are three basic types of static dischargers
used on aircraft: static wicks, wire braid dischargers
and null field dischargers. The static wick is also
called a flexible static discharger and is found on
low speed aircraft. It consists of a plastic tube or
outer covering with a fabric braid inside. The inner
braid can be cotton, nylon, or some other material.
The inner braid extends beyond the plastic covering
where it is fanned out to produce the discharge
points. The FAA recommends that one inch of the
inner braid should extend beyond the outer cover.
When they become worn, they can be retrimmed
to this dimension until they become too short and
must be replaced. The inner braid of a static discharger is designed to have some built-in resistance
to control the discharge current and further reduce
noise. The wire braid static dischargers are also
called the semi-flexible type. This type is simply
a piece of wire braid made of stainless steel wires

as shown in figure 4-15. The wire braid does not
have any built-in resistance, so this kind is not
as effective as the other two kinds of static dischargers. Jet airplanes normally use the null field
discharger which is more rugged than the others
for high speed aircraft use. The null field discharger
consists of a rigid shaft made of fiberglass or composite materials with very sharp metal points at
the aft end. The metal points are sometimes made
of tungsten for longer life. Static wicks and null
field dischargers are illustrated in figure 4-14. As
shown in figure 4-14, the metal points of the null
field dischargers are at right angles to the direction
of flight. This feature helps to further reduce noise
compared to the other kinds of static dischargers.
Static dischargers should be maintained properly
to ensure that they will perform their intended function. The attachment to the aircraft must be tight
and with good electrical contact. Any corrosion or
looseness at the attachment point can create noise
in the radios. Damaged or badly worn static dischargers should be replaced with new ones of the
approved type. The noise produced by P-static affects
the frequency bands of HF and below more than
the higher frequency bands. If the pilot complains
RETAINER
BLADE
NULL FIELD TYPE

DISCHARGES
PINS
BLADE
SET SCREW
WING AND EMPENNAGE
TIP STATIC DISCHARGER
TAIL SECTION TYPICAL

INSTALLATION POINTS
TRAILING EDGE
STATIC DISCHARGER
STATIC WICK TYPE DISCHARGER
Figure 4-14. The Null Field and Static Wick types of static dischargers.
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of noise on a radio system that operates at HF

or below, the static dischargers should be inspected
to determine if the noise is P-static related.
6. Installation Methods
The installation of electronic equipment and radio
equipment follows some of the same basic practices
that are used for other equipment, but special procedures may be required to prevent interference
or other problems that especially affect these types
of aircraft systems. The specific instructions of the
manufacturer should always be followed when available. Some general recommendations from AC
43.13-1A and -2A will be described here along with
some precautions that should be observed for all
types of installations.
a. General Precautions
If a standard location and mounting rack is available
from the aircraft manufacturer, it should be used
to install items of equipment. A standard type of
shock mounted installation for electronic equipment
is shown in figure 4-16. If this is not available,
the installer will have to determine the best location
and means of mounting for the equipment. Some
of the factors that should be considered when
making this type of determination are:
Sufficient air circulation to prevent overheating. This might require a certain free air space
in some cases and the installation of a cooling
fan in other cases.
Adequate clearance from high temperatures
and flammable materials (next to a combustion
heater would not be good place to install a
radio).
Protection from damage by baggage or seat

deflection.
Sufficient clearance to prevent rubbing or
striking aircraft structures, control cables,
movable parts, etc.
Preventing interference and noise. Separate
sensitive electronic equipment from inverters,
power supplies, strobe lights, motors, etc.
If shock mounts will be used, ensure that
the equipment does not exceed the weight carrying capability of the shock mounts and install
adequate bonding jumpers or straps.
b. Static Loads
Whenever it is necessary for the installer to fabricate
a mounting for aircraft equipment, the strength
of the mounting should be verified with a load test.
An example of a fabricated mounting for aircraft
equipment is illustrated in figure 4-17. The equipment installed in aircraft must be able to withstand
the acceleration forces or "G" loads that are experienced in flight. In a steep turn, for example,
the additional "G" load is felt by the equipment
in the aircraft as well as by the wings and other
structures.
A simple example of how a static load test might
be performed will be explained here. The load factors
for the test can be obtained from AC 43.13-2A
which has a table similar to figure 4-18.
We will use the example of a radio that weighs
5 lbs. and will be installed in the baggage compartment behind the rear seats of a Normal category
airplane. The mounting that is fabricated to hold
3. Protection from water, fumes, hydraulic fluid,

etc.
RADIO
RACK
FLOORING
MACHINE
SCREW
PLATE
NUT
DOUBLER
Figure 4-15. The semi-flexible wire braid static dischargers do not have any built-in resistance.
SHOCK
MOUNT
Figure 4-16. A standard mounting rack for avionics

equipment that includes shock mounts.
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the radio would be tested by applying loads equal

to the weight of the equipment multiplied by the
appropriate load factor. The sideward test load would
be 7.5 lbs., upward load 15 lbs., forward load 45
lbs. and the downward load 33 lbs. If a location
was chosen that was in the nose section of the
aircraft and forward of all occupants, a forward test
load of 2.0 Gs or 10 lbs. would have been sufficient.
The mountings for aircraft equipment must be able
to withstand the appropriate level of acceleration
forces or load factors that might be experienced
in flight. Standard industry practices for rivets, bolts,
screws, etc. would be followed to ensure that adequate levels of strength are provided in the fasteners
and in mounting brackets and similar parts. The
FAA in AC 43.13-2A recommends the use of machine

screws and anchor nuts for the removable fasteners
to hold aircraft radios in place. Where possible, existing plate nuts should be used or new ones installed. If that is not practical, then machine screws
and self-locking nuts can be used.
When radios or other equipment are installed
in an instrument panel and the item will extend
some distance behind the instrument panel, a brace
or support should be installed to the side or back
of the equipment to minimize the load on the instrument panel itself. An example of a rear brace
for an item of equipment installed in an instrument
panel is shown in figure 4-19.
B. Antenna Installations
The antennas found in aircraft radio installations
are critical to the proper operation of the radio
system. Antennas must be carefully installed and
maintained in order to provide the efficiency that
is needed for good radio reception and transmission.
There are many factors that can affect the efficiency
of aircraft antennas. An A&P technician should be
familiar with the basic factors that affect the proper
operation of an antenna. The inspection and maintenance of aircraft antennas is part of an A&P technicians responsibility in most cases because the
antennas are fastened to the skin or other structure
of the aircraft. Some of the key concepts that affect
antenna operation will be covered in this section.
3
MACHINE SCREWS AND
SELF-LOCKING NUTS
1BULB ANGLE
2STIFFENING FLANGE OR ANGLE
AT ENDS OF PLATFORM
3REINFORCEMENT ANGLE FOR BULKHEAD
Figure 4-17. A fabricated mounting unit for avionics
equipment.
CERTIFICATION CATEGORY OF AIRCRAFT
DIRECTION OF
FORCE APPLIED
NORMAL./
ACROBATIC ROTORCRAFT
UTILITY
SIDEWARD
1.5 Gs
1.5 Gs
2.0 Gs
UPWARD
3.0 Gs
4.5 Gs
1.5 Gs
FORWARD*
9.0 Gs
9.0 Gs
4.0 Gs
DOWNWARD
6.6 Gs
9.0 Gs
4.0 Gs
*When equipment mounting is located externally to one side, or

forward of occupants, a forward load factor of 2.0 g is sufficient.
Figure 4-18. Static test load factors that could be used

for testing equipment mountings and attachments.
REAR CASE
SUPPORT
RIVETS OR MACHINE SCREWS
AND SELF-LOCKING NUTS
Figure 4-19. Example of the installation of a rear brace or
support for radio equipment installed in an
instrument panel.
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1. Standing Wave Ratio

The standing wave ratio is a measure of the efficiency
of an antenna installation. The standing wave ratio
(SWR) is also referred to as voltage standing wave
ratio (VSWR). In order to demonstrate the principle
of VSWR, we will consider what would happen if
just one sine wave was sent down a transmission
line from a radio transmitter. Figure 4-20(A) shows
this sine wave traveling from left to right. If the transmission line had an infinite length, the sine wave
signal would eventually be reduced to zero by line
resistance. In an actual installation, the transmission
line is of a limited length and terminates at the antenna. The purpose of the antenna is to transform
the sine wave signal into radio waves, but this can
never be accomplished with 100 percent efficiency.
The result of this less than perfect efficiency is that
some of the energy is reflected back toward the transmitter from the antenna end of the transmission line.
This is illustrated by figure 4-20(B) which shows some
energy being reflected back toward the transmitter
and moving from right to left. The output of the
transmitter is not just one sine wave at a time, but
a continuous series of sine waves. The reflected waves
will combine with the transmitter output waves to
produce standing waves on the transmission line as
indicated by figure 4-20(C). A calculation based on
the relationship between forward power and reflected
FORWARD POWER
RADIO
TRANSMITTER
RF OUTPUT
REFLECTED POWER
RADIO
TRANSMITTER
RF OUTPUT
RESULTANT STANDING WAVE

(C)
RADIO
TRANSMITTER
RF OUTPUT
Figure 4-20. Illustration of the principle involved in the standing wave ratio for an antenna installation.
Forward power.
Reflected power.
(C) Resultant Standing Wave.
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power gives the voltage standing wave ratio, which

is a measure of efficiency. With a perfect antenna
installation, there would be zero reflected power and
the VSWR would be 1:1 or simply 1. In an actual
aircraft antenna system, the lowest VSWR is the most
efficient. Typical values for VSWR of aircraft antennas
are in the range of 1.1 to 5.0 for the various types
of antennas. Manufacturer's catalogs usually list the
VSWR for antennas so that the relative efficiency
of different types can be compared when selecting
an antenna. The listing of VSWR in the specifications
for an aircraft antenna can be seen in figure 4-21.
The example given here was for the VSWR of a
transmit antenna, but the manufacturer's data also
lists the VSWR for receive only antennas. If the transmission line or coaxial cable that connects the antenna
is in good condition and properly suited to the installation, the VSWR is affected by the antenna itself.
However, if there is a fault in the coaxial cable the
VSWR will go up significantly, which reduces efficiency. Special types of wattmeters and VSWR meters
can be used to measure the VSWR of an aircraft
antenna installation for troubleshooting purposes.
2. Coaxial Cables and Connectors

Coaxial cables are required for the antenna connections on most aircraft radios because of the RF
frequencies that are used. A coaxial cable is shown

in figure 4-22. The proper installation and maintenance of coaxial cables is very important since large
losses can occur if a fault is present. Coaxial cables
should be rejected if they have become dented or
if kinks are found. Any distortion or crushing which
causes the cable to be oval in shape or flattened
are also cause for rejection. If abrasion or rubbing
has exposed or damaged the wire braid, the cable
should be replaced. Coaxial cable should be supported
by clamps about every 2 ft. to help prevent damage.
A good rule of thumb for coaxial cable bend radius
is to use a minimum bend radius of 10 times the
cable diameter. This will help to reduce the possibility
of kinks from sharp bends. Special types of end connectors are used with coaxial cable and they come
in a number of different styles. Some can be removed
and reused and other types are crimped or swaged
on and cannot be reused. When installing and removing coaxial cable connections, care should be used
to prevent damage to the connectors. If corrosion
is found on connectors, it is usually better to replace
them rather than try to clean them. Even small
amounts of corrosion or corrosion pits can cause
a signal loss. Figure 4-23 shows a reusable coaxial
cable connector. When installing this type, the wire
braid should be carefully spread out over the braid
clamp and breakage of the wires should be avoided.
The connector should be assembled carefully to provide tight connections with good electrical contact
and to avoid distorting the coaxial cable or the connector itself. If it is necessary to solder a connector
pin onto the center conductor, only an approved
electrical solder should be usednever use acid core
solder or acid flux on electrical connectors. An
acceptable solder is 60/40 rosin core solder. Great
care must be used in soldering to prevent excessive
heat damage to the coaxial cable insulation materials.
Some antenna cables are matched to the radio
and antenna and should not be shortened or spliced.
SHIELD (OUTER
CONDUCTOR)
SPECIFICATIONS
VSWR

IMPEDANCE
POWER
WEIGHT
CONSTRUCTION
HEIGHT
ELEMENT
2.0:1
50 ohms
40 watts
0 2 lbs.
Whip
14.0 in.
Open
Figure 4-21. Antenna manufacturers catalogs usually

list the V.S.VV.R. for each antenna. (Courtesy
of Dayton-Granger, Inc.)
OUTER
JACKET
DIELECTRIC
CENTER
CONDUCTOR
SINGLE SHIELD
Figure 4-22. The parts of a coaxial cable for antennas.

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3. Wire Antennas
This is true for some ADF antenna leads, for example.

On other installations the antenna coax should be
kept as short as possible and routed as directly as
possible to reduce line loss.
A wire antenna is a length of wire that is supported

by masts and attachments above or below the aircraft
fuselage. They are found most often on smaller aircraft
and older aircraft. Jet airplanes seldom use wire antennas because of the vibration and increased chance
of damage at high speeds. The type of wire used
is most often a copper coated steel wire that is a
solid single strand. Wire with an outer covering of
insulating material is superior to non-insulated wire
in reducing noise caused by P-static.
The specific antenna or radio manufacturers installation instructions should be followed carefully
in this area since there are many different procedures
that may apply depending on the specific installation.
A type of wire antenna that is seldom used today

is the trailing wire antenna. The trailing wire antenna
was a roll of wire on a drum in the aft fuselage
which could be extended out the back of the aircraft
in flight. It was very common in the 1930s and
1940s for HF communications radios. The advantage
was that 200 ft. or more of wire could be extended
out the back of the airplane for better radio performance. The disadvantages were the added complexity and weight of the mechanism to extend and
retract the antenna. It is not suitable for high speed
aircraft and is rarely used on modern aircraft.
L. -1 1 / 4
DO NOT BREAK STRANDS
I
DO NOT NICK CENTER CONDUCTOR
-1/8
NUT WASHER GASKET CLAMP
The wire type marker beacon antenna is shown

in figure 4-24. This type may still be found on small
airplanes. It is about 4 ft. long and fastened to standoff
and support masts on the bottom of the aircraft.
The minimum fuselage separation should be 6 inches.
TRIM STRANDS WITH SC SSORS

FLUSH WITH END OF TAPER
A long wire antenna for HF communications is

still commonly used on general aviation aircraft
that have HF equipment. Figure 4-25 shows a typical
installation with the wire running from a wing tip
to the vertical fin and then down to a feed-through
on the top of the fuselage. The long wire antenna
includes a tensioning device to maintain the proper
tension on the wire and insulators at the appropriate
points. A long wire antenna normally employs a
weak point at the aft end so it cannot wrap around
the aircraft if it breaks due to excessive tension.
L.-- 3/32
CONTACT FLUSH WITH END OF INSULATOR
Figure 4-23. Installation procedure for a reusable coaxial

cable connector.
TO RECEIVER
UNDER SURFACE OF AIRPLANE
Atir..1
SOLDER
CONNECTION
16 COPPERWELD
ANTENNA WIRE
Figure 4-24. A wire-type marker beacon antenna.
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6"
MINIMUM
The most common use of wire antennas on

modern aircraft is as an ADF sense antenna. These
will be described in the next section.
4. ADF Antennas
All aircraft ADF receivers require two antennas, the
loop antenna and the sense antenna. The loop antenna
is the directional antenna and the sense antenna
is needed to eliminate the ambiguity caused by the
two nulls in the reception pattern. Air carrier jets
have an ADF antenna that combines the loop and
sense antennas in one housing that is a low profile
or flush mount and it is installed on the top or bottom
of the fuselage. The ADF antennas on general aviation
aircraft come in a greater variety and are most often
separate loop and sense antennas.
The loop antenna that is rotated by an electric
motor is still used, but is being replaced by the type
that rotates the signal rather than the antenna itself.
A motor driven loop antenna for installation inside
a housing is shown in figure 4-26. The newer nonrotating types are usually contained in a teardrop
shaped streamlined housing that installs on the top
or bottom of the aircraft as shown in figure 4-27.
The sense antennas used with the dual antenna
installations are either the wire type or whip type.

The whip type sense antenna is a metal rod about
4 ft. long and installed on the top or bottom. It is
still found on some helicopters were there isn't enough
room for a long wire sense antenna, this is shown
in figure 4-28. The long wire sense antenna is about
15-20 ft. long and most often installed using the
vertical fin as the aft anchor point to gain more fuselage
clearance. The recommended minimum clearance
from the fuselage is 12". A top installation for a sense
wire is shown in figure 4-29. The sense wire can
be installed on the bottom as shown in figure 4-30
if adequate ground and fuselage clearance can be
obtained. Like the long wire HF antenna, the ADF
sense wire will use masts, tension units and weak
links as part of the installation.
In order to give accurate navigational information,
ADF antennas must be installed and calibrated
correctly. The loop antenna normally needs to be
installed close to the electrical center of the sense
antenna to give accurate indications of station passage. This relationship is illustrated in figure 4-31.
Both the loop and sense antennas can be installed
on the top or the bottom, but they must have the
LEADTHRU INSULATOR
25ARM300-20-30.
WIRE 14407
STRAIN INSULATOR
10ARM300-13CN
V-TENSION UNIT 5ARM300 -3
13111111111111U Nowest
Yr
5 AT RA S3I80\1 UNIT - 1
0
WING TIP BRACKET 3254
Mb
VERTICAL FIN ANCHOR KIT-3280
Figure 4-25. A long wire HF comm antenna installation. (Courtesy Dayton-Granger Inc)
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This is called the check for quadrantal error or the

calibration check. Whenever an antenna is installed
or any change is made which could affect the accuracy of the ADF, a check for quadrantal error
should be performed. The checks can be made on
the ground, but should always be confirmed with
a flight check. To perform the ground check a nearby
NDB of known location is tuned in and the bearing
is checked and adjusted at least every 45 as the
aircraft is turned on the ground. The flight check
involves locating geographical points on the ground
with known bearings from the NDB and flying the
aircraft over those locations to confirm the accuracy
of the ADF bearing information. This flight check
should be performed at low altitude to reduce errors
in established the aircraft position accurately.
correct relationship to each other for accurate readings to be obtained. Since the ADF antenna system
is highly directional, it must be calibrated to give
the correct indications of ground station direction.
5. Groundplane Considerations
When a 1/4 wave, Marconi-type antenna is installed
on an aircraft, an adequate groundplane or counterpoise is required for proper operation. The aircraft
systems that use 1/4 wave antennas are VHF communications, ATC transponder, DME and UHF
radiotelephone. When these antennas are installed
on metal skinned aircraft, the metal skin supplies
the groundplane. If the antenna is installed too close
to fiberglass areas or windshields, the groundplane
area is reduced and may result in poor performance.
A basic rule of thumb that is sometimes used is
that the groundplane should extend in all directions
outward from the base of the antenna a distance
equal to the height of the antenna. A shorter antenna
does not need as much groundplane as a longer
antenna. The groundplane cannot be too big, but
it can be too small which has an adverse effect on
signal pattern and strength. For DME and
transponders, which use similar frequencies, the
groundplane should extend 8-12" in all directions
INTERNAL LOOP
Figure 4-26. A motor-driven ADF loop antenna for internal installations.
ENCLOSED LOOP
Figure 4-27. A non-rotating, teardrop-shaped ADF loop
antenna.
VHF COMM
NO. 1
GLIDESLOPE
ADF SENSE
TRANSPONDER
VHF COMM
No. 2
MARKER
BEACON
DME
ADF LOOP
Figure 4-28. Helicopter antenna installations are difficult because of limited skin area and limited ground clearance.
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from the antenna base. For VHF communications

antennas a groundplane that extends 24" in all directions is desirable. These sizes would give a
groundplane that is a little larger than if the length
of the antenna was used as the dimension. It is
not always possible to supply a large enough
groundplane when installing antennas on aircraft with
limited metal skin area such as small helicopters,
but the groundplane area should always be considered
and provided for to the extent possible.
If it is necessary to install these types of antennas
on aircraft with non-metal skin, a groundplane must
be provided by the installer. This usually means
installing metal foil strips or wire mesh fastened
on the inside of the aircraft covering. The same
rules would apply as to desirable lengths. An example
of the use of a foil strip groundplane is seen in
figure 4-32.
When installing 1/4 wave antennas, it is recommended that all grease, dirt and paint be removed
from the skin area under the base of the antenna.
Some avionics experts recommend that a gasket not
be used so that the base of the antenna contacts
the skin of the aircraft. Whether or not a gasket
is used, the skin should be cleaned and stripped
and a sealant applied around the base of the antenna
after installation.
The installation of antennas to the skin of aircraft
requires that some additional reinforcement be given
ADF
SENSE
WIRE
ADF
TEARDROP
LOOP
VERTICAL FIN
ANCHOR KIT-3208
Figure 4-31. The ADF loop antenna should normally be

installed near the electrical center of the
sense wire antenna.
V-TENSION UNIT
5ARM300-3
WHIP
ANTENNA
Figure 4-29. Top-mounted ADF sense wire antenna.

(Courtesy Dayton-Granger Inc.)
METAL FOIL UNDER

FABRIC OR WOOD SKIN
NOTE: THE LENGTH OF EACH FOIL RADIAL
SHOULD BE AT LEAST EQUAL
TO THE ANTENNA LENGTH.
Figure 4-30. Bottom-mounted ADF sense wire antenna.

Figure 4-32. When installing Marconi antennas on an

aircraft with non-metal skin, a groundplane
must be provided.
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to preserve the strength of the aircraft structure.

The use of a doubler as shown in figure 4-33 will
reinforce the aircraft structure and provide the additional support needed for antenna drag loads.
6. Reducing Antenna Interference

A very important factor in the proper performance
of aircraft antennas is the prevention of interference
between one system and another. Interference can
also occur between a radio system antenna and other
components of the aircraft. A basic consideration is
that antennas for systems that operate on similar
frequencies must be separated by a certain minimum
distance to prevent interference. The possible interactions that can adversely affect aircraft radio systems
are many and varied. The more common problems
that can occur will be described here, but sometimes
a particular interference problem may require trial
ANTENNA
FUSELAGE SK IN
EXISTING STRINGERS
VIEW A-A
REINFORCING DOUBLER
APPROXIMATELY ONE
INCH SPACING OF
1/8" MIN. DIA. RIVET
ALCLAD 2024-13
and error to eliminate the cause of the antenna

interaction.
The important factors that affect mutual interference are frequency and wavelength, polarization
and type of modulation. The operating frequencies
for the various radio systems are listed in the frequency chart in chapter 3. The polarization of radio
waves is based on the orientation of the electric
field relative to the earth's surface. The field orientations for vertical and horizontal polarization can
be seen in figures 4-34 and 4-35. The antenna
installed on the aircraft needs to have the proper
polarization relative to the ground based antenna
for optimum performanceparticularly at frequencies above HF. Figure 4-36 gives the polarization
for the various types of aircraft radio systems.
From the information in figure 4-36, it can be
seen that all the systems use vertical polarization
except for VOR and the three parts of the ILS instrument approach system.
a. VHF Communications Antennas
Aircraft that are equipped for IFR operations commonly have 2 or 3 separate VHF comm radios which
utilize separate antennas. The VHF comm antennas
should be separated from each other by at least 5
ft. This is easily accomplished on an air carrier jet
which has a lot of fuselage skin area available, but
may be difficult on small aircraft which have much
less available skin area. Figure 4-37 shows the antenna locations for a Boeing 767 with good separation
between similar systems. The VHF comm antennas
use vertical polarization and require a suitable
groundplane. When two antennas are installed on
small aircraft, the best coverage is usually obtained
with one antenna on the top and the other on the
bottom of the fuselage. This desired top and bottom
separation is shown in figure 4-38 on a twin-engine
airplane. The ELT antenna can cause serious interference with VHF comm and should be separated
by at least 5 ft. from any VHF comm antenna. Radio
ELECTRICAL
FIELD
1 1/2"EDGE DISTANCE MIN.

Figure 4-33. A reinforcing doubler should be installed
inside the skin at the base of the antenna.
MAGNETIC
FIELD
Figure 4-34. When an EM wave has vertical polarization,
the electric field is in the vertical plane.
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interference can be caused by parts of the aircraft

as well as by other antennas. The vertical fin of an
aircraft can cause significant signal blockage to any
VHF comm antenna that is installed too close. A
top mounted VHF comm antenna that is installed
closer than 5 ft. to the vertical fin will result in blockage
and poor radio reception and transmission to the
rear of the aircraft. The VHF comm antenna is a
1/4 wave Marconi antenna which must have an adequate groundplane or counterpoise for proper operation. A common mistake is the installation of a VHF
comm too far forward on the upper fuselage. If it
is less than 24" from the top of the windshield, the
signal pattern can be distorted by the lack of
groundplane in the forward direction.
DME and Transponder Antennas
These two antennas are treated as equals because
they use similar frequencies, polarization and modulation. The antennas used for these two systems are
1/4 wave Marconi antennas with vertical polarization
and they both transmit and receive. Since the
wavelength is shorter at higher frequencies, the minimum separation distance is less than that for VHF
comm antennas. The DME and transponder antennas
should be separated from each other by at least 2
ft. and an adequate groundplane must be provided
around the base of the antenna. These antennas
are normally installed on the bottom of the aircraft
to prevent signal blockage by the fuselage. A top
mounted antenna may be used on a narrow portion
of the aircraft that will not cause significant blockage.
The top of the tail boom on a helicopter can be an
acceptable location.
VOR and Localizer
VOR antennas are most often installed on the vertical
fin of the aircraft. This gives good reception
ELECTRICAL
FIELD
MAGNETIC
FIELD
Figure 4-35. When an EM wave has horizontal polarization, the electric field is in the horizontal
plane.
characteristics from all directions on most aircraft.

On small aircraft, the VOR antenna is sometimes
mounted on the top of the fuselage. If the VOR antenna
is mounted too far forward, a propeller modulation
problem can occur. When signals are being received
from the front of the aircraft, the radio wave is chopped
by the propeller blades. At certain RPMS, this can
cause serious propeller modulation interference. The
cure for this involves changing propeller RPM or relocating the antenna. Small aircraft often use the same
antenna for both VOR and localizer reception. This
is practical because the two systems operate on similar
frequencies. When the localizer is being used for an
instrument approach, the signals are always received
from the front of the aircraft. On a large aircraft,
it is not possible to use the tail mounted VOR antenna
for localizer reception because of fuselage blockage.
These aircraft will use a separate localizer antenna
or antennas that are mounted in the nose section
inside the radome for the weather radar.
The location of the VOR and localizer antennas
usually provides sufficient separation that interference from other antennas is not a problem. If a
VHF comm or other antenna is mounted closer than
5 ft. from the VOR, it can cause some interference
depending on the type of VHF comm antenna used.
d. Glideslope Antennas
Like the localizer, the signals from the ground transmitters for the glideslope are always received from
the front of the aircraft. Some small aircraft use the
VOR antenna to receive glideslope signals as well
as localizer signals. The glideslope operates on frequencies that are the third harmonic of VOR frequencies. This means that the glideslope frequencies
are three times the frequencies for VOR. A special
antenna coupler is used so that the VOR antenna
can supply two separate VOR and localizer receivers
and also supply signals for the glideslope receiver.
RADIO
SYSTEM
RECEIVE,
TRANSMIT
OR BOTH
POLARIZATION
LORAN C
RECEIVE
VERTICAL
ADF
RECEIVE
VERTICAL
VHF COM
BOTH
VERTICAL
DME & TRANSPONDER
BOTH
VERTICAL
ELT
TRANSMIT
VERTICAL
VOR & LOCALIZER
RECEIVE
HORIZONTAL
MARKER BEACONS
RECEIVE
HORIZONTAL
GLIDESLOPE
RECEIVE
HORIZONTAL
Figure 4-36. The polarization for various types of aircraft

radio systems.
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The same fuselage blockage problems occur on large

aircraft for both localizer and glideslope reception.
The glideslope antenna or antennas for air carrier
jets are installed inside the radome on the nose of
the aircraft. Aircraft that do not have a nose radome
can utilize a separate glideslope antenna that is
mounted on the forward fuselage on either the top
or bottom. Blockage of signals by the fuselage or
other parts of the aircraft is the primary consideration
in locating localizer and glideslope antennas. Interference from other antennas is not as great a problem
with these systems as it is for some other radio systems.
e. Loran C and Omega
Loran C and Omega system antennas are receive
only antennas and they operate at frequencies that
are widely separated from those of most other
aircraft radios. The major sources of interference
for these radio systems are P-static noise and noise
from aircraft electrical systems. The Loran C and
Omega antennas can be mounted on the top or

the bottom of the aircraft. The best location for
these types of antennas is based on preventing
interference from aircraft motors, generators, power
supplies and similar systems. The proper installation and maintenance of bonding jumpers and
static dischargers is critical to ensure good performance from these lower frequency radio systems.
f. ADF Antennas
The primary consideration in locating ADF antennas
is to obtain the proper relationship between the loop
and sense antenna to ensure accurate indications
of station direction. The ADF antennas can be installed
with both loop and sense antennas on the top of
the fuselage, both on the bottom or one on the top
and one on the bottom.
The most common installation on small aircraft
is with a wire sense antenna on the top and the
loop antenna on the bottom of the aircraft. In any
VOR ANTENNA
(BOTH SIDES)
HF COMM ANTENNA
VHF-1
000000000000000
Jo
0 0000000
VHF-2
ADF
000000000000
VHF-3
ATC
1&2
DME
1&2
GLIDESLOPE
ANTENNA
RADAR
ANTENNA
RADOME
LOCALIZER
ANTENNA
Figure 4-37. Antenna installations on modern air carrier jets often include localizer and glideslope antennas inside the
radome and flush mount VOR and HF comm antennas in the vertical fin.
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case, the loop antenna must be located in the electrical center of the sense antenna for accurate readings. The ADF antenna system is a directional
antenna system and interference from parts of the
aircraft can sometimes cause bearing errors. This
is one reason that a check of quadrantal error should
always be performed when ADF antennas are installed or relocated. Proper bonding jumper and
static discharger installations are important to
prevent P-static noise in ADF receivers. ADF antennas should be located to minimize interference
from aircraft generators and alternators. Filter
capacitors can be used to reduce interference from
alternators and similar devices.
7. Types of Antennas
Many different types of antennas are used in aircraft
radio systems. Aviation technicians should be familiar
with the common types of antennas so that they
can properly identify, inspect and maintain them.
Some of the common types of aircraft antennas and
their basic characteristics will be described in this
section. Aircraft antennas usually have a speed rating
and should only be installed on aircraft that operate
at and below their rated speed.
a. VOR Antennas
There are two basic types of VOR antennas found
on aircraft: the half-wave dipole and the balanced
loop types. The half-wave dipole antenna is a "V"

shaped antenna that has a figure eight-shaped
reception pattern. This kind of antenna is shown
in figure 4-39. The antenna has two metal rods
in the shape of the letter "V" or a fiberglass covered
element made of thin sheet metal. It is installed
on the aircraft on the vertical fin or on top of
the fuselage with the open end of the "V" pointed
either forward or aft. The figure 8 reception pattern
works well for normal VOR airway flying because
the station is either in front of or behind the aircraft.
It does not work well for RNAV when the VOR
station may be off the side of the aircraft. The
dipole VOR antenna requires a special impedance
matching device called a "balun". The balun is
located at the antenna end of the coaxial cable
for more efficient transfer of energy from the antenna to the coax and receiver. A balun is illustrated
in figure 4-40. The balanced loop VOR antenna
has a circular reception pattern and is therefore
the better type of antenna for RNAV. There are
three types of balanced loop antenna: the open
loop towel bar, the blade and the internal mount.
The towel bar and blade types are shown in figure
4-41. These antennas come in two halves that are
mounted on opposite sides of the vertical fin on
airplanes. On helicopters or in special cases they
are mounted on each side of the aft fuselage or
Figure 4-39. Hertz dipole "V" type antennas for VOR reception. (Courtesy Comant Industries Inc.)
170
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tail boom. The blade-type, balanced loop VOR antenna has a higher speed rating than the towel
bar or V-type and is used on bizjets and similar
aircraft. Air carrier jets use a VOR antenna that
is mounted inside the vertical fin with non-metallic
flush covers on each side. This kind of antenna
is shown in figure 4-37.
Localizer
Small airplanes usually do not have a separate
localizer antenna, the VOR antenna is used to
receive localizer signals. On air carrier jets and
similar aircraft, the large fuselage can cause blockage of the localizer signals so a separate localizer
antenna is installed. A type of separate localizer
antenna is seen in figure 4-42. This antenna is
installed inside the radome on the nose section
of the aircraft.
harmonic of the VOR frequency. Single-engine

airplanes commonly use a signal splitter or coupler
to supply the glideslope receiver from the VOR antenna. Other general aviation airplanes often use a
V-shaped glideslope antenna like that shown in figure
4-43 to receive glideslope signals. This antenna looks
a lot like a V-shaped VOR antenna but it is only
about 1/3 the size because of the shorter wavelength
of glideslope signals. When a separate glideslope antenna is installed on the aircraft, it needs to be located
on the front of the aircraft to prevent blockage. The
loop type glideslope antenna in figure 4-44 can be
Glideslope
The signals from glideslope transmitters can be
received on a VOR antenna because they operate
at a frequency that is approximately the third
ATTACH _____Ar
TO ANTENNA DIPOLES
TWISTED SHIELD
PROTECTIVE OUTER
COVERING
X/ 4
WIRE WRAPPED AND

SOLDERED TO SHIELD
oK---AIRFRAME GROUND
CENTER CONDUCTOR OPEN

TO NAVIGATION RECEIVER
Figure 4-40. Balun for a VOR antenna.
Figure 4-41. Balanced loop antennas for VOR reception.

(Courtesy Dorne & Margolin Inc.)
171
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installed either externally or internally on the forward

part of an aircraft. The dipole glideslope antenna in
figure 4-45 is designed to be installed inside a radome
as it is not a streamlined design.
d. Marker Beacon
The older style wire-type marker beacon antenna
has been previously described under the heading
of wire antennas. All marker beacon antennas need

to be installed on the bottom of the aircraft because
the signals are received when the aircraft is directly
over the transmitter site. Another type of marker
beacon antenna found on smaller aircraft is the
sled type. This is a bent metal rod which is about
3- 1/2 to 4 ft. long and uses a sliding clip for the
lead-in connection. When the antenna is installed
on the aircraft, the clip can be loosened and moved
to tune the antenna. A newer type of marker beacon
antenna is the boat type antenna that is illustrated
in figure 4-46. This antenna is smaller and more
streamlined than the wire or sled type antennas.
Air carrier jets most often use a flush mounted
marker beacon antenna that is installed in the belly
of the airplane.
GLIDESLOPE
ANTENNA
DESCRIPTION
S65-147-2: Constructed with high-strength aluminum tubing and
extrusion, with fiberglass base housing.
Figure 4-44. A loop-type glideslope antenna for internal

or external mounting.
Figure 4-42.A localizer antenna for installation inside a

radome. (Courtesy Sensor Systems)
SPECIFICATIONS
V.S.W . R
IMPEDANCE
POWER
WEIGHT
CONSTRUCTION
HEIGHT
ELEMENT
SPECIFICATIONS
5 0.1
50 ohms
N/A
0 2 lbs.
Fiberglass
3 4 in.
Grounded
Figure 4-43. A "V"-type glideslope antenna. (Courtesy

Dayton-Granger Inc.)
3 0.1
IMPEDANCE
POWER
WEIGHT
CONSTRUCTION
HEIGHT
ELEMENT
50 ohms
N/A
0.1 lbs.
Metal
15.3 in.
Grounded
Figure 4-45. A glideslope antenna for internal installation. (Courtesy Dayton-Granger Inc.)
172
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HF Communication
The trailing wire and long wire HF antennas found
on older aircraft and slow speed aircraft have already
been covered. Older air carrier jets used a probe-type
HF antenna similar to the vertical fin mounted antenna shown in figure 4-47. This antenna includes
a special coupler/tuner that retunes the antenna
each time the frequency is changed on the HF radio.
This kind of antenna can be mounted on the vertical
fin as shown or on a wing tip. The later model
air carrier jets use a flush mounted HF comm antenna that is installed inside the vertical fin as
seen in figure 4-37. This antenna also requires
a special tuning device that is installed at the antenna connection point.
VHF Communication
The VHF comm radios on aircraft use a separate
antenna for each radio. These antennas are 1/4 wave,
monopole antennas that can be mounted on the
top or bottom of the aircraft. Lower speed aircraft
use the thin whip type antennas while higher speed
aircraft employ blade type antennas that create less
drag. The antenna may either be straight or bent,
the bent antennas having the advantages of less
drag and less height for belly mountings. A variety
of VHF comm antennas is shown in figure 4-48
of both whip and blade types. Some blade-type
VHF comm antennas have a stainless steel leading
edge to prevent damage, this feature can be seen
on the antenna in figure 4-49.
g. DME/Transponder
The same type of antenna can be used for either
DME or transponder systems on aircraft. This is
practical because they operate at similar frequencies
and have similar characteristics. These antennas
are almost always installed on the bottom of the
aircraft, but they can be located on the top of a
narrow tail boom or other location that does not
cause serious blockage. The two common types are
the spike and blade antennas as illustrated in figure
4-50. The spike is a short metal rod with a ball

on the end. This type is cheaper and easier to
install, but it is more easily damaged and creates
more vibration and drag. The blade type is the
most common type on modern aircraft. This antenna
can be distinguished from the VHF comm blade
because it is much smaller, about 2-4" long. These
antennas are all 1/4 wave monopoles with vertical
polarization so an adequate groundplane must be
provided during installation.
ELT Antennas
Figure 4-51 shows the common type of ELT antenna,
it is a thin metal rod that is located close to the
ELT itself. The antenna is a Marconi 1/4 wave antenna that requires a groundplane. It should normally be installed as close as possible to the ELT
because of the low output power of ELT transmitters.
A blade type of ELT antenna is also available for
higher speed aircraft.
Satellite Navigation
The signals from GPS and GLONASS satellites are
received from above the aircraft so the antenna needs
to be installed on the upper surfaces of the aircraft.
A typical GPS antenna is shown in figure 4-52. This
small, round antenna creates very low drag and yet
has a VSWR of 2:1 which provides good signal reception for the GPS/GLONASS navigation system.
HF NUMBER 1
COUPLER
HF NUMBER 2
COUPLER
00
Figure 4-46. A boat-type marker beacon antenna. (Courtesy Dome & Margolin Inc.)
Figure 4-47. Some jet transports have an HF probe-type

antenna installed in the vertical fin. Two
antenna coupling and tuning devices are
also installed in the fin to retune the antenna
when different frequencies are selected.
173

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1. Omega
Satellite Communications
The SATCOM antenna, like the SATNAV antenna,
must be installed on the top of the aircraft to prevent
signal blockage. A variety of different designs are
produced for this kind of antenna. The antenna
in figure 4-53 is just one of the kinds of antennas
being produced for satellite communications systems for aircraft.
Loran C
An ADF antenna can be used to receive Loran C
navigational signals by utilizing a special antenna
coupler. Specific antennas for Loran C are now
being produced and they often bear a resemblance
to VHF comm antennas as indicated in figure 4-54.
These antennas can be installed on either the top
or the bottom of the aircraft and still provide good
reception because of the frequencies involved. These
antennas often include a special anti-static coating
to reduce P-static noise in the radio.
Aircraft antennas designed to receive Omega/VLF

signals are available in two basic types: the "E"
field and "H" field types. The antenna shown in
figure 4-55 is the "E" field kind. These antennas
can be installed on either upper or lower surfaces
of the aircraft. The most important consideration
when choosing a location is to reduce noise interference from aircraft systems. A "skin noise map"
is often required which consists of measuring the
VLF noise on various parts of the aircraft to find
the best antenna location. The lowest noise is usually found on the aft underbelly of most aircraft.
m. MLS
The MLS receive antenna seen in figure 4-56 is
a low profile, vertically polarized antenna designed
to receive the MLS signals that operate on frequencies
of 5.03 to 5.09 GHz. This kind of antenna should
be located on the nose section of the aircraft for
Figure 4-48. Various VHF comm antennas. (Courtesy Comant Industries Inc.)
174
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best reception and minimum blockage. Some MLS

systems require two antennas to be installed on
the aircraft for proper signal reception.
n. TCAS
The Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance system
found on air carrier jets requires a special type
of directional antenna like that seen in figure 4-57.
This TCAS I antenna is normally located on the
top of the fuselage and has three connector ports

for connection to the aircraft's TCAS I equipment.
o. Radiotelephone
Radiotelephone antennas come in a wide variety
of shapes and sizes. These UHF antennas are normally installed on the bottom of the aircraft since
they operate in conjunction with ground based lineof-sight radio waves. A number of different kinds
of radiotelephone antennas are shown in figure 4-58.
A major consideration when installing this type of
antenna is preventing noise that can be caused
by loose joints and poorly bonded surfaces on the
aircraft.
C. Autopilots and Flight Directors
DESCRIPTION
S65-8282: This broadband fixed tuned antenna operates in the
frequency range of 116-156 MHz.
Figure 4-49. A blade-type VHF comm antenna with a

stainless steel guard on the leading edge.
(Courtesy Sensor Systems)
The FAA classifies autopilots as aircraft instruments

so A&P technicians cannot repair or alter autopilots.
There are many tasks related to autopilots that
might be performed by aircraft technicians such
as installation, inspection, troubleshooting etc. An
autopilot is an expensive and complicated device.
It often has various components located in many
different areas of the aircraft and many interconnections. The autopilot is connected to the flight
control system of the aircraft and autopilot malfunctions can be very serious indeed.
An autopilot system must always be approved
by the FAA for the specific make and model of
aircraft in which it will be installed. A type of
autopilot may be approved for a number of different
Figure 4-50. Typical antennas used for DME and transponder. (Courtesy Comant Industries Inc.)
175
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aircraft, but different torque settings and adjustments may have to be made for each application.
The maintenance instructions that apply to the
specific autopilot installation should always be followed as there are many differences in adjustments
and testing for the various aircraft installations.
The basic principles of operation for aircraft
autopilots will be described here along with some
specific examples of aircraft autopilot installations.
the ailerons and elevator to provide additional control of the aircraft. A three-axis autopilot operates
all three types of control surfaces: ailerons, elevator
and rudder. There is a very large difference in the
capabilities of a three-axis autopilot found on a
small general aviation airplane and the three-axis
autopilot found on air carrier jets and similar
1. Types of Autopilots
Autopilot systems are categorized according to the
number of aircraft axes of rotation they control
and according to their complexity. The autopilot
utilizes the same control surfaces that the human
pilot does. The three control axes of an airplane
are shown in figure 4-59. The rudder controls
aircraft rotation about or around the vertical or
yaw axis. The elevators control rotation about the
lateral or pitch axis. The ailerons control aircraft
rotation about the longitudinal or roll axis.
Autopilots can be described as single-axis, two-axis
or three-axis types. The single-axis autopilot usually
operates the ailerons only and is often referred to
as a wing leveler. The two-axis autopilot controls
DESCRIPTION
S67-1575-14: Dual band L1/L2 GPS Antenna provides coverage
at 1227.6 MHz and 1575.42 MHz with a VSWR of 2.0:1.
Figure 4-52. GPS antenna for satellite na y. (Courtesy

Sensor Systems)
SPECIFICATIONS
V.S.W . R
IMPEDANCE
POWER
WEIGHT
CONSTRUCTION
HEIGHT
ELEMENT
SPECIFICATIONS
2 0.1
50 ohms
40 watts
0 3 lbs.
Whip
18.3 in.
Open
Figure 4-51. A whip-type ELT antenna. (Courtesy

V.S.W.R.
IMPEDANCE
POWER
WEIGHT
CONSTRUCTION
HEIGHT
ELEMENT
2 5.1
50 ohms
1300 watts
26 lbs.
Fiberglass
10.5 in.
Grounded
Figure 4-53. An antenna for satellite communications.

176
(970) 726-5111
Figure 4-54. Antennas for Loran C nav receivers. (Courtesy Comant Industries Inc.)
aircraft. For this reason two other categories of
autopilot will be added to the three already mentioned. Two common abbreviations for these advanced autopilots will be used to distinguish them
from the other types.
The term "Automatic Flight Control System"
(AFCS) generally represents the state-of-the-art that
was reached a few years ago. The autopilot in the
Lockheed L-1011 is an example of an AFCS.
This is a three axis autopilot that can control
the aircraft during climbs, descents, cruise flight
and during instrument approaches. It also has an
auto-throttle system which will automatically control
engine power or thrust. Some AFCS autopilots have
auto-land capability where the autopilot can actually
land the airplane on the runway. These types of
autopilots require many back-up systems and high
levels of redundancy. The AFCS includes a flight director function which will be explained later.
The latest types of autopilots are referred to as
Flight Management Systems (FMS). These include
OG
SPECIFICATIONS
VSWR
IMPEDANCE
POWER
WEIGHT
CONSTRUCTION
HEIGHT
ELEMENT

N/A
N/A
N/A
1 4 lbs.
Fiberglass
82 in.
Open
Figure 4-55. An "E" field Omega antenna. (Courtesy

177

(970) 726-5111
additional computers called Flight Management

Computers that permit an entire flight from just
after takeoff to landing to be programmed in the
computers and automatically controlled. The Flight
-0
[Doc,
cYr
1PAINT'
09
SPECIFICATIONS
V.S.W.R
IMPEDANCE
POWER
WEIGHT
CONSTRUCTION
HEIGHT
ELEMENT
APPROVALS
2 0.1
50 ohms
N/A
0 1 lbs.
Fiberglass
0 3 in.
N/A
TSO-C104
Figure 4-56. An antenna for MLS reception. (Courtesy

DESCRIPTION
S72-1744: Traffic Collision Avoidance System I.
Figure 4-57. A TCAS I antenna. (Courtesy Sensor Systems)
Figure 4-58. A variety of radiotelephone antennas. (Courtesy Comant Industries Inc.)

178
(970) 726-5111
Management Computer can be thought of as a

master computer which controls the autopilot and
auto-throttle computers. The computers can store
in their memory many different routes and flight
profiles and they can be used to provide a maximum
economy in fuel consumption or other desired controlling factor. The standard Boeing 767 autopilot
systems will be used later as an example of the
capabilities of an FMS installation.
2. Basic Autopilot Operation

The FAA states in AC 65-15A that the purpose
of an automatic pilot system is primarily to reduce
the work, strain and fatigue of controlling the aircraft
during long flights. The capabilities of a modern
autopilot go way beyond simply controlling the
aircraft during cruise operations. A sophisticated
autopilot system can land the airplane in weather
conditions that are so bad that the human pilot
could not legally land the airplane. We would have

to say that the statement is true for simple autopilot
systems, but is obsolete or outdated in describing
a sophisticated modern autopilot. In this section,
the basic parts and operation of simple autopilots
will be described. Figure 4-60 shows the basic parts
of the rudder control channel of an autopilot. The
aileron and elevator channels would work in a
similar fashion. The basic parts and their functions
are:
Sensors or Gyros These detect a change in
aircraft attitude using gyros or similar sensing
devices.
Amplifier or Computer This component processes the signals from the sensors and sends
signals to the servos to correct the attitude.
3. Servos The servos receive the signals from
the computer and supply the physical force
necessary to move the flight control surface.
AXIS OF YAW (VERTICAL)
AXIS OF ROLL (LONGITUDINAL)
AXIS OF PITCH (LATERAL)

Figure 4-59. The control axes for an airplane.
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AIRCRAFT ON COURSE
GYRO INPUT SIGNAL
AMPLIFIER
CONTROL SURFACE
FEEDBACK SIGNAL
SERVO
FEEDBACK
CIRCUIT
Figure 4-60. The basic operation of an autopilot.

5. Controller Figure 4-61 shows a typical controller. This unit is located in the cockpit and
contains the actuating switches and the pitch
and turn knobs. The pilot can move the pitch
knob or turn knob to supply manual commands to the autopilot that change the pitch
attitude or command a turn.
The operation of any autopilot follows these basic
principles although different types of sensors, servos,
etc. may be used. On a modern autopilot the computers are digital computers and there are often three
different computers for each of the three control axes.
3. Sensors
Figure 4-61. An autopilot controller.
4. Feedback All but the simplest autopilots

have a feedback system that sends signals
back to the computer that indicate the motion
of the flight control surface. Without feedback
the control of the aircraft would not be smooth
and precise.
The gyroscopic sensors used with autopilots are

similar to the gyro instruments described in chapter
1. The pitch, roll and yaw of the aircraft are detected
by gyro sensors that send signals to the computer.
The output signals of the sensors are most often
electrical signals. A common method of producing
the output signals is a special type of variable transformer called an EI pick-off which detects the motion
between the gyro rotor and its gimbals. The latest
types of autopilots use a sensor that employs laser
beams instead of a spinning gyro rotor. Figure 4-62
shows one of these laser sensors that are called
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ANODE
READOUT DETECTOR
LIGHT
BEAMS
MIRROR
(1 OF 3)
-41-CATHODE
GAS DISCHARGE
REGION
CORNER
PRISM
PIEZOELECTRIC
DITHER MOTOR
ANODE
Figure 4-62. Ring laser gyro sensor for an autopilot.

ring laser gyros or RLGs. The RLG has two laser
beams that travel in opposite directions around
a triangular course. Sensitive detectors measure
the Doppler shift or frequency change whenever
the unit is rotated. One of these is needed for each
axis that must be measured for the autopilot. These
RLGs are much more expensive than an actual
gyro, but they eliminate the moving parts that cause
a conventional gyro to gradually wear out.
4. Servos
The servos supply the force needed to move the
flight control surfaces of the aircraft. There are four
basic kinds which will be described here. Some
simple autopilots found on small airplanes use
vacuum sources like those used to operate gyro
instruments. The vacuum is directed to pneumatic
servos that are connected mechanically to the normal
flight control system. As seen in figure 4-63, the
pneumatic servo is an air tight housing which contains a movable diaphragm. When vacuum is applied
to the servo, the diaphragm is displaced which pulls
on the bridle cable that is connected to the main
control cable by a bridle clamp. Two of these servos
would be needed for each control axis.
Servos that utilize electric motors are shown in

Figures 4-64 and 4-65.
The servo shown in figure 4-64 uses a reversible
DC motor and reduction gearing to supply the force
to move the control surface in both directions. The
servo in figure 4-65 has an electric motor that runs
continuously and uses magnetic clutches to engage
the mechanism and apply torque to the capstan
and control cable. This type has the advantage that
the inertia forces in starting and stopping the motor
are eliminated. It can be engaged and disengaged
more rapidly and precisely.
SUCTION
FROM
CONTROLLER
VACUUM
SERVO
BRIDLE
CLAMP
CONTROL CABLE
Figure 4-63. Pneumatic servo for a small aircraft

autopilot.
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Air carrier jets and some of the larger bizjets

use hydraulically powered flight controls. The normal flight control system employs mechanical
linkages that control hydraulic units called Power
Control Actuators or PCAs. The autopilot servos
on these types of aircraft are electro-hydraulic servo
valves that utilize electrical signals from the
autopilot computers to direct hydraulic fluid under
pressure to a hydraulic actuator. The actuator portion of the electro-hydraulic servo valve supplies
mechanical force to the normal linkage of the flight
control system. Figure 4-66 shows the electrohydraulic servo valve for a typical large aircraft
autopilot system. Figure 4-67 shows an autopilot
servo for elevator control in the tail section of an
air carrier jet. The mechanical force produced by
the autopilot servo is transmitted by a push-pull
tube to the normal flight control linkage that activates the PCAs. The level of redundancy in this
system is typical for this class of aircraft.
5. Small Aircraft Autopilots

A single-axis autopilot for a single engine airplane
is shown in figure 4-68. This simple autopilot uses
pneumatic servos to actuate the ailerons. The source
of power is a dry air vacuum pump which is engine
driven. The sensor is a gyro turn coordinator which
controls the pneumatic power applied to the servos.
Some of the torque settings and rigging instructions
for the autopilot can be seen in this drawing. This
is the type of autopilot which is often called a wing
leveler since it controls only the aileron control
surfaces.
A three axis autopilot with electric motor servos

is illustrated in figure 4-69. The sensors used with
this system include gyro sensors and an altitude
sensor. The altitude sensor shows that this autopilot
would have an altitude hold capability.
Radio signals from the aircraft's navigation radios
can be used by the autopilot to steer the aircraft
along a desired VOR or localizer course. The pitch,
roll and yaw servos receive electrical signals from
the computer that activate the electric motors to move
the control surfaces. A pitch trim servo is included
so that the autopilot can apply nose up or nose down
pitch trim as required. The aircraft can operate with
a wide range of CG positions and the autopilot, like
the human pilot, uses pitch trim to reduce the elevator
control force to an acceptable level. The autopilot
controller has switches to engage the heading, radio
NAV and altitude operating modes. It also contains
an on /off switch, a pitch control indicator and the
knobs for manual control of autopilot pitch and turns.
It should be noted that these autopilot components
are located in various parts of the aircraft and some
of the minor components such as bridle cables are
not shown. This autopilot system has the ability to
guide the aircraft on an ILS approach using both
localizer and glideslope signals. This feature is called
an approach coupler and is required for certain types
of instrument approaches as will be covered later
in the section on FARs.
6. Flight Management System (FMS)

The Boeing 767 will be used as an example of
a flight management system or FMS. This system
has the capability of automatically controlling the
airplane from just after takeoff (above 400 ft. AGL)
DC MOTOR
CLUTCH SIGNAL
FROM AMPLIFIER
CLUTCHES
CONTROL
CABLE
CAPSTAN
DC MOTOR
Figure 4-64. Autopilot servo with reversible DC motor,

reduction gears and bridle cables.
Figure 4-65. Autopilot servo with a motor that runs continuously and is engaged by magnetic
clutches.
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Navigation Calculations The FMC can calculate great circle routes, climb and descent
profiles etc.
through roll out on the runway after landing at

the destination airport. The human pilot must take
over to turn off the runway and taxi to the gate.
This does not mean that all flights will use all
these capabilities, but the autopilot and flight director will be used for some portion of each flight
under normal circumstances.
a. Flight
Management Computers
The Flight Management Computers (FMCs) provide

a number of advanced features and functions which
were not found on earlier autopilot systems. Some
of the functions of the Flight Management Computer are:
Flight Planning The entire flight can be programmed into the computer using a cockpit
keyboard.
Performance Management The system can
provide optimum profiles for climb, cruise, descent and holding patterns. A minimum cost
flight can be flown automatically by using optimum climb settings, cruise settings etc.
Auto Tune of VOR and DME The FMC can

automatically tune the radios to the correct
station frequencies.
5. Autothrottle Speed Commands These are displayed on the EADI as FAST/SLOW indications.
The FMC is in effect a master computer which
integrates the functions of the laser sensors, Flight
Control Computers, Thrust Management Computers, Air Data Computers, navigation sensors and
EICAS computers. The autopilot sensors are called
Inertial Reference Units (IRUs) and they are the
same in basic operation as the Ring Laser Gyros
(RLGs) previously described.
b. Flight Control Computers
The flight control computers are the autopilot computers and there are three of them. A block diagram
of the connections to the three Flight Control Computers is shown in figure 4 - 70. The three computers
AUTOPILOT ACTUATOR
To COCKPIT CONTROL
AUTOPILOT LVDT
\
ks
\\\\\V
1.><I
Return
41;,
Pressure
OS
\ '
\i///
t/I
/
Transfer Valve
CONTROL VALVE
CONTROL
SURFACE LVDT
"ON" /"OFF" Solenoid
\t.>1 '
1 \ \\\\
L__._
_1
\\\\\\\\ \s\
\I
To CONTROL SURFACE
Control Surface Actuator
Figure 4-66. An electrohydraulic servo valve is employed in an autopilot system for aircraft with hydraulically powered
flight controls. Linear variable differential transformers (LVDTs) provide feedback signals of the movement
of the mechanical parts of the system.
183
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are independent so that a failure in one will not

affect the other two. The computers are modern
digital computers that are more compact and faster
than earlier types of computers.
c. Thrust Management Computer (TMC)
The purpose of the TMC is to automatically set
the proper thrust level for the engines. A diagram
of the autothrottle system is shown in figure 4-71.
The output servo moves the throttle linkage to
set the level of engine power calculated by the
TMC. The system includes sensors on the engines
which monitor the important engine operating
parameters. The monitoring of engine parameters
is used to prevent exceeding any engine operating

limitation for RPM, EPR, EGT, etc. The autothrottle
system can be used to maintain a given climb rate,
indicated airspeed, Mach number or descent rate.
Since the 767 has autoland capabilities, the
autothrottle system will automatically close the
throttles just prior to landing so that a smooth
touchdown can be made. The TMC system also
provides a minimum speed protection which will
maintain a safe margin above stall speed for the
particular flight configuration. The autopilot system
and the autothrottle system can be engaged
separately or together using the controls on the
flight control panel.
CONTROL CABLES
FROM COCKPIT
CONTROLS
,
1- t
f POWER CONTROL
ACTUATORS - PCAs
MECHANICAL LINKAGE
TORQUE TUBES AND
PUSH-PULL TUBES
ili
AUTOPILOT
SERVO
Figure 4-67. The autopilot servos on a large jet airplane provide mechanical force to move the normal control linkage
and activate the hydraulic PCAs that move the flight control surfaces.
184
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NOTE
TORQUE HOSE MOUNTING NUTS (3) TO
12-14 LB. INCHES AND CABLE CLAMP (6)
TO 70-90 LB. INCHES WHEN INSTALLING
THE OPTIONAL GYRO SYSTEM AND THE
WING LEVELER SYSTEM OBTAIN VACUUM
FROM THE SAME VACUUM SOURCE
............... ...1
.....................................
.
.
... . .
......
.... ...
..... ....

...........
14
13
10
6.50 INCHES
12
11
RIGHT AILERON VACUUM HOSE

LEFT AILERON VACUUM HOSE
NUT
SERVO
5. BRACKET
CLAMP
DIRECT CABLE
BELLCRANK
ROLL-TRIM KNOB
10. TURN COORDINATOR
INVERTER
VACUUM RELIEF VALVE
FILTER
SUCTION GAGE
15. ON-OFF CONTROL
Note: For illustration only. Not to be used for maintenance purposes.
Figure 4-68. A single-axis autopilot with pneumatic servos. (Courtesy Cessna Aircraft Corp.)
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d.
Flight Control Panel
The flight control panel contains the switches to

activate the various functions of the autopilot and
to adjust the settings for the desired vertical speed,
IAS, Mach number, etc. The indicator lights for
the different modes of operation are also included
SENSING ELEMENTS
in the flight control panel. This panel is located

in the glareshield above the center instrument panel
and it is illustrated in figure 4-72.
e. Control Wheel Steering (CWS)
Control wheel steering is an operating mode for the
autopilot in addition to the command operating
COMMAND ELEMENTS
AUTOPILOT CONTROLLER
OUTPUT ELEMENTS
ELECTRICAL
POWER
AILERON
SERVO
DIRECTIONAL
GYRO
COMPUTER
RUDDER
SERVO
TURNANDSLIP
RATE GYRO
ATTITUDE
GYRO
ELEVATOR
SERVO
RADIO
NAVIGATION
SIGNALS
ALTITUDE
SENSOR
HEADING
SELECTOR
TRIM
SERVO
Figure 4-69. Diagram of a 3-axis autopilot that can be coupled to radio navigation receivers.
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mode. The command mode is the normal autopilot

mode where the pilot does not touch the controls
because the autopilot is flying the airplane. In the
CWS mode, the controls are moved by the pilot
as in normal flight and the force that is applied
to the controls is measured and used as an input
signal to the autopilot computers. In effect, the
human pilot is flying the airplane, but the autopilot
is helping to move the control surfaces. Figure 4-73
shows the connections between the force transducer
and the flight control computer. The operation of
a typical force transducer is illustrated by figure
4-74. The three electrical windings and the armature
above them make up a special type of variable transformer. The AC input signal is applied to the center
winding and the outer windings produce the output
signal. The housing of the force transducer is flexible
so that its length will change based on the force
applied to it. When the housing changes in length,
it causes relative motion between the armature and
the coils. This motion alters the magnetic coupling
and therefore produces a change in the output signal.
f. Flight Director
A flight director is a system that uses some of
the basic components of an autopilot, but not all
AUTOPILOT
SENSORS
AUTOPILOT
COMPUTER
NUMBER ONE
SERVOS 8151= PCAs
AUTOPILOT
SENSORS
AUTOPILOT
COMPUTER
NUMBER TWO
SERVOS
AUTOPILOT
COMPUTER
NUMBER THREE
SERVOS
AUTOPILOT
SENSORS
88 PCAs
CONTROL
SURFACES
PCAs
F7777.7771 MECHANICAL CONNECTIONS
= ELECTRICAL CONNECTIONS
Figure 4-70. Block diagram of a three-channel autopilot for a large aircraft with hydraulically powered flight controls.
COCKPIT CONTROLS
FLIGHT MANAGEMENT
COMPUTERS
ENGINE SENSORS
THRUST
MANAGEMENT
COMPUTER
AU TOT HR 0 TT LE
SERVO
AIR DATA
COMPUTERS
MECHANICAL
THROTTLE
LINKAGE
Figure 4-71. Block diagram of an autothrottle system with a thrust management computer.
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of them. A flight director uses sensors and computers, but it does not have servos. The flight director computer uses the signals from sensors to
calculate a correction which is then displayed as
a command for the pilot to follow. The commands
from the flight director are displayed to the pilot
on the EADI by the command bars. The operation
of the command bars on the EADI is shown in
figure 4-75. On the left, the command bar symbol
is above the airplane symbol. The indication is that
the pilot needs to raise the nose to satisfy this
flight director command. On the right, the nose
of the airplane has been raised so that the airplane
symbol aligns with the command bar. During flight
director operations the pilot maintains manual control of the aircraft, but follows the steering commands indicated by the command bars. One of
the primary uses for the flight director is during
HDG
F/D
ON
NA
OFF
Another condition when the flight director is helpful is in setting the proper takeoff pitch attitude.
g. Additional Features
Some of the additional features of the Boeing 767
Autopilot and Flight Director System that are typical
for this class of aircraft will be described briefly.
The Stability Augmentation System (SAS) involves
certain functions of the yaw control system. One of
the purposes of the SAS is to eliminate a potential
problem known as Dutch Roll. Many large swept
VERT SPD
25
HOLC
CMD
1111710101011
41.0) BANK
AUTO r
LIMIT
FLCH
AI P ENGAGE
ALT
11+1213101011
11 2 1 n 101 1
%
VNA
an instrument approach. By using the flight director

the pilot can more accurately fly the airplane on
an ILS approach because the computer is making
rapid calculations to predict the optimum heading
and attitude for the approach. Corrections for wind
drift are automatic, all the pilot has to do is follow
the flight director commands.
V/S
F/D
CMD
ON
LOC
OFF
APP
DISENGAGE
UP
Figure 4-72. The autopilot control panel for a sophisticated autopilot includes switches to control the autopilot, the
flight director and the autothrottle systems.
COCKPIT
CONTROLS
FLIGHT
CONTROL
COMPUTERS
FORCE
TRANSDUCER
AUTOPILOT
SERVOS
MECHANICAL
CONTROL
LINKAGE
= MECHANICAL CONNECTIONS
= ELECTRICAL CONNECTIONS
HYDRAULIC
PCAs
FLIGHT
CONTROL
SURFACE
Figure 4-73. Location of the force transducers and servos in the control system of an air carrier jet airplane.
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wing airplanes display a peculiar type of instability

at high altitudes under certain flight conditions. This
can result in a continuous pitching and rolling motion
known as Dutch Roll. The SAS will automatically
make rapid and precise rudder movements to reduce
Dutch Roll motions of the airplane. The system is
also referred to as the yaw damper and it can be
engaged separately from the rest of the autopilot.
The runway alignment feature of the Boeing 767
is a part of the autoland system. It will automatically
align the longitudinal axis of the airplane with the

runway prior to touchdown. This feature is important during crosswind landings because it is
designed to prevent the airplane from landing at
a crab angle to the runway. This is illustrated in
figure 4-76. The runway alignment feature is limited
to control surface deflections of 25 for the rudder
and 2 for ailerons. A very strong crosswind at
90 to the runway could not be completely
counteracted. This same feature will also provide
CONTROL COLUMN
PULLEY MECHANISM
OUTPUT
R V/// 1//////////1// /////

\\\ I,
\
I\\`b
cl\\N
AC /
AILERON
Control Wheel Steering Force Transducer
Figure 4-74. Basic operation of one type of force transducer.
FLIGHT DIRECTOR
COMMAND BARS
AIRPLANE
SYMBOL
Figure 4-75. The command bars in an AUDI are positioned by signals from the flight director computer. The pilot follows
the commands by aligning the airplane symbol with the command bars.
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corrections if an engine fails during the landing

approach. It would supply the control corrections
to counteract the asymmetrical thrust situation.
7. FARs for Autopilots

Some of the Federal Aviation Regulations that apply
to autopilots and related systems will be given here.
Most of the references are to FAR Part 23 and
FAR Part 91 which apply mainly to small airplanes.
The requirements for transport category aircraft
autopilots include some of these same requirements,
but with many additional requirements that won't
be discussed here.
FAR 91 Appendix A
Category II Operations: Required Instruments
and Equipment
Refer to figure 4-77 for an example of the weather
minimums associated with Category II and Category
III ILS approaches.
2A9 An automatic pilot approach coupler or a flight
director system is required for Category II
ILS operations.
FAR 23.1329
Automatic Pilot System
A. An automatic pilot system must be designed
so that:
It can be quickly and positively disengaged
or
One pilot can overpower the autopilot to
control the airplane.
B. Unless there is automatic synchronization, a
means must be provided to indicate to the
pilot the alignment of the actuating device in
relation to the control system it operates.
The controls must be readily accessible to the
pilot and operate in the same plane and sense
as the cockpit controls.
RUNWAY
ALIGNMENT
The autopilot must not produce hazardous

loads on the airplane or produce hazardous
deviations in the flight path in the event of
malfunctions.
Each system must be designed so that a single
malfunction will not produce a hardover signal
in more than one control axis.
There must be protection against adverse interaction of integrated components resulting
from a malfunction.
CROSSWIND
No+
CRAB
ANGLE
G. If the automatic pilot system can be coupled

to navigation equipment, a means must be
provided to indicate the current mode of operation. Selector switch position is not acceptable as a means of indication.
FAR 23.1335
Flight Director Systems
A means must be provided to indicate the current

mode of operation. Selector switch position is not
acceptable as a means of indication.
Figure 4-76. The stability augmentation system (SAS) in

an aircraft with autoland capability has a
special operating mode called runway alignment. At approximately 500 ft. the runway
alignment feature will eliminate the crab
angle caused by a crosswind so that the
aircraft will be pointed down the runway at
touchdown.
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2B1 For Category III ILS operations additional

equipment requirements are a radio altimeter
and autothrottle system.

FAR 135.105
Autopilot in Place of Second Pilot
The certificate holder may use an autopilot in

place of a second pilot if:
The autopilot and its operation are approved.
The Administrator issues an approval amendment.
The autopilot is a 3-axis type.
The certificate holder shows that operations
can be conducted safely.
E. Exceptions: A second pilot must be used:
For IFR operations.
For Category II approaches.
3. If required by the aircraft manufacturer.
8. Autopilot Maintenance
The information in this section is not meant to relate
to any particular aircraft autopilot system. The procedures are general and could be applied to most
autopilots as appropriate. Maintenance of autopilots
consists of visual inspections, replacement of components, cleaning, lubrication, troubleshooting and
operational checkouts of the system.
An operational check of the autopilot should
be performed whenever an autopilot is installed,
when components are replaced and whenever a
malfunction is suspected. Many things can be
operationally checked on the ground, but some
situations may require a test flight with an airborne checkout of the autopilot. Some general
procedures for a ground checkout of an autopilot
are as follows.
With the autopilot disengaged, manipulate the
flight controls to see if they function smoothly and
ILS APPROACH
CATEGORY
RUNWAY VISUAL
RANGE (RVR)
DECISION HEIGHT
(ALTITUDE)
Category I
2400 feet
200 feet
Category II
1200 feet
100 feet
Category IIIA
700 feet
None
Category IIIB
150 feet
None
Category IIIC
None
None
Figure 4-77. The airport weather minimums for the

various ILS approach categories.
without excessive drag or interference from autopilot

components. The alignment of the autopilot to the
aircraft should be checked. This normally involves
checking such things as cable tension, torque settings, dimensional adjustments etc.
Before engaging the autopilot for an operational
check, allow the gyros to come up to speed. This
normally requires from 2-4 minutes. After engaging
the autopilot, the following checks should be made.
Rotate the turn knob on the controller to the
left. The rudder pedals and control column
should move in the proper directions to indicate
a left turn. The motion should be smooth and
without excessive binding, jerking or hesitation.
Rotate the turn knob to the right and watch
for the proper operation and motion of the
controls.
Rotate the pitch knob up and down and watch
for the correct motion of the control column
aft and forward.
If the autopilot has automatic pitch trim, check
the proper motion of the trim control as the
control column moves fore and aft. When the
control column moves back, the system should
apply nose up trim and vice versa.
With the autopilot engaged, try to overpower
it by grasping the controls and applying force.
It should be possible to overpower the autopilot
if it is adjusted properly.
Check all of the controls and switches for
proper actuation and correct indications.
It may be desirable to taxi the aircraft in order
to check out some of the operating modes.
If you engage the heading hold mode and make
a taxi turn to the right, the controls should
show motion commanding a turn to the left.
Check the autopilot disconnect switches to
ensure that the autopilot disconnects rapidly
and positively. There may be several ways to
disconnect the autopilot; check them all.
9. If the aircraft has a flight director, check for
proper indications by the command bars in
the ADI or EADI. Check the autopilot mode
indicators in the ADI or EADI if so equipped.
If the aircraft has both an autopilot and flight
director, they can be checked against each other
as an aid in troubleshooting. The autopilot and
flight director share some components while others
are only used by the autopilot. This can be used
to help locate the source of the problem when malfunctions are suspected. A ground checkout can
often help to locate the source of a problem by
comparing the indications of the flight director and
autopilot. If the flight director is commanding an
incorrect control movement and the autopilot is
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moving the controls in the same incorrect direction,

then the fault is most likely a component they share
such as the sensors or computer. If the flight director
shows a correct command for nose up pitch, but
the autopilot does not move the controls to agree
with this command then the problem is likely not
in the sensors or computer.
Some complaints about autopilot malfunctions
are the result of faults in components other than
the autopilot itself. If a pilot reports that the
autopilot will not track a VOR radial, the problem
could be a wiring fault in the wires that carry radio

signals to the autopilot rather than a problem with
the autopilot itself. Conditions such as rigging
problems or binding of the main control cables in
the aircraft itself can adversely affect the operation
of the autopilot. Because the interactions and interconnections associated with autopilots can be
very complex, a good system schematic and a
thorough knowledge of the autopilot are necessary
for efficient troubleshooting and maintenance of
autopilot systems.
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APPENDIX A Glossary
Accelerometer A device or instrument which
measures acceleration forces. The unit of measure is most often "Gs" based on the acceleration of gravity.
Bourdon tube A curved, hollow metal tube used

as a pressure measuring sensor. Used for relatively higher pressures than a bellows or diaphragm.
Aircraft A machine that operates in the air. Examples include airplanes, gliders, balloons, airships and rotorcraft.
Calibrated airspeed Indicated airspeed that has

been corrected for airspeed system errors and
errors caused by the location and alignment of
the pitot and static ports or sensors.
Airplane An engine-driven, fixed-wing aircraft

that is heavier than air and supported in flight
by wings.
Altitude engine A reciprocating aircraft engine
that employs a supercharger to maintain sea
level power at higher altitudes.
Category II operation An ILS instrument approach using the specified procedures and
meeting the requirements for operations in
weather conditions below those required for a
Category I approach.
Annunciator The indicating lights that are used

to alert crew members to operating conditions
that they need to be aware of. As in warning,
caution and status indicator lights.
Category III operation An ILS instrument approach using the additional procedures and requirements for operations in weather conditions
below those required for a Category II approach.
Appliance Any instrument, mechanism, equipment, part, apparatus, appurtenance or accessory, including communications equipment,
that is used in operating or controlling an aircraft in flight and is not part of an airframe, engine or propeller.
Class B Airspace This is the same as a TCA

(termimal control area), the airspace around a
major airport where special equipment and
flight restrictions apply.
Artificial horizon An aircraft instrument used

to indicate pitch and roll attitudes. A gyro instrument used for IFR and also known as a gyro
horizon, attitude gyro, bank and pitch indicator
etc.
Autosyn A synchro system that transmits positional information electrically from one place to
another. The Autosyn type uses AC power and
electromagnet rotors in both the sending and receiving units.
Avionics Aircraft electronic equipment. Most
often refers to aircraft radios and similar components.
Balun A special type of impedance matching device used with V-shaped aircraft VOR antennas.
Bellows A mechanical device for measuring
pressure. It is a thin metal container with accordion shaped folds on the sides. Often separated
into two chambers for use as a differential pressure measuring sensor.
Bonding jumper A metal conductor used to
electrically connect two parts of an aircraft.
Most often a wire braid or thin metal strap.
Class C Airspace this is the same as an ARSA

(airport radar service area), the airspace around
a busy airport where special equipment and
flight restrictions apply.
Coaxial cable A special conductor having a center conductor, a layer of dielectric insulation
and an outer conductor. Designed to carry radio
frequency electrical signals as in an antenna
lead.
Compass dip The tilting of the float in a magnetic compass due to the curvature of the earth.
Compass dip becomes greater as the distance
from the equator increases. Magnetic compass
acceleration error and north turning error are a
result of compass dip.
Compensator A device to adjust or compensate
for some error in an aircraft instrument or radio
system. The compensator magnets in an aircraft
compass installation.
Critical engine The engine whose failure would
most adversely affect the peformance or handling qualities of an aircraft.
Dashpot A small acceleration operated air
pump used in an aircraft IVSI to decrease the
lag in the indication.
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Deviation An error in a magnetic compass

caused by magnetic fields in the aircraft. This
error is minimized and recorded in a procedure
called swinging the compass.
Diaphragm A small lens shaped metal container
that is used as a sensor to measure pressures.
Used in altimeters and airspeed indicators because of its sensitivity.
Doppler effect The apparent change in frequency of a sound wave or radio wave when
there is relative motion between the observer
and the source of the waves. Used in the Doppler navigation system by bouncing radar waves
off the surface of the earth. The Doppler principle is also used on the latest types of weather
radar systems on aircraft.
Drip stick A fuel quantity measuring system
that uses a tube or stick that is extended below
the wing of the airplane. It is a mechanical measuring system that requires no outside power.
Encoding altimeter An altimeter or sensor that
supplies electrical outputs related to aircraft altitude. The output is supplied to the aircraft
transponder which transmits the data to a
ground station. Also referred to as Mode C.
Erector mechanism A device or mechanism in
an artificial horizon that maintains the vertical
spin axis of the gyro to ensure accurate readings.
Flight level A level of constant atmospheric
pressure related to a reference level of 29.92 in.
Hg. Flight levels are indicated in hundreds of
feet as in FL310, FL330, FL350 etc. Aircraft
must use flight levels rather than MSL altitudes
at and above 18,000 ft.
Flux valve The sensor for a flux gate compass
system. The flux valve produces an electrical
output from the earth's magnetic field to operate
remote compass systems and other devices.
Gyroscope A small wheel or rotor that is spun
at high speed to operate aircraft intruments.
Also used to stabilize certain components such
as radar antennas and INS accelerometers.
Heading indicator A gyro instrument that indicates the magnetic heading of the aircraft. Also
called the DG, gyro compass, heading gyro etc.
IFR conditions Weather conditions below the
minimum for VFR flight.
Inclinometer An aircraft instrument that indicates slips and skids. Also called the slip-skid
indicator. Usually a small curved glass tube
with a ball in it.
Indicated airspeed The speed of an aircraft as

shown on its pitot-static airspeed indicator calibrated to reflect standard atmospheric adiabatic
compressible flow at sea level and uncorrected
for airspeed system errors.
Instrument A device using an internal mechanism to show visually or aurally the altitude,
attitude, or operation of an aircraft or aircraft
part. It includes electronic devices for automatically controlling an aircraft in flight (autopilots).
Knots A velocity in units of nautical miles per
hour. To convert from knots to MPH, multiply by
1.151.
Kollsman window The small window on the
face of an altimeter that indicates the barometric pressure for which the altimeter has been set
with the setting knob. Unit of measure is inches
of mercury or millibars.
Large aircraft Aircraft of more than 12,500 lbs.
maximum certificated takeoff weight.
Logic gate A semi-conductor device that produces an output from one or more inputs. It
uses digital signals and is a basic component in
many aircraft electronic systems.
Loran C A radio navigation system that uses
signals transmitted from ground stations on a
frequency of 100 KHz. Most often used by general aviation aircraft.
Lubber line The line on a magnetic compass
that is used to take readings. The numbers on
the compass card are read against the lubber
line.
Mach number The ratio of true airspeed to the
speed of sound for the specified flight condition
and altitude.
Magnesyn A synchro system used on aircraft.
The Magnesyn system uses AC power and permanent magnet rotors in the sending and receiving units.
Manifold pressure The absolute pressure measured at the appropriate point in the induction
system of a reciprocating aircraft engine and expressed in inches of Mercury.
Octal A binary code system used with integrated circuits and logic gates. The octal code
uses three bit bytes.
Omega -- A radio navigation system that employs
ground stations that transmit on frequencies
from 10-14 KHz. It provides world wide coverage. VLF ground sites are also used by aircraft
Omega systems.
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Piezoelectric A device that employs a crystal
Selsyn A synchro system used on aircraft. The
sensor that produces electrical output signals

when it is squeezed or vibrated. An example is
the piezoelectric sensor for an engine vibration
indicator.
Selsyn uses DC power with a variable resistor in

the sending unit and a permanent magnet rotor
and three section coil in the receiving unit.
Polarization The orientation of the electric field

portion of an electro-magnetic radio wave. Vertical polarization would mean that the electric
field is vertical relative to the earth's surface.
Slip - skid indicator The same as inclinometer.

See above.
Small aircraft Aircraft of 12,500 lbs. or less

maximum certificated takeoff weight.
Precession The displacement of a gyro rotor by
Thermocouple A device which uses two differ-
an outside force. The gyro will precess as if the

force was applied 90 ahead in the direction of
rotation from the actual point of application of
the disturbing force.
ent metals to produce a DC output at the cold

junction when the hot junction is heated.
Commonly used for CHT, EGT and other relatively high temperature measurements in an
aircraft.
Pressure Altitude The altitude shown on an

aircraft altimeter when 29.92 is set into the barometric pressure setting window. This represents the altitude in a Standard Atmosphere.
Proximity sensor A sensor or transducer used

to replace microswitches in an aircraft position
indicating system. It is an electronic device with
no moving parts and is considered to be more
reliable than microswitches.
Quadrantal error The error in indication for an

aircraft ADF system. A check of quadrantal error
should be made whenever an antenna is installed or other maintenance is performed which
could affect the accuracy of the ADF system.
Radar Radio detection and ranging. Used in aviation for ATC purposes, weather avoidance systems, navigation and precision altitude
measurement.
Ratiometer An electrical circuit used to operate

an aircraft instrument. It is called a ratiometer
because the pointer is positoned by the ratio of
the field strength of two electromagnetic fields.
Rigidity The characteristic of a gyro rotor that
Torquemeter An instrument system that measures torque delivered to a shaft, usually by the
aircraft engine. Common on large recip engines,
turboprop engines and turboshaft engines.
True Airspeed True airspeed is calibrated airspeed that has been corrected for altitude and
temperature effects. An airspeed indicator is designed to be accurate for the standard pressure
and temperature at sea level. At higher altitudes, indicated or calibrated airspeed is less
than true airspeed.
Variation The apparent error in the indication of

a magnetic compass caused by the fact that the
north geographic pole and the north magnetic
pole of the earth are not in the same location.
Venturi A tube with curved inner walls that

produces a reduction in pressure in accordance
with Bernoulli's Principle. Used in aircraft to
produce suction to operate gyros and as a jet
pump.
Waveguide A hollow tube used as a conductor
causes it to try to maintain its spin axis fixed in

space.
for radar frequency EM waves. Usually rectangular in cross-section and found in aircraft
weather radar systems.
Sea level engine A reciprocating aircraft engine
Wheatstone bridge A bridge circuit with three
having a rated takeoff power that is producible

only at sea level. An unsupercharged engine.
fixed resistors and a variable resistor. It is used

to operate a meter movement that rotates a
pointer in an aircraft instrument for temperature measurements.
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40
APPENDIX B Abbreviations
ADC Air data computer: A computer which
processes inputs from pitot tubes, static ports
and TAT probes and provides outputs to the
typical pitot-static instruments as well as other
aircraft systems.
CADC
ADF Automatic direction finder: A radio navigation system using signals in the LF and MF
bands.
CFM -
ADI Attitude director indicator: An instrument

that combines pitch and roll data with the command bars of a flight director.
AF Audio frequency: 20,000 Hz and below.
Central air data computer: Same as ADC.

CAS Calibrated airspeed.
CAT II Category II ILS instrument approaches.
CAT III Category III ILS instrument approaches.
Cubic feet per minute: A measure of flow rate

used with air-operated gyros.
CHT Cylinder head temperature: An instrument

found on many aircraft with air-cooled reciprocating engines, usually a thermocouple system.
CIT Compressor inlet temperature: Also called
Tt2, it refers to the temperature of the air entering the inlet of a turbine engine.
AFCS Automatic flight control system: Usually

refers to more advanced autopilots that include
features such as auto-throttle and stored flight
plan routes.
CPU Central processing unit: One of the major

components of a computer, the CPU contains
the ALU, control and memory functions.
AFM Aircraft flight manual: An FAA-approved

manual that lists operating requirements. Useful to mechanics as well as to pilots.
CRT Cathode ray tube: This is the display for

electronic aircraft instruments. It looks like a TV
screen, but is specially designed to be readable
in the bright conditions of the cockpit.
AGL Altitude above ground level.

AM Amplitude modulated: This refers to a radio
wave that has been modulated in such a way
that the amplitude of the signal varies up and
down to match the modulating signal.
AOA Angle-of-attack: The angle between the
chord line of an airfoil and the relative wind.
Also AOA instrument presentation.
ARINC Aeronautical Radio Incorporated: This is
an organization made up of airlines and
manufacturers which establishes standards for
aircraft equipment. For example, ARINC 429 for
digital data.
ARSA Airport radar service area: An area of
airspace around an airport with radar air traffic
control (ATC) in which special restrictions are
placed on aircraft flight operations.
ATC Air traffic control.
BCD Binary coded decimal: A binary code system that uses four bit bytes.
BIT Each individual binary digit or number in a
digital word or message.
BYTE A group of binary bits which are treated
together as in a binary word with 32 bits. In this
example, one byte = 32 bits.
CVR Cockpit voice recorder: Records cockpit

sounds and conversations from radio and intercom systems.
DG Directional gyro: An instrument which gives
information concerning aircraft rotation about
the vertical axis. Usually referenced to magnetic
headings.
DME Distance measuring equipment: A two-way
radio system for determining aircraft distance in
nautical miles from a ground site.
Electronic attitude director indicator instrument: A display which combines pitch and roll
EADI
data along with indications from the flight director in the form of command bar movements.
Other data such as radio navigation displays are
also included. A CRT instrument.
EGT Exhaust gas temperature: An instrument
which displays the temperature of the engine
exhaust gasses. Found on both reciprocating
and turbine engines.
EHSI Electronic horizontal situation indicator: A
display which combines gyro stabilized magnetic
heading information along with radio navigational information using a deviation bar indicator. A CRT instrument.
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EICAS Engine indication and crew alerting system: An electronic instrument system that
provides indications for powerplant and aircraft
system instruments, and provides alert, caution
and status messages for the crew. EICAS typically uses two CRTs.
ELT Emergency locator transmitter: A small selfcontained radio transmitter for crash location
purposes found on most small aircraft.
EM WAVES Electro-magnetic waves: Most often
used to mean radio waves.
EPR Engine pressure ratio: An instrument which
indicates the power being produced by certain
turbojet and turbofan engines. EPR is the ratio
of total outlet pressure divided by total inlet
pressure.
FCC Federal Communications Commission: This
government agency establishes rules for many
types of electronic equipment including the
radio equipment on aircraft.
FDR Flight data recorder: A system which records
many different operating parameters such as altitude, airspeed, engine power, G loadings, flap
settings, etc. Used for accident investigation.
FM Frequency modulation: A radio carrier wave
uses FM when the carrier wave frequency is
varied up and down by the modulating signal.
FMS Flight management system: A sophisticated
autopilot system that includes advanced features for managing virtually the entire flight.
Uses an FMC (flight management computer).
Feet per minute: The standard unit of measurement for aircraft rate of climb indicators and
similar devices.
FPM -
Gallons per hour: A standard unit of measurement for fuel flow or fuel consumption for
aircraft. Usually used for reciprocating engines.
GPH -
GPS Global positioning system: A satellite

navigation system being developed for the
military, but available for use by civilian
aircraft.
GPWS Ground proximity warning system:
Designed to give a warning to the flight crew to
avoid ground impact due to excessive rates of
descent, rising terrain, etc.
HSI Horizontal situation indicator: An integrated
aircraft instrument which displays magnetic
heading, radio navigation steering information
and sometimes additional information. It
replaces the simpler DG instrument.
IAS Indicated airspeed.
IC Integrated circuit: A semi-conductor device

that incorporates a number of logic gates in one
compact unit.
ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization.
IFR Instrument flight rules: Aircraft must operate
IFR if weather conditions are below the minimums for visual reference flying.
ILS Instrument landing system: A precision approach using radio guidance signals to guide an
aircraft to a landing runway.
INS Inertial navigation system: A navigational
system that uses very accurate measurements
of acceleration to calculate aircraft position,
course and speed.
IRU Inertial reference unit: Most often refers to
the laser device which is the sensor for INS and
other aircraft systems.
ITT Inter-turbine temperature: This refers to a
gas temperature measurement on a turbine engine where the probes are located in between
two different sections of the turbine.
IVSI Instantaneous vertical speed indicator: An
instrument that eliminates the lag of a conventional VSI through the use of acceleration
operated dashpots.
KIAS Knots indicated airspeed: We also find
KCAS and KTAS.
LMM Compass locator transmitter at the middle
marker.
LCD Liquid crystal display: A common type of
device used in aircraft instruments and radios
that have a lighted display.
LED Light emitting diode: A common type of
device used in lighted displays on radios and
other equipment.
LOM Compass locator transmitter at the outer
marker.
LRU Line replaceable unit: Modern aircraft have
most electronic equipment installed in the form
of LRUs which are standard size boxes that contain the equipment and which make replacement and maintenance simpler and more
efficient.
MLS Microwave landing system: A new type of
precision approach aid that may eventually
replace ILS. In limited use at this time.
MM ILS middle marker.
MSL Altitude in terms of mean sea level.
N i A tachometer indication of the low pressure
compressor speed in a turbine engine.
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(970) 726-5111
A tachometer indication of the high pressure

compressor speed in a turbine engine.
N2 -
Ng A tachometer indication of the gas producer
speed in a turbine engine. Usually turboprop or

turboshaft.
N P A tachometer indication of the power section
speed in a turbine engine. Usually turboprop or

turboshaft.
Nr A tachometer indication of the rotor speed for
a helicopter. Usually the main rotor.

NDB Non-directional radio beacon: The ground
based radio transmitter that sends the signals
which are received by the aircraft ADF radio
navigation receiver.
OM ILS outer marker.
POH Pilot's operating handbook: This is an FAAapproved document which gives operating information for that particular aircraft. Used by both
pilots and mechanics. Same as AFM.
Pounds per hour: A unit of measurement for
aircraft fuel flow and fuel consumption. Most
often used with turbine engines.
PPH -
Pounds per square inch absolute: A measurement of pressure compared to a perfect vacuum.
PSIA -
Pounds per square inch differential: A measurement of the differential pressure between
two pressures measured at different points.
PSID -
Pounds per square inch gauge: A measurement of pressure compared to ambient conditions, usually ambient atmospheric pressure.
PSIG -
P-static Precipitation static: The static electricity

charge on an aircraft produced by friction with
ice, snow, rain, sand, dust etc. It can cause
noise in the radios and other problems.
RAM Random access memory: The memory in a
computer that can be affected by operator input
and is lost when the computer is turned off.
RF Radio frequency: Refers to frequencies above
audio frequencies, or those frequencies above
20,000 Hz (20 KHz).
RLG Ring laser gyro: A laser beam device that
can be used to replace spinning gyroscopes to
operate aircraft instruments and other aircraft
systems.
RNAV Area navigation: The use of a computer to
process signals from VOR and DME transmitters, permitting random direct routes to be
flown using waypoints designated as a VOR radial and distance such as OMN 243/24.
ROC Rate of climb: An aircraft instrument that

gives readings in FPM of the aircraft rate of
climb or descent.
ROM Read only memory: Sometimes called
hard-wired, this is the memory in a computer
which cannot be changed by the operator and is
not lost when the computer is turned off.
RVR Runway visual range: A measured visibility
along a runway, stated in feet. RVR 2400 = 1/2
mile visibility.
SAS Stability augmentation system: This system
is often associated with an autopilot and it is
designed to provide additional stability to the
aircraft for certain flight conditions. On swept
wing jets, for example, it helps to reduce Dutch
roll.
SELCAL Selective calling: A communications
system which allows the person on the ground
to dial a code to contact a specific airplane in
flight. Used by the airlines to contact their aircraft for operational reasons.
SWR Standing wave ratio: A measure of the efficiency of an antenna, it is based on forward
power and reflected power measurements.
TACAN Tactical air navigation: a radio navigation system in the UHF band designed primarily
for military aircraft.
TAS True Airspeed.
TCA Terminal control area: An area of airspace
around a busy airport where special restrictions
are placed on aircraft flight operations.
TCAS Traffic alert and collision avoidance system: This system is installed in some larger aircraft where it gives warnings to the pilots to
prevent mid-air collisions. The TCAS uses transponder principles of operation.
TIT Turbine inlet temperature: Refers to the measurement of gas temperature for a turbine engine where the probes are located just
downstream of the combustion chambers or just
in front of the first turbine stage. Can also refer
to a turbosupercharger temperature.
TOT Turbine outlet temperature: Refers to the
measurement of gas temperature for a turbine
engine where the probes are located downstream of all the turbine sections. Also called
EGT.
V-speeds Designated airspeeds related to a specific aircraft certification requirement or operating airspeed.
V Velocity.
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(970) 726-5111
Vd Design dive speed.
Vso The stalling speed or minimum steady flight

speed with the landing gear and flaps extended.
Vfe Maximum speed with the flaps extended.
Vx The speed for best angle of climb.
Vle Maximum speed with the landing gear

extended.
Vy The speed for best rate of climb.
Va Design maneuvering speed.
Vlo Maximum landing gear operating speed.

Vmc Minimum control speed: The lowest speed
at which directional control of the aircraft can
be maintained with the critical engine failed and
the remaining engines at maximum continuous
power.
Vmo/Mmo Maximum operating speed: In terms
of airspeed and in terms of Mach number.
Vne Never exceed speed: the maximum permissable speed under any circumstances.
Vno Maximum structural cruising speed.
Vs i The stalling speed or minimum steady flight
speed with the landing gear and flaps retracted.
Vyse The speed for best rate of climb, single engine operations with one engine inoperative.
VFR Visual flight rules: for VFR the pilot must
be able to control the aircraft by visual outside
references.
VHF Very high frequency.
VOR VHF omnidirectional radio range: a radio
navigation system.
VORTAC A combined VOR and TACAN transmitter site.
VSI Vertical speed indicator: an aircraft instrument that indicates aircraft rate of change of altitude in FPM.
VSWR Voltage standing wave ratio: Same as
SWR (see above).
200
(970) 726-5111
INDEX
A
Absolute pressure
14
Acceleration error
42
Accelerometer
23
Accelerometer operated dashpots 22
28
Air data computer systems
Airspeed
calibrated
17
indicated
17
true
17
Airspeed indicator markings
19
Airspeed placards
12
Altimeter
encoding
16
non-sensitive
14
radar
141
sensitive
15
Altimeter system tests and
inspections
24, 25
Altitude alerting system
100
Amplifiers
107
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
106
Angle of attack indicators
96
Annunciators
98
Antenna couplers
112
Antenna interference
166
Antenna separation, VHF comm ..166
170
Antennas, types of
173
DME/transponder
ELT
173
glideslope
171
GPS
173
HF comm
173
localizer
171
174
Loran C
marker beacon
172
MLS
174
Omega
174
175
Radiotelephone
SATCOM
174
TCAS I
175
VHF comm
166, 173
VOR
170
54
ARINC 429
ARINC 429 digital standards
94
31
Artificial horizon
Attitude Director Indicator (ADI) 33

Audio control panels
114
Audio Frequency (AF)
106
Automatic Direction Finder (ADF) 123
Automatic flight control system 177
Autopilot maintenance
191
Autopilot sensors
180
Autopilots, types of
176
Autosyn synchro
63
Autothrottle
184
Avionics master switch
149
B
Bellows
13
Bimetallic temperature system
65
Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)
91
Binary numbers
87
BITE systems
53
Bonding jumpers
4, 152
Bourdon tube
13
Bridle cable
181
C
Caging knob
Calibrated airspeed
Capacitance quantity indicators
Cavity magnetron
CDI
CMOS
Coaxial cables
Cockpit voice recorders
Command bars
Compass dip
Compass error
acceleration
deviation
north turning
variation
Compass, flux gate
Computerized fuel system
Computers
basic parts of
in aircraft
Control Wheel Steering (CWS)
Corona
Counterpoise
29
17
58
143
126
94
161
122
33
42
42
42
42
42
44
63
52
52
186
157
111
Critical engine
Crystal
Cylinder Head Temperature
(CHT) gauge
19
108
67
D
Deviation error
42
13
Diaphragm
Differential pressure
14
Dip standards
94
Directional gyro
29
Distance Measuring Equipment
(DME)
127
Doppler navigation
135
Drag cup
73, 74, 75
Drip stick
.56
Dutch roll
188
E
EADI
50
EHSI
50
EICAS
50
Electromagnetic waves
103
wavelength of
103
Electronic equipment, cleaning ....149
Electronic instruments
49
Electronic tachometers
75
Emergency Locator Transmitters
(ELTs)
120
Engine pressure ratio indicators ....79
Erector mechanism
32
Exhaust gas temperature
(EGT) gauge
67
F
FAR 91.411 Altimeter system tests
and inspections
25
111
Filters
Flight data recorders
122
Flight director
187
Flight management computers
183
Flight management system
(FMS)
177, 182
Float-type mechanical gauge
55
Flux gate compass
44
Four-course radio range
123
201

(970) 726-5111
Frequency modulation (FM)

Frequency synthesizer
Fuel-injected engine flowmeters
106
113
Integrated circuits
Intercom systems
93
116
58
Interphone systems
Inverters
ITT
116
154
68
G
Gauge
float-type mechanical
magnetic direct reading
sight glass
Gauge pressure
Gimbals
Glass cockpit
Glipeslope
55
55
55
14
29
49
139
GPS (global positioning system) 137

Ground proximity warning
system
142
107
Ground waves
Ground-loop interference
154
111
Groundplane
considerations
164
K
Kollsman window
131
53
138
91
163
131
124
132
53, 95
H
Heads up displays
51
Heads up Guidance System (HGS) 51
Hertz dipole antenna
111
HF comm radio
117
Horizontal polarization
112
Horizontal Situation Indicator
(HSI)
30
I
129
IFF
Inclinometer
34
Indicated airspeed
17
Inertial Navigation System (INS)... 134
135
Inertial Reference Unit (IRU)
Instantaneous vertical speed
indicator
22
Instrument and equipment
requirements
12
Instrument categories
2
Instrument flight rules
12
Instrument Landing System (ILS) 137
5
Instrument lighting systems
Instruments
12
instrument flight rules
methods to install
3
visual flight rules day
12
visual flight rules night
12
126
Octal
Oil pressure indicators
Omega
Oscillators
91
75
134
108
16
L
Latitude
Line replaceable unit
Localizer
Logic gates
Long wire sense antenna
Longitude
Loop antenna
Loran C
LRU
O
OBS
Mach number
Machmeter
Magnesyn synchro
Magnetic compass
Magnetic directing reading gauge
Maintenance of gyro systems
Manifold pressure gauges
Marconi antenna
Marker beacons
Mass flowmeters
Master caution lights
Master warning lights
Maximum allowable airspeed
indicator
Mechanical bulb temperature
gauge
Mechanical tachometers
Microphones
Microwave landing system (MLS)
Mode 3/A
Mode C
Mode S
Modulation rate
Modulators and demodulators
21
21
63
41
55
40
79
111
139
63
99
99
21
66
72
1 14
141
130
130
131
110
108
6, 155
P-static
23
Pitot tube
Polarization
horizontal
112, 166
112, 166
vertical
Position indicating systems
69
93
Positive and negative logic
Powerplants, types of
7
29
Precession
Pressure
14
absolute
14
differential
14
gauge
Primary power setting instruments 84
Proximity sensor
71
Q
Quadrantal error
164
R
Radar altimeter
141
Radio
117
HF comm
117
VHF comm
106
Radio Frequency (RF)
Radio frequency chart
104
119
Radiotelephone
67
Ratiometer tempereature gauge
Required instruments
flight and navigation
8
8
powerplant
29
Rigidity in space
RLG
181
45
RMI (radio magnetic indicator)
127
RNAV
189
Runway alignment
North turning error

Null field discharger
42
157
202
(970) 726-5111
SATCOMM
Satellite navigation
119
135
Selcal
Selsyn synchro
Sense antenna
Sensors, autopilot
Servos, autopilot
Shielding
Shock mounts
Sight glass gauge
Silicon
Sky waves
Slip-skid indicator
Space waves
Speakers
Speed of sound
St. Elmo's Fire
Stability Augmentation System
(SAS)
Stall warning systems
Standard "T" configuration
Standard Atmosphere table
Standard rate turn
Standard sizes for round
instruments
Standing wave ratio
Static discharagers
Static loads
Static ports
Static wicks
119
62
124
180
181
154
4
55
93
107
34
107
114
21
157
188
98
11
15
35
2
160
155
158
23
157
Stick shaker
Stormscope
Superheterodyne
Swinging the compass
Synchro systems
98
145
113
42
61
T
Tachometer generators
75
Takeoff warning systems
95
TCAS
145
Temperature measuring systems.... 65
bimetallic
65
mechanical bulb
66
ratiometer
67
thermocouples
67
Wheatstone bridge
66
Thermocouples
67
Thrust Management Computer
(TMC)
184
TIT
68
TO-FROM indicator
126
Torquemeters
78
TOT
68
Total Air Temperature (TAT)
28
128
Transponders
Trip free circuit breakers
152
True airspeed
17
TTL
94
Turn and bank

Turn coordinator
34
36
V
Vacuum pump
Vane-type flowmeters
Variation error
Variometer
Venturi for gyros
Vertical card compass
Vertical polarization
Vertical speed indicator
Very high frequency omnirange
(VOR)
VHF comm radio
Vibration indicators
Visual flight rules day
Visual flight rules night
Vmc
VSWR
38
60
42
22
37
43
112
21
125
117
87
12
12
19
160
w
Waveguide
Weather radar
Wet pump for air driven gyros
Wheatstone bridge temperature
gauge
Wire antennas
143
143
38
66
162
203
(970) 726-5111
ABOUT THE BOOK

Aircraft Instruments and Avionics is intended to be used in the instruction of students
in an aviation maintenance technician training program.
This textbook includes:
Basic Instruments: Why study instruments, aircraft instrument requirements, pitot-static
system instruments, gyro instruments, compass systems, electronic instruments, and
computers in aircraft
Powerplant Instruments and Logic Gates: Liquid quantity measuring systems, fuel flow
indicators, temperature measuring systems, position indicating systems, tachometers, oil
pressure indicators, torquemeters, engine pressure ratio indicators, manifold pressure
gauges, primary power setting instruments, vibration indicators, logic circuits and digital
systems, takeoff warning systems, angle of attack indicators, stall warning systems, and
annunciators
Communication and Navigation Systems: Radio fundamentals, regulations and
standards for radios, intercom and interphone systems, communications radios,
emergency locator transmitters (ELTs), cockpit voice recorders, flight data recorders,
navigation systems, instrument landing system (ILS), radar altimeter, ground proximity
warning system (GPWS), weather radar, Stormscope , and airborne collision avoidance
system (TCAS)
Aircraft Antennas and Autopilots: Installation and inspection of avionics, antenna
installations, autopilots, and flight directors
ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Max Henderson taught Aviation Maintenance Technology subjects at Embry-Riddle
Aeronautical University. Prior to that he was an Electronics Technician in the U.S. Air
Force. He holds a commercial pilot as well as a mechanic certificate with an airframe and
powerplant rating. He has also worked as a control tower operator.
SBN 0-89100--422--X
JS312666 00
90000
Jeppesen Sanderson Inc.
www.jeppesen.com
55 Inverness Drive East
Englewood, Colorado 80112-5498
9 780891 004226

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About the Author

CHAPTER I Basic Instruments

CHAPTER II Powerplant Instruments

CHAPTER III Communication and Navigation Systems

Radio Fundamentals; Regulations and Standards for Radios;

CHAPTER IV Aircraft Antennas and Autopilots

Installation and Inspection of Avionics; Antenna Installations;

About This Book

Dayton-Granger Inc. (Fort Lauderdale, Florida)

Aircraft Technical Books, LLC

About The Author

4. Control Tower Operator Certificate

only a few basic instruments may be required. The

4. Electrical and Electronic Instruments This

Pressure Instruments These measure the

1" Often a vacuum gauge on single-engine

Mechanical Instruments These use a mechanical system to obtain and/or transmit

3. Gyro Instruments These use the principles

4. 3- 1/8" Considered to be a standard full-size

Z. SN AI "4" MIN %him

5. 4" The older style gyro instruments were

this is done the marks must not interfere with

The colored markings on an airspeed indicator

4. General Precautions for

Reducing radio frequency interference in sensitive aircraft systems.

A ground return path for aircraft circuits that

Figure 1-4. Operating limitations markings on an

Figure 1-5. Bonding jumpers are installed on shock

When installing an instrument that requires

Post Lights These are small round lights

Aircraft Technical Books, LLC

Precipitation static, also known as P-static, is

5. FAA Regulations for Instruments

Figure 1-7. A post light type of lighting fixture (item 1) for

The FAA has many regulations that concern the

CENTER INSTRUMENT PANEL

CO-PILOT INSTRUMENT PANEL

Figure 1-9. An un-supercharged reciprocating aircraft

will be paraphrased in order to simplify the wording

horizontally opposed reciprocating engine. Figure

Figure 1-10. A radial piston engine with internal supercharger.

5. Speed warning for turbine engine aircraft or

PROPELLER DRIVE SHAFT

FREE (POWER) TURBINE

Gas temperature for turbine engines.

Oil pressure for each turbosupercharger (only

Fuel flowmeter for turbine engines.

Oil temperature for each engine.

Torquemeter for turbo-propeller engines.

Fuel pressure if the engine is pump fed.

Manifold pressure for:

Figure 1-14. The three instruments required for a pressurized aircraft.

Direction of flight instrument adjacent and

Aircraft Technical Books, LLC

2. Must not be easily erased, disfigured or

1. For the never exceed speed Vne, a red radial

There are standard colors specified for certain

Figure 1-15. The manifold pressure gauge is used in

For the caution range, a yellow arc extending