A New Milling 101: Milling Forces and

Formulas
A review of milling fundamentals presented by the WIDIA Products Group
of Kennametal Inc.
Part 3. The forces involved in the milling process can be quantified, thus
allowing mathematical tools to predict and control these forces. Formulas
for calculating these forces accurately make it possible to optimize the
quality (and the profitability) of milling operations.
Article: External From: 3/21/2011 Modern Machine Shop, Brian Hamil, Senior Application Engineer from WIDIA Products
Group , Ron Davis, Manager, Training and Development from WIDIA Products Group , Jay Verellen, Global Product Manager,
Indexable Milling Team from WIDIA Products Group

Editor's Commentary
This series of tutorial articles was graciously provided by WIDIA Products Group of Kennametal Inc.,
who is solely responsible for the contents. Other cutting tool manufacturers are invited to submit
similar technical content for the education of the metalworking industry.
Click Image to Enlarge

Typically, face milling is performed by tools offering a lead angle for long tool life and reduced chance of breakout when
exiting the workpiece.

In milling, cutting forces are exerted in three planes to deform and shear away material in the form of
a chip. Tangential cutting forces overcome the resistance to rotation and account for 70 perent of the
total force. Feed forces account for 20 percent of the total force. Radial forces tend to push away the
tool and account for 10 percent of the cutting forces.
The tool's rake controls the degree of cutting forces and power consumption, the strength of the
cutting edge, and the direction of chip flow. As a rake angle becomes more negative, cutting forces
increase and edge strength improves. A dependent rake is based on the lead angle of the tool and is
common for external turning tools. An independent rake is applied regardless of the design of other
tool angles and is typical for most rotating cutting tools and boring tools.

The tool's lead is the approach angle of the cutting edge as it enters the workpiece. The lead controls
the direction of the radial and axial cutting forces, provides effective chip thinning, and protects the
weakest part of the cutting edge.
The tool's clearance is an angled relief behind the cutting edge that eliminates interference between
the cutting tool and the workpiece. Clearance is required to reduce rubbing or burnishing and allow for
adequate chip flow. Different workpiece materials require different clearance angles, especially if the
workpiece is expected to cause spring back.
A milling cutter's performance is limited by its maximum chip load. Since commonly used speed and
feed calculators show only feed per tooth, expressed as fz, the terms "chip load" and "fz" tend to be
used interchangeably. This common misconception can lead to significant error.
Always remember that chip load refers to chip thickness, not fz. Rather, fz is the increment of feed
that takes place by one insert in one revolution of the cutter. Chip thickness is the amount taken by
each insert as it advances through the arc of the cut. The metal removed by a single pass of one insert
looks like a very thin crescent. Chip thickness is the thickness of the crescent anywhere along its arc,
which makes its thickness vary from zero to a maximum usually equal to the fz. Chip thickness
increases until it equals the fz at the centerline of the cutter. Feed per tooth and chip thickness are
equal only at the point where the crescent crosses the direction of feed, which is usually at the cutter
centerline. In other words, fz is a constant for a given operation, and the chip thickness is a variable
that changes cyclically.
Milling cutters can consume significant amounts of horsepower. Very often it is the lack of horsepower
that is the limiting factor when deciding on a particular operation. On applications where largediameter cutters or heavy stock removal is necessary, it is advantageous to first calculate the necessary
horsepower requirements.
NOTE: Spindle efficiency E varies from 75% to 90% (E = 0.75 to 0.90).
A suitable formula for calculating horsepower (HPC) at the cutter is:
HPC = MRR/K

example:

width of cut (ae) 1.64"

MRR = Ap1 x ae x vf
MRR = .200 x 1.64 x 19.5 = 6.4 in3/min
For horsepower at the motor (HPm), use formula:
HPm = HPC/E
In determining horsepower consumption, K factors must be used. The K factor is a power constant
that represents the number of cubic inches of metal per minute that can be removed by one
horsepower. NOTE: K factors vary depending on the hardness of the material.

Workpiece Material K factors

150-450

K factor
1.64
1.56
1.28
1.10
0.88
0.69
0.59
0.54
1.27-.42

Cast irons (gray, ductile, malleable)

150-175
10-190
176-200
201-250
251-300
301-320

2.27
2.00
1.89
1.52
1.27
1.19

Stainless steels, wrought irons, cast irons

135-275
286-421

1.54-.76
.74-.50

Titanium

250-375

1.33-.87

High-temp alloys, nickel- and cobalt-based

200-360

.83-.48

Iron-based

180-320

.91-.53

Nickel alloys

80-360

.91-.53

Aluminum alloys

30-150 (500 kg)

6.25-3.33

Magnesium alloys

40-90 (500 kg)

10.0-6.67

Copper
Copper alloys

150
100-150
151-243

3.33
3.33
2.00

In addition to power calculations, geometry aspects of peripheral milling cutters also are important,
namely helix and rake/clearance angles. Most peripheral milling cutters are made with helical teeth.
Helical teeth enter the workpiece at a single point with impact progressively increasing across the
width of the cut. If the width of the workpiece is a whole multiple of the axial pitch of the cutter, a
helical cutter can be designed to cut with practically uniform cutting force, explaining their wide
preference.
With straight teeth, while the impact at entry occurs over the entire width of the cut, the chip load is
released at exit and the cutting force drops to zero, resulting in violent fluctuations in cutting force.
Rake angles can be positive or negative. A positive rake angle has a small cutting zone with a high
shearing angle and generates tensile stress due to its cutting action. A negative rake angle, by
comparison, has a large contact zone and low shearing angle and generates compressive stress as it
cuts. In general. positive rake angles are recommended for aluminum and milder steels with negative
rake angles being a better choice for medium and harder steels.
Round inserts with a positive geometry are usually called upon when a strong insert edge is needed.
With more cutting edges and high axial forces, round cutters are usually recommended for milling with
high-impact loads and high-strength materials.
Cutter diameter and the pitch of the teeth also are vital considerations. In general, one should use the
smallest cutter that can transmit the power required and provide economic tool life, given the
following (all things being equal, that is--constant cutting speed, feed per tooth, and pitch of teeth):
1. The larger the cutter diameter, the smaller the mean chip thickness, therefore force on the
individual tooth is smaller.
2. Larger-diameter cutters are capable of transmitting greater power as they are carried on a largerdiameter arbor.
3. Larger-diameter cutters will give greater tool life, given the greater number of teeth, but largerdiameter cutters also exhibit increased cycle time due to increase in the approach time of the cutter.
Factors for selecting pitch of the teeth are:

1. At constant feed velocity and for the same diameter of cutter, the fewer number of teeth (coarse
pitch) means higher cutting force per tooth.
2. Long-chipping material needs more chip space than short-chipping material, hence long-chipping
material needs a coarser pitch than short-chipping material.
3. The number of teeth should be such as to allow sufficient room for chipmaking at the highest feed
rates at which the cutter will be operated.
4. Light alloys allow higher feed rates, so applicable cutters should have fewer teeth to provide more
chip room. Consequently, higher-strength materials (chrom-moly or chrom-tungsten steels) have higher
specific cutting pressure, so a medium- or fine-pitch cutter should be used to keep forces within limits
for each cutting tooth.
Face milling is used for creating a flat surface (face) on the workpiece surface. The cutting plane is
usually perpendicular to the axis of rotation and the cutters most often feature a single row of inserts.
Surface finish requirements are an important input to determine the best tool type. Typically, face
milling is performed by tools offering a lead angle for long tool life and reduced chance of breakout
when exiting the workpiece.
Face milling may include a simultaneous shoulder milling operation. Unlike face milling, shoulder
milling takes place with the cutting plane parallel to the axis of rotation, creating a flat or contoured
surface on the workpiece periphery. Typical shoulder-milling cutters usually have one or more rows of
inserts.
Slot milling creates a slot or channel in the workpiece. Cutting planes are both parallel and
perpendicular to the axis of rotation. Slotting may also include simultaneous side and bottom cutting.
Tool Cutting Edge Angle
Different angles at the cutting edge generate different-thickness chips. For example, a 45-degree
cutter has equal radial and axial forces, making it less demanding on spindle bearings and enabling
higher feed rates. This is usually a good choice for face milling as it provides a smooth entrance and
exit to the cut while offering high surface finish quality.
The greater the lead angle, the lower the chip-thinning effect. A 90-degree cutter, therefore, will have
high insert loads because chip thickness is at maximum for a given feed.
In General
Choosing how to mill a given part involves many considerations. What kind of machine tool is best? How
much horsepower is available and how rigid is the machine? How is the part fixtured? Are clamps in the
way? Can the tool reach the part, and is the nose diameter of the tool appropriate? Can chips fall away
from the tool?
Whether face milling, periphery milling, slot milling, or specialty milling in general there are three
main considerations the metal removal rate, the surface finish, and the tool life (number of parts

possible per tool). While all these factors wield considerable influence on what tool is right for a given
situation, one of these factors will predominate and the others, while important, will be subordinate.
Carefully analyzing and selecting tool material, construction, and geometry can significantly minimize
overall costs and optimize your production process.
Part 4 of A New Milling 101 focuses on material grades and coatings and how they affect achieving
maximum milling performance.