other Senses

CognItIon, ConSCIouSnESS, AnD lAnguAgE

object recognition
Bottom-up (data-driven) processing: recognition
of objects by parallel processing and feature
detection. Slower, but less prone to mistakes
top-down (conceptually-driven) processing:
recognition of an object by memories and
expectations, with little attention to detail.
Faster, but more prone to mistakes
gestalt principles: ways that the brain can
infer missing parts of an image when it is
incomplete

lEArnIng AnD MEMorY

learning
habituation: the process of becoming used to
a stimulus
Dishabituation: occurs when a second
stimulus intervenes, causing a resensitization
to the original stimulus
observational learning: the acquisition of
behavior by watching others
Associative learning: pairing together
stimuli and responses, or behaviors and
consequences
Classical conditioning: a form of associative
learning in which a neutral stimulus becomes
associated with an unconditioned stimulus
such that the neutral stimulus alone produces
the same response as the unconditioned
stimulus; the neutral stimulus thus becomes a
conditioned stimulus

UCS
(food)

Neutral
stimulus
(bell)

UCR

No Response

Consciousness

Piagets Stages of Cognitive Development

Stage

EEg Waves

features

Awake

Beta and
alpha

Able to perceive, process,

access, and express
information

Theta

Light sleep

Theta

Sleep spindles and K

complexes

3/4

Delta

Slow-wave sleep; dreams;

declarative memory
consolidation; some sleep
disorders

rEM

Mostly
beta

Appears awake
physiologically; dreams;
paralyzed; procedural
memory consolidation; some
sleep disorders

Sleep disorders include dyssomnias (amount or

timing of sleep), such as insomnia, narcolepsy, sleep
apnea, and sleep deprivation; and parasomnias
(odd behaviors during sleep), such as night terrors
and sleepwalking (somnambulism).

Consciousness-Altering Drugs
Drug addiction is mediated by the mesolimbic
pathway, which includes the nucleus accumbens,
medial forebrain bundle, and ventral tegmental area.
Dopamine is the main neurotransmitter.
Drug group

function

Depressants
(alcohol, barbiturates,
benzodiazepines)

Sense of relaxation
and reduced anxiety

Stimulants
(amphetamines, cocaine,
ecstasy)

Increased arousal

opiates/opioids
(heroin, morphine,
opium, pain pills)

Decreased reaction to
pain; euphoria

hallucinogens
(LSD, peyote, mescaline,
ketamine, psilocybincontaining mushrooms)

Distortions of
reality and fantasy;
introspection

Marijuana has some features of depressants,

stimulants, and hallucinogens (in very high doses).

Memory

Stops

Behavior
Continues

Stimulus
Added
Removed
Positive
reinforcement

Negative
reinforcement

Sensory
Memory

Short-term
Memory

(< 1 sec)

(< 1 min)

Working
Memory

Long-term
Memory
(lifetime)

Explicit
Memory

Implicit
Memory

(conscious)

(unconscious)

Declarative
Memory

Procedural
Memory

(facts, events)

(skills, tasks)

Episodic
Memory

Semantic
Memory

(events, experiences)

(facts, concepts)

Encoding: the process of putting new

information into memory

Positive
punishment

Negative
punishment

Problem-solving techniques include trial-anderror, algorithms, deductive reasoning (deriving

conclusions from general rules) and inductive
reasoning (deriving generalizations from evidence).
Heuristics (simplified principles used to make
decisions, rules of thumb), biases, intuition, and
emotions may assist decision-making, but may also
lead to erroneous or problematic decisions.

Attention
Selective attention: allows one to pay
attention to a particular stimulus while
determining if additional stimuli require
attention in the background
Divided attention: uses automatic processing to
pay attention to multiple activities at one time

language Areas in the Brain

Wernickes area: language comprehension;
damage results in Wernickes aphasia
(fluent, nonsensical aphasia with lack of
comprehension)
Brocas area: motor function of speech;
damage results in Brocas aphasia (nonfluent
aphasia in which generating each word
requires great effort)
Arcuate fasciculus: connects Wernickes
and Brocas areas; damage results in
conduction aphasia (the inability to repeat
words despite intact speech generation and
comprehension)

Motivation

CS (bell)

operant conditioning: a form of associative

learning in which the frequency of a behavior
is modified using reinforcement (increases
behavior) or punishment (decreases behavior)

Problem-Solving and Decision-Making

MotIvAtIon, EMotIon, AnD StrESS

Human Memory

CR (salivation)

Sensorimotor stage: focuses on manipulating

the environment to meet physical needs
through circular reactions; object permanence
ends this stage
Preoperational stage: focuses on symbolic
thinking, egocentrism (inability to imagine
what another person thinks or feels), and
centration (focusing on only one aspect of a
phenomenon)
Concrete operational stage: focuses on
understanding the feelings of others and
manipulating physical (concrete) objects
formal operational stage: focuses on abstract
thought and problem-solving

Facts are stored via semantic networks. retrieval

of information is often based on priming
interconnected nodes of the semantic network.
recognition of information is stronger than recall.

Motivation is the purpose or driving force behind

our actions.
Extrinsic: based on external circumstances
Intrinsic: based on internal drive or perception
Motivation theories
Instinct theory: innate, fixed patterns of
behavior in response to stimuli
Arousal theory: the state of being awake and
reactive to stimuli; aim for optimal level of
arousal for a given task (YerkesDodson law)
Optimal arousal
Optimal performance

Strong

Performance

Smell: detection of volatile or aerosolized

chemicals by olfactory chemoreceptors
(olfactory nerves)
taste: detection of dissolved compounds by
taste buds in papillae
Somatosensation: four touch modalities
(pressure, vibration, pain, and temperature)
kinesthetic sense (proprioception): ability to
tell where ones body is in space

Impaired performance
because of strong anxiety

Increasing attention
and interest

Weak

High

Low
Arousal

01_MCAT_QS_BehavSci.indd 2

4/10/14 12:03 PM

 Drive reduction theory: individuals act to

relieve internal states of tension
Maslows hierarchy of needs: prioritizes needs
into five categories: physiological needs
(highest priority), safety and security, love and
belonging, self-esteem, and self-actualization
(lowest priority)

Emotion
Seven universal emotions: happiness, sadness,
contempt, surprise, fear, disgust, anger
theories of emotion:
first
response

Second
response

Jameslange

Nervous
system
arousal

Conscious
emotion

CannonBard

Nervous
system
arousal and
conscious
emotion

Action

Nervous
system
arousal and
cognitive
appraisal

Conscious
emotion

StIMuluS

theory

PSYChologICAl DISorDErS
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM): the guide by which most psychological disorders
are characterized, described, and diagnosed.

types of Psychological Disorders

Schizophrenia: psychotic disorder characterized by
distortions of reality and disturbances in content
and form of thought, perception, and behavior.
Positive symptoms include hallucinations, delusions,
and disorganized thought and behavior. negative
symptoms include disturbance of affect and avolition.
Depressive disorders
Major depressive disorder: contains at least
one major depressive episode
Pervasive depressive disorder: a depressed
mood (either dysthymia or major depression)
for at least two years
Seasonal affective disorder: the colloquial
name for major depressive disorder with
seasonal onset, with depression occurring
during winter months

Anxiety disorders
generalized anxiety disorder: constant
disproportionate and persistent worry
Specific phobias: irrational fears of specific
objects
Social anxiety disorder: anxiety due to social
or performance situations
Agoraphobia: fear of places or situations
where it is hard for an individual to escape
Panic disorder: recurrent attacks of intense,
overwhelming fear and sympathetic nervous
system activity with no clear stimulus. It may
lead to agoraphobia.
obsessivecompulsive disorder: obsessions
(persistent, intrusive thoughts and impulses) and
compulsions (repetitive tasks that relieve tension but
cause significant impairment)
Body dysmorphic disorder: unrealistic negative
evaluation of ones appearance or a specific body part

Stress

Bipolar and related disorders

Bipolar I disorder: contains at least one manic
episode
Bipolar II disorder: contains at least one
hypomanic episode and at least one major
depressive episode
Cyclothymic disorder: contains hypomanic
episodes with dysthymia

Dissociative disorders
Dissociative amnesia: inability to recall past
experience. May involve dissociative fugue, a
sudden change in location that can involve the
assumption of a new identity
Dissociative identity disorder: two or more
personalities that take control of behavior
Depersonalization/derealization disorder:
feelings of detachment from the mind and
body, or from the environment

Stress: the physiological and cognitive response to

challenges or life changes

formation of Identity

Personality

freuds stages of psychosexual development

Psychoanalytic perspective: personality results from

unconscious urges and desires

SchachterSinger

Primary appraisal: classifying a potential

stressor as irrelevant, benignpositive, or
stressful
Secondary appraisal: directed at evaluating
whether the organism can cope with the
stress, based on harm, threat, and challenge

Based on tensions caused by the libido, with

failure at any given stage leading to fixation

humanistic perspective: emphasizes internal

feelings of healthy individuals as they strive toward
happiness and self-realization

Stressor (distress or eustress): anything that leads

to a stress response; can include environmental,
social, psychological, chemical, and biological
stressors

Conscious

The three stages of the general adaptation syndrome

are alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.

Preconscious

Good health
(homeostasis)

bad stress

2. Resistance
stage

Maslow: hierarchy of needs

Rogers: unconditional positive regard
ego

superego
id

3. Exhaustion
stage

1. Alarm
stage

panic zone

Resistance

good health

Unconscious

breakdown
(burnout)

Time

Eriksons stages of psychosocial development

IDEntItY AnD PErSonAlItY

Self-Concept and Identity
Self-concept: the sum of the ways in which
we describe ourselves: in the present, who we
used to be, and who we might be in the future
Identities: individual components of our selfconcept related to the groups to which we belong
Self-esteem: our evaluation of ourselves
Self-efficacy: the degree to which we see
ourselves as being capable of a given skill in a
given situation
locus of control: a self-evaluation that refers
to the way we characterize the influences in
our lives. Either internal (success or failure is a
result of our own actions) or external (success
or failure is a result of outside factors)

Freud: id, superego, ego

Jung: collective unconscious, archetypes

Stem from conflicts that are the result of decisions

we are forced to make about ourselves and the
environment around us at each phase of our lives
Stages are trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs.
shame and doubt, initiative vs. guilt, industry
vs. inferiority, identity vs. role confusion,
intimacy vs. isolation, generativity vs.
stagnation, integrity vs. despair

type and trait theory: personality can be described

as a number of identifiable traits that carry
characteristic behaviors
Type theories of personality: ancient Greek
humors, Sheldons somatotypes, division into
types A and B, and the MyersBriggs type
Inventory
Eysencks three major traits: psychoticism,
extraversion, neuroticism
Trait theorists Big Five: openness,
conscientiousness, extraversion,
agreeableness, and neuroticism (OCEAN)
Allports three basic types of traits: cardinal,
central, and secondary

kohlbergs theory of moral reasoning development

Describes the approaches of individuals to
resolving moral dilemmas
Six stages are divided into three main
phases: preconventional, conventional, and
postconventional
vygotskys theory of cultural and biosocial
development
Describes development of language, culture,
and skills

01_MCAT_QS_BehavSci.indd 3

4/10/14 12:03 PM

Somatic symptom and related disorders

Somatic symptom disorder: at least one
somatic symptom, which may or may not be
linked to an underlying medical condition, that
causes disproportionate concern
Illness anxiety disorder: preoccupation with
having or coming down with a serious medical
condition
Conversion disorder: unexplained symptoms
affecting motor or sensory function
Personality disorders
Patterns of inflexible, maladaptive behavior that
cause distress or impaired functioning
Cluster A (odd, eccentric, weird): paranoid,
schizotypal, schizoid
Cluster B (dramatic, emotional, erratic, wild):
antisocial, borderline, histrionic, narcissistic
Cluster C (anxious, fearful, worried):
avoidant, dependent, obsessivecompulsive

social processes, attitudes,

and behavior
Group Psychology
Social facilitation: tendency to perform at a
different level (better or worse) when others
are around
Deindividuation: loss of self-awareness in
large groups; can lead to drastic changes in
behavior
Bystander effect: in a group, individuals are
less likely to respond to a person in need
Peer pressure: social influence placed on an
individual by other individuals they consider
equals
Group polarization: tendency towards making
decisions in a group that are more extreme then
the thoughts of the individual group members
Groupthink: tendency to make decisions
based on ideas and solutions that arise within
the group without considering outside ideas

Culture
Assimilation: one culture begins to melt into
another
Multiculturalism: encouragement of multiple
cultures within a community to enhance
diversity
Subculture: a group that distinguishes itself
from the primary culture to which it belongs

Socialization
Socialization: the process of developing and
spreading norms, customs, and beliefs
Norms: boundaries of acceptable behavior
within society
Stigma: extreme disapproval or dislike
of a person or group based on perceived
differences
Deviance: any violation of norms, rules, or
expectations within a society
Conformity: changing beliefs or behaviors in
order to fit into a group or society
Compliance: individuals change behavior
based on the request of others; techniques
for gaining compliance include foot-in-thedoor, door-in-the-face, lowball, and thatsnot-all
Obedience: change in behavior based on a
command from someone seen as an authority
figure

01_MCAT_QS_BehavSci.indd 4

social interaction

Elements of Social Interaction

Status: a position in society used to classify
individuals. Can be ascribed (involuntarily
assigned), achieved (voluntarily earned), or
master (primary identity)
Role: set of beliefs, values, and norms that
define the expectations of a certain status
Group: two or more individuals with similar
characteristics who share a sense of unity
Network: observable pattern of social
relationships between individuals or groups
Organization: group with a structure
and culture designed to achieve specific
goals; exists outside of each individuals
membership within the organization

Self-Presentation and Interacting with Others

Display rules: unspoken rules that govern the
expression of emotion
Impression management: maintenance of a
public image through various strategies
Dramaturgical approach: individuals create
images of themselves in the same way that
actors perform a role in front of an audience

social thinking
Social Behavior
Interpersonal attraction: influenced by
physical, social, and psychological factors
Aggression: behavior with the intention to
cause harm or increase social dominance
Attachment: an emotional bond to another
person; usually refers to the bond between a
child and a caregiver
Altruism: helping behavior in which the
persons intent is to benefit someone else at a
personal cost

Social Perception and Behavior

Attribution Theory
Focuses on the tendency for individuals to infer the
causes of other peoples behavior
Dispositional (internal) causes relate to the
features of the person who is being considered
Situational (external) causes relate to features
of the surroundings or social context
Correspondent inference theory: describes
attributions made by observing the intentional
(especially unexpected) behaviors performed
by another person
Fundamental attribution error: bias toward
making dispositional attributions rather than
situational attributions

Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination

Stereotypes: attitudes and impressions that
are made based on limited and superficial
information
Self-fulfilling prophecy: the phenomenon
of a stereotype creating an expectation of a
particular group, which creates conditions that
lead to confirmation of this stereotype
Stereotype threat: a feeling of anxiety about
confirming a negative stereotype
Prejudice: an irrationally based attitude prior
to actual experience
Ethnocentrism: the practice of making
judgments about other cultures based on
the values and beliefs of ones own culture
(in-group vs. out-group)

Cultural relativism: studying social groups and

cultures on their own terms
Discrimination: when prejudicial attitudes
cause differences in treatment of a group

social structure and demographics

Sociology: Theories and Institutions
Functionalism: focuses on the function and
relationships of each component of society
Conflict theory: focuses on how power
differentials are created and how they
maintain order
Symbolic interactionism: the study of
how individuals interact through a shared
understanding of words, gestures, and other
symbols
Social constructionism: explores how
individuals and groups make decisions to
agree upon a given social reality

Culture
Material culture: physical items one
associates with a given group (art, clothing,
foods, buildings)
Symbolic culture: the ideas associated with a
cultural group

Demographics
Demographics: the statistical arm of sociology
Migration refers to the movement of people into
(immigration) or out of (emigration) a geographical
location.
Demographic transition: a model used to represent
drops in birth and death rates as a result of
industrialization

social stratification
Social Class
Social stratification is based on socioeconomic
status (SES).
Class: a category of people with shared
socioeconomic characteristics
Power: the capacity to influence people
through real or perceived rewards and
punishments
Social capital: the investment people make
in society in return for economic or collective
rewards
Social reproduction: the passing on of
social inequality, especially poverty, to other
generations
Poverty: low SES; in the US, the poverty line is
the governments calculation of the minimum
income requirements to acquire the minimum
necessities of life

Epidemiology
Incidence:

new cases
population - at risk

Prevalence:

per time

number of cases(new or old)

per time

total population
Morbidity: the burden or degree of illness associated
with a given disease
Mortality: deaths caused by a given disease

4/10/14 12:03 PM

CARBOHYDRATE STRUCTURE
AND FUNCTION

DNA AND BIOTECHNOLOGY

NH2

Carbohydrate Classification
Carbohydrates are organized by their number of
carbon atoms and functional groups.

high-energy
bonds

3-carbon sugars are trioses, 4-carbon sugars

are tetroses, and so on.
Sugars with aldehydes as their most oxidized
group are aldoses; sugars with ketones as
their most oxidized group are ketoses.

N
N

Epimers differ at exactly one chiral carbon.

Anomers are a subtype of epimers that differ
at the anomeric carbon.

ATP

OH OH

DNA Structure
Nucleosides contain a five-carbon sugar bound to a
nitrogenous base; nucleotides are nucleosides with
one to three phosphate groups added.

Cyclic Sugar Molecules

Nucleotides in DNA contain deoxyribose; in RNA, they

contain ribose.

Cyclization describes the ring formation of

carbohydrates from their straight-chain forms.

Nucleotides are abbreviated by letter: adenine (A),

cytosine (C), guanine (G), thymine (T), and uracil (U).

When rings form, the anomeric carbon can take on

either an - or -conformation.

WatsonCrick Model

The anomeric carbon is the new chiral center formed

in ring closure; it was the carbon containing the
carbonyl in the straight-chain form.
-anomers have the OH on the anomeric
carbon trans to the free CH2OH group.
-anomers have the OH on the anomeric
carbon cis to the free CH2OH group.
During mutarotation, one anomeric form shifts
to another, with the straight-chain form as an
intermediate.

Monosaccharides
CH2OH
C
HO

CHO

HO

CHO

OH

HO

HO

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

HO

OH

OH

CH2OH

HO

D-fructose

CHO

OH

CH2OH
D-glucose

CH2OH
D-galactose

CH2OH
D-mannose

Monosaccharides are single carbohydrate units

and can undergo three main reactions: oxidation
reduction, esterification, and glycoside formation.
Glycoside formation is the basis for building complex
carbohydrates and requires the anomeric carbon to
link to another sugar.
Sugars with a H replacing an OH group are termed
deoxy sugars.

The DNA backbone is composed of alternating

sugar and phosphate groups, and is always
read 5' to 3'.
There are two strands with antiparallel polarity,
wound into a double helix.
Purines (A and G) always pair with pyrimidines
(C, U, and T). In DNA, A pairs with T (via two
hydrogen bonds) and C pairs with G (via three
hydrogen bonds). In RNA, A pairs with U (via
two hydrogen bonds).
Chargaffs rules: purines and pyrimidines
are equal in number in a DNA molecule. The
amount of A equals the amount of T, and the
amount of C equals the amount of G.
DNA strands can be pulled apart (denatured) and
brought back together (reannealed).

Eukaryotic Chromosome Organization

DNA is organized into 46 chromosomes in human cells.
In eukaryotes, DNA is wound around histone proteins
(H2A, H2B, H3, and H4) to form nucleosomes, which
may be stabilized by another histone protein (H1).
DNA and its associated histones make up chromatin
in the nucleus.
Heterochromatin is dense, transcriptionally
silent DNA.
Euchromatin is less dense, transcriptionally
active DNA.

Disaccharides
Common disaccharides include sucrose (glucose-1,2-fructose), lactose (galactose--1,4-glucose), and
maltose (glucose--1,4-glucose).

with H1

Cellulose: main structural component of plant

cell walls; main source of fiber in the human
diet
Starches (amylose and amylopectin): main
energy storage forms for plants

02_MCAT_QS_Biochem.indd 6

without H1
10 nm

30 nm

Polysaccharides

Glycogen: a major energy storage form for

animals

DNA Replication

O
O
O
O P O P O P O
CH2 O

O
O
O

Sugars with the highest-numbered chiral carbon with

the OH group on the right (in a Fischer projection)
are D-sugars; those with the OH on the left are
L-sugars. D- and L-forms of the same sugar are
enantiomers.
Diastereomers differ at at least onebut not allchiral
carbons. Also include:

Centromeres are located in the middle of

chromosomes and hold sister chromatids together
until they are separated during anaphase in mitosis.
They also contain a high GC-content.

H2A
H3

H2B
H1

H4
H3

H2A

H2B
expanded view

expanded view of
a nucleosome

H4

Telomeres are the ends of chromosomes. They

contain a high GC-content to prevent unraveling of
the DNA.

Step in
Replication

Prokaryotic
Cells

Eukaryotic
Cells (Nuclei)

Origin of
replication

One per
chromosome

Multiple per
chromosome

Unwinding of
DNA double
helix

Helicase

Helicase

Stabilization
of unwound
template
strands

Singlestranded
DNA-binding
protein

Singlestranded
DNA-binding
protein

Synthesis of
RNA primers

Primase

Primase

Synthesis of
DNA

DNA
polymerase III

DNA
polymerases
and

Removal of RNA
primers

DNA
polymerase I
(5'3'
exonuclease)

RNase H
(5'3'
exonuclease)

Replacement of
RNA with DNA

DNA
polymerase I

DNA
polymerase

Joining of
Okazaki
fragments

DNA ligase

DNA ligase

Removal
of positive
supercoils
ahead of
advancing
replication
forks

DNA
topoisomerase
II (DNA gyrase)

DNA
topoisomerase
II (DNA gyrase)

Synthesis of
telomeres

Not applicable

Telomerase

DNA replication is semiconservative: one old parent

strand and one new daughter strand is incorporated
into each of the two new DNA molecules.
leading strand
DNA polymerase III
on leading strand

5
3

ssDNA-binding protein

leading strand template

DNA polymerase III
on lagging strand

parent DNA

helicase

Okazaki fragment
primase

5
lagging strand template

DNA polymerase synthesizes new DNA strands,

reading the template DNA 3' to 5' and synthesizing
the new strand 5' to 3'.
The leading strand requires only one primer
and can then be synthesized continuously.
The lagging strand requires many primers
and is synthesized in discrete sections called
Okazaki fragments.

Recombinant DNA and Biotechnology

Recombinant DNA is DNA composed of nucleotides
from two different sources.
DNA cloning introduces a fragment of DNA into a
vector plasmid. A restriction enzyme (restriction
endonuclease) cuts both the plasmid and the fragment,
leaving them with sticky ends, which can bind.

4/10/14 12:02 PM

 Genomic libraries contain large fragments of

DNA, including both coding and noncoding
regions of the genome. They cannot be used
to make recombinant proteins or for gene
therapy.
cDNA libraries (expression libraries) contain
smaller fragments of DNA, and only include
the exons of genes expressed by the sample
tissue. They can be used to make recombinant
proteins or for gene therapy.

DNA

3'

Membrane Transport

TGA

coding region

3'
5'

promoter
3' untranslated
region (UTR)

5' untranslated
region (UTR)

transcription
terminates

transcription
mRNA
ShineDalgarno
sequence
5'

AUG

GC-rich stem
and loop

UGA
coding region

UUUUUU 3'

5' UTR

3' UTR

translation

H2NproteinCOOH

Steps:Figure I-3-4. Expression of a Prokaryotic Protein Coding Gene

Helicase and topoisomerase unwind DNA
double helix.
RNA polymerase II binds to TATA box within
promoter region of gene (25 base pairs
upstream from first transcribed base).
hnRNA synthesized from DNA template
(antisense) strand.

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is an automated

process by which millions of copies of a DNA
sequence can be created from a very small sample
by hybridization.

Posttranscriptional modifications:
7-methylguanylate triphosphate cap added
to 5' end
Polyadenosyl (poly-A) tail added to 3' end
Splicing done by spliceosome; introns
removed and exons ligated together.
Alternative splicing combines different exons
to acquire different gene products.

Southern blotting can be used to detect the

presence and quantity of various DNA strands in
a sample. After electrophoresis, the sample is
transferred to a membrane that can be probed
with single-stranded DNA molecules to look for a
sequence of interest.
DNA sequencing uses dideoxyribonucleotides,
which terminate the DNA chain because they lack a
3' OH group.

ATG

+1

Hybridization is the joining of complementary base

pair sequences.

DNA molecules can be separated by size using

agarose gel electrophoresis.

TATA
box
35 10

5'

BIOLOGICAL MEMBRANES

transcription

A U G C C G U A U G C U
U A CG G C

Met P site A site

anticodon

o
Pr

02_MCAT_QS_Biochem.indd 7

Met

Three stages: initiation, elongation, termination

transport
proteins

simple
diffusion

facilitated
diffusion

passive transport

energy
(ATP or ion gradient)
active transport

Figure 1.5 Movement Across Memberances

Endocytosis and
exocytosis are methods of
engulfing material into cells or releasing material
to the exterior of cells, both via the cell membrane.
Pinocytosis is the ingestion of liquid into the cell
from vesicles formed from the cell membrane and
phagocytosis is the ingestion of solid material.

Posttranslational modifications:

Folding by chaperones
Formation of quaternary structure
Cleavage of proteins or signal sequences
Covalent addition of other biomolecules
(phosphorylation, carboxylation, glycosylation,
prenylation)

Control of Gene Expression in Prokaryotes

Operons (JacobMonod model) are inducible or
repressible clusters of genes transcribed as a single
mRNA.
regulator

operator

promoter

structural

regulator

promoter

operator

structural

RNA polymerase

RNA polymerase
R

binds
repressor

repressor

Messenger RNA (mRNA): carries the message

from DNA in the nucleus via transcription of
the gene; travels into the cytoplasm to be
translated
Transfer RNA (tRNA): brings in amino acids;
recognizes the codon on the mRNA using its
anticodon
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): makes up much of the
ribosome; enzymatically active

Pro

incoming tRNA

Point mutations can cause:

There are three major types of RNA in transcription:

molecules

concentration
gradient
A U G C C G U A U G C U
U A C

Degenerate code allows multiple codons to encode

for the same amino acid.

Substitution of a ribose sugar for deoxyribose

Substitution of uracil for thymine
Single-stranded instead of double-stranded

Active transport requires energy in the form of

ATP (primary) or an existing favorable ion gradient
(secondary). Secondary active transport can be
further classified as symport or antiport.

cell membrane

The Genetic Code

RNA is structurally similar to DNA except:

Simple diffusion does not require a

transporter. Small, nonpolar molecules
passively move from an area of high
concentration to an area of low concentration
until equilibrium is achieved.
Osmosis describes the diffusion of water
across a selectively permeable membrane.
Facilitated diffusion uses transport proteins
to move impermeable solutes across the cell
membrane.

Occurs at the ribosome.

Central Dogma: DNA RNA proteins

Silent mutations, with no effect on protein

synthesis
Nonsense (truncation) mutations, which
produce a premature stop codon
Missense mutations, which produce a codon
that codes for a different amino acid
Frameshift mutations, which result from
nucleotide addition or deletion and change
the reading frame of subsequent codons

= iMRT
Passive transport does not require ATP because the
molecule is moving down its concentration gradient
or from an area of higher concentration to an area of
lower concentration.

Translation

RNA AND THE GENETIC CODE

Initiation: AUG
Termination: UAA, UGA, UAG
Redundancy and wobble (third base in the
codon) allow mutations to occur without
affecting the protein.

Osmotic pressure, a colligative property, is the

pressure applied to a pure solvent to prevent
osmosis and is related to the concentration of
the solution.

DNA libraries are large collections of known DNA

sequences.

Transcription

Once replicated, the bacterial cells can be used to

create a protein of interest, or can be lysed to allow
for isolation of the fragment of interest from the
vector.

inducer
I

I
R

inducerrepressor
complex cannot bind
to operatorstructural
genes are transcribed

inducible system

R
repressor cannot
bind to operator
by itself

repressorcorepressor
complex binds to
operator and represses
enzyme synthesis

corepressor (end product)

repressible system

Control of Gene Expression in Eukaryotes

Transcription factors search for promoter and
enhancer regions in the DNA.
Promoters are within 25 base pairs of the
transcription start site.
Enhancers are more than 25 base pairs away
from the transcription start site.

CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM
Glycolysis
Occurs in the cytoplasm of all cells, and does not
require oxygen. Yields 2 ATP per glucose. Important
enzymes include:
Glucokinase: present in the pancreatic -islet
cells as part of the glucose sensor and is
responsive to insulin in the liver
Hexokinase: traps glucose
Phosphofructokinase-1 (PFK-1): rate-limiting
step
Phosphofructokinase-2 (PFK-2): produces
F2,6-BP, which activates PFK-1
Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase:
produces NADH
3-phosphoglycerate kinase and
pyruvate kinase: perform substrate-level
phosphorylation
Glucokinase/hexokinase, PFK-1, and pyruvate kinase
catalyze irreversible reactions.
The NADH produced in glycolysis is oxidized
aerobically by the mitochondrial electron transport
chain and anaerobically by cytoplasmic lactate
dehydrogenase.

4/10/14 12:02 PM

Pyruvate Dehydrogenase
Converts pyruvate to acetyl-CoA. Stimulated by
insulin and inhibited by acetyl-CoA.

The Citric Acid Cycle

Takes place in mitochondrial matrix. Main purpose
is to oxidize acetyl-CoA to CO2 and generate highenergy electron carriers (NADH and FADH2) and GTP.
Glucose
Amino acids

Pyruvate

Fatty acids
Ketones
Alcohol

Glycogenesis (glycogen synthesis) is the building of

glycogen using two main enzymes:

Citrate
synthase

Oxaloacetate

Citrate
cis-Aconitase

NADH

Isocitrate

NAD

NAD

Isocitrate
dehydrogenase

Malate

CO2

NADH

Fumarase

-Ketoglutarate
+

Succinate
dehydrogenase
(complex II)

-Ketoglutarate
dehydrogenase

NAD

Fumarate

FADH2

NADH

FAD

Succinate

GTP

Succinyl-CoA

GDP + Pi

CO2

Succinyl-CoA
synthetase
Figure I-13-1. Citric Acid Cycle
The Electron Transport
Chain

Takes place on the matrix-facing surface of the inner

mitochondrial membrane.
NADH donates electrons to the chain, which are
passed from one complex to the next. Reduction
potentials increase down the chain, until the
electrons end up on oxygen, which has the highest
reduction potential.
Step 1

2 e

Q
QH2

4H

Fe-S
centers

NADH NAD + H

Q
QH2

2H

2H

FAD

FMN

Fe
Heme

Step 2
Cyt c
(ox)

2H

Fe-S
centers

QH2
Q

1 e

2 H+
Cyt c
(red)

2 H+

c
4 Cyt
(red)
Cyt c
(red)

c
4 Cyt
(ox)

4 e
Cu

Fe

QH2
QH2

Cyt c
(ox)

1 e

4 H + O2

2 H+

Fe
Cu
+
2 H2O 2 H

FADH2

Succinate

Complex I

Fumarate + 2 H+

Complex II

Complex III

Complex IV

NADH cannot cross the inner mitochondrial

membrane, so must use one of two shuttle
mechanisms to transfer its electrons to energy
carriers in the mitochondrial matrix: the glycerol
3-phosphate shuttle or the malateaspartate
shuttle.

Oxidative Phosphorylation
The proton-motive force is the electrochemical gradient
generated by the electron transport chain across the
inner mitochondrial membrane. The intermembrane
space has a higher concentration of protons than the
matrix; this gradient stores energy, which can be used
to form ATP via chemiosmotic coupling.
ATP synthase is the enzyme responsible for generating
ATP from ADP and an inorganic phosphate (Pi ).
Summary of the energy yield of the various
carbohydrate metabolism processes:
Glycolysis: 2 NADH and 2 ATP
Pyruvate dehydrogenase: 1 NADH (2 NADH
per molecule of glucose because each glucose
forms two molecules of pyruvate)
Citric acid cycle: 3 NADH, 1 FADH2, and 1 GTP
(6 NADH, 2 FADH2, and 2 GTP per molecule
of glucose)

02_MCAT_QS_Biochem.indd 8

Each NADH: 2.5 ATP; 10 NADH form 25 ATP

Each FADH2: 1.5 ATP; 2 FADH2 form 3 ATP
GTP are converted to ATP.
2 ATP from glycolysis + 2 ATP (GTP) from citric
acid cycle + 25 ATP from NADH + 3 ATP from
FADH2 = 32 ATP per molecule of glucose
(optimal). 3032 ATP per molecule of glucose
is the commonly accepted range for energy
yield

Glycogenesis and Glycogenolysis

PDH
Acetyl-CoA

Malate
dehydrogenase

Glycogen synthase, which creates -1,4

glycosidic links between glucose molecules. It
is activated by insulin in the liver and muscles.
Branching enzyme, which moves a block of
oligoglucose from one chain and connects it
as a branch using an -1,6 glycosidic link.
Glycogenolysis is the breakdown of glycogen using
two main enzymes:
Glycogen phosphorylase, which removes
single glucose 1-phosphate molecules by
breaking -1,4 glycosidic links. In the liver, it
is activated by glucagon to prevent low blood
sugar. In exercising skeletal muscle, it is
activated by epinephrine and AMP to provide
glucose for the muscle itself.
Debranching enzyme, which moves a block of
oligoglucose from one branch and connects it
to the chain using an -1,4 glycosidic link.

Gluconeogenesis
Occurs in both the cytoplasm and mitochondria,
predominantly in the liver. Most of gluconeogenesis
is just the reverse of glycolysis, using the same
enzymes.
The three irreversible steps of glycolysis must be
bypassed by different enzymes:
Pyruvate carboxylase and PEP carboxykinase
bypass pyruvate kinase
Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase bypasses
phosphofructokinase-1
Glucose-6-phosphatase bypasses hexokinase/
glucokinase

The Pentose Phosphate Pathway

Occurs in the cytoplasm of most cells, generating
NADPH and sugars for biosynthesis. Rate-limiting
enzyme is glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase,
which is activated by NADP+ and inhibited by NADPH
and insulin.

BIOENERGETICS AND REGULATION OF

METABOLISM
Metabolic States
In the postprandial/well-fed (absorptive)
state, insulin secretion is high and anabolic
metabolism prevails.
In the postabsorptive (fasting) state, insulin
secretion decreases while glucagon and
catecholamine secretion increases.
Prolonged fasting (starvation) dramatically
increases glucagon and catecholamine
secretion. Most tissues rely on fatty acids.

LIPID AND AMINO ACID METABOLISM

Lipid Transport
Lipids are transported via chylomicrons, VLDL, IDL,
LDL, and HDL.

Intestine
(epithelium)

TGL
CE

TGL
CE

Chylomicron
(lymph)

Chylomicron
(blood)

Adipose

Lipoprotein
lipase
Fatty acids
Glycerol 3-P

TGL
CE

Cholesterol

Chylomicron
remnant

Liver

Triacylglycerol
TGL
chol

Triacylglycerol

VLDL
(blood)

Glucose

Lipoprotein
lipase

Glycerol 3-P

Fatty acids

TGL
chol

IDL

Cholesterol Metabolism
Cholesterol may be obtained through dietary
sources or through synthesis in the liver.
The key enzyme in cholesterol biosynthesis is
HMG-CoA reductase.
Palmitic acid, the only fatty acid that humans can
synthesize, is produced in the cytoplasm from
acetyl-CoA transported out of the mitochondria.
Fatty acid oxidation occurs in the mitochondria,
following transport by the carnitine shuttle, via
-oxidation.
Ketone bodies form (ketogenesis) during a
prolonged starvation state due to excess acetyl-CoA
in the liver. Ketolysis regenerates acetyl-CoA for use
as an energy source in peripheral tissues.

Protein Catabolism
Protein digestion occurs primarily in the small
intestine. Carbon skeletons of amino acids are used
for energy, either through gluconeogenesis or ketone
body formation. Amino groups are fed into the urea
cycle for excretion.

Glycogen
synthesis

Lipid
synthesis

Insulin

Glucagon

Cellular glucose
uptake

Glycogenolysis

Plasma glucose
Protein
synthesis
Glucose efflux

Glucose
utilization

Lipolysis

Stimulates
Inhibits

Protein
catabolism
Ureagenesis

Gluconeogenesis
Ketogenesis

Tissue-Specific Metabolism
Liver: maintains blood glucose through
glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis.
Processes lipids, cholesterol, bile, urea, and
toxins.
Adipose: stores and releases lipids
Resting muscle: conserves carbohydrates as
glycogen and uses free fatty acids for fuel
Active muscle: may use anaerobic
metabolism, oxidative phosphorylation, direct
phosphorylation (creatine phosphate), or fatty
acid oxidation
Cardiac muscle: uses fatty acid oxidation
Brain: uses glucose except in prolonged
starvation, when it can use ketolysis

4/10/14 12:02 PM

Nervous system, epidermis, lens

Ectoderm
of eye, inner ear
Attractoderm
ENDOCRINE
SYSTEM
Lining of digestive tract,
lungs,
Endoderm
liver and pancreas
Endernal organs
Direct hormones directly stimulate organs; tropic hormones stimulate other glands.
Muscles, skeleton, circulatory
Mesoderm
Mechanisms of hormone action: peptides act via second messengers and steroids act via hormone/receptor
system, gonads, kidney
Meansoderm
binding to DNA. Amino acid-derivative hormones may do either.
Source

Hormone
Follicle-stimulating (FSH)
Luteinizing (LH)
Adrenocorticotropic (ACTH)
Thyroid-stimulating (TSH)

Anterior pituitary

Prolactin
Endorphins
Growth hormone
Oxytocin

Action
Stimulates follicle maturation; spermatogenesis
Stimulates ovulation; testosterone synthesis
Stimulates adrenal cortex to make and secrete
glucocorticoids
Stimulates the thyroid to produce thyroid
Nervous system, epidermis, lens
Ectoderm
hormones
eye, inner ear
Attractoderm
Stimulates milk production andofsecretion
Inhibits the perception of pain in
the brain
Lining
of digestive tract, lungs,
Endoderm
Stimulates bone
and muscle growth/lipolysis
liver and pancreas
Endernal
organs
Stimulates uterine contractionsMuscles,
during labor,
skeleton, circulatory
Mesoderm
milk secretion during lactation system, gonads, kidney
Meansoderm

Four Stages of Menstrual Cycle:

1. Follicular: FSH causes growth of a follicle
2. Ovulation: LH causes follicle to release egg
3. Luteal: corpus luteum forms
4. Menstruation: endometrial lining sheds
Hypothalamus

day 14

LH surge

follicle
LH

day 0

corpus luteum

GnRH

ruptures-egg released
(ovulation)
no pregnancy
pr e

gn

pr ogesterone

pituitary

an

cy

corpus luteum atrophies

(inhibition stops, cycle
starts anew)
zygote

early in cycle
(prevents multiple
egg development)

FSH

later in
cycle

maintains
uterine wall

hCG
(LH analog)

ovary

follicle begins to mature

Hypothalamus;
stored in
estrogen
Antidiuretic (ADH,
posterior pituitary
Stimulates water reabsorption in kidneys
vasopressin)
Source
Action
Hormone
uterus
Thyroid hormones (T3, T4)
Stimulates metabolic activity
Stimulates follicle maturation; spermatogenesis
Thyroid
Follicle-stimulating
(FSH)
Calcitonin
Decreases (tones down) blood calcium level
vascularization
Stimulates ovulation; testosterone synthesis
Luteinizing (LH) Increases blood calcium level
of uterine wall
Parathyroid hormone
Parathyroid
Stimulates adrenal cortex to make and secrete
Increases
blood
glucose
level
and
decreases
Glucocorticoids
Adrenocorticotropicprotein
(ACTH)
synthesis; anti-inflammatory glucocorticoids
Adrenal cortex
Mineralocorticoids
Increases waterAnterior
reabsorption
in kidneys
Stimulates the thyroid to produce thyroid
pituitary
Thyroid-stimulating (TSH)
hormones
Epinephrine, Norepinephrine
Adrenal medulla
Increases blood glucose level and heart
rate
Stimulates milk production and secretion
Prolactin
Stimulates conversion of glycogen toInhibits
glucosethe
in perception of pain in the brain
Endorphins
Glucagon
the liver; increases blood glucose
Pancreas
Stimulates bone and muscle growth/lipolysis
Growth
hormone Lowers blood glucose; increases glycogen
Insulin
stores
Somatostatin
Supresses secretion
of glucagon andStimulates
insulin uterine contractions during labor,
Oxytocin
Hypothalamus;
milk
secretion
during lactation
Testosterone
Testes
Maintains male secondary
stored insexual characteristics
Antidiuretic (ADH, Maintains female secondary sexual characteristics
Estrogen
posterior
pituitary
Stimulates
water
reabsorption in kidneys
Ovary/Placenta
vasopressin)
Progesterone
Promotes growth/maintenance of endometrium
Thyroid
hormones
(T
,
T
)
Stimulates
metabolic
activity
Melatonin
Pineal
Regulates
sleepwake
cycles
3
4
Thyroid
Calcitonin
Decreases (tones down) blood calcium level
Atrial natriuretic peptide
Heart
Involved in osmoregulation and vasodilation
Parathyroid
Parathyroid
Increases blood calcium level
Thymosin
Thymus hormone
Stimulates T-cell development
Increases blood glucose level and decreases
Glucocorticoids
protein synthesis; anti-inflammatory
Adrenal cortex
Mineralocorticoids ACTION
Increases water reabsorption in kidneys
POTENTIAL
I
Rest
All gates
closed
MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM
NERVOUS SYSTEM
II
Depolarization
Na+ gates open
Epinephrine, Norepinephrine
Adrenal medulla
Increases blood glucose level and heart rate
+
III
Repolarization
Na gates inactivate
The functional unit is the neuron:
Sarcomere
Stimulates conversion of glycogen to glucose in
K+ gates open
cell body
Glucagon
Contractile unit of the fibers in skeletal muscle
Schwann cells
the
liver;
increases
blood
glucose
IV
Hyperpolarization
All gates closedPancreas
nodes of
Insulin
Ranvier
Lowers blood glucose; increases glycogen stores
Contains thin actin and thick myosin filaments
axon
nerve
myelin
Somatostatin
Supresses secretion of glucagon and insulin
sheathBlood
terminals
RBC
Antibodies
Donates
Receives
Testosterone
Testes
Maintains male secondary sexual characteristics
type
antigen
to:
From:
Estrogen
Maintains female secondary sexual characteristics
Ovary/Placenta
dendrites
A
A
anti-B
A, AB
A, O
Progesterone
Promotes growth/maintenance of endometrium
B
B
anti-A
B, AB
B,
O
Melatonin
Pineal
Regulates sleepwake cycles
AB
A, B Atrial natriuretic
None
All
peptideAB only
Heart
Involved in osmoregulation and vasodilation
O
None Thymosin
anti-A, B
All
O
only
Thymus
Stimulates T-cell development
Contraction

Resting Potential:

3 Na+ pumped out for every 2 K+ pumped in

Rest
Hydrolysis
Reaction All gates closed
Depolarization
Na+ gates open
Salivary amylase
Action Potential:
Repolarization
Na+ gates inactivate
Salivary glands
Mouth
Starch
maltose
(ptyalin)
K+ gates open
Stimulus acts on the neuron, depolarizing the
Pancreatic amylase
Pancreas
Small intestine IV Starch

maltose
Hyperpolarization
All gates closed
Maltase
Intestinal
glands
Small
intestine
Maltose 2 glucoses
membrane of the cell body
Sucrase
Intestinal glands
Small intestine
Sucrose glucose, fructose
Blood
RBC
Antibodies
Donates
Receives
Lactase
Intestinal glands
Small intestine
Lactose glucose, galactose
type
antigen
to:
From:
Impulse Propagation:
A
A
anti-B
A, O
axon A, AB
+ rushing into axon) followed
Depolarization (Na
Enzyme
Production Site Function SiteB
Function
B
anti-A
B, AB
B, O
+
Gastric glands
rushing out of axon) along
by repolarization (K
Stomach AB Hydrolyzes
peptide bonds AB only
Pepsin
A, B specific None
All
(chief
cells)
the nerve axon
O
None
anti-A, B
All
O only
Hydrolyzes specific peptide bonds
Trypsin
Converts chymotrypsinogen to chymotrypsin
Enzyme

The Synapse:

Chymotrypsin

Production Site

Pancreas Enzyme

Function Site

I
II
III

Production
Site peptide
Function
action
Hydrolyzes
specific
bonds Site

Hydrolysis Reaction

Initiation:
Depolarization of a neuron leads to an action
potential.
Sarcomere shortening:
Sarcoplasmic reticulum releases Ca2+.
Ca2+ binds to troponin on the actin filament.
Tropomyosin shifts, exposing myosin-binding sites.
Myosin binds, ATPase activity allows myosin to
pull thin filaments towards the center of the
H zone, and then ATP causes dissociation.
actin filament
tropomyosin

troponin

potential
At the synaptic knob, voltage-gated Ca2+
Small

+
+
+
+
+
+

Carboxypeptidases
Salivary amylase
2+ into the cell.
Salivary glands
Mouth
Hydrolyzes
terminal peptide
bond at C-terminus Starch maltose
channels open, sending Ca
Intestine

(ptyalin)
+
+
A and B
calcium
+ Ca2+
Na
myosin binding site
Vesicles fuse with presynaptic membrane

bond
at N-terminus

+ terminal
+
Pancreatic amylase Hydrolyzes
Pancreas
Small
intestine
Starch
maltose
Aminopeptidase
peptide
glands
of amino
+ Small
+
+
+
+
+
sending the neurotransmitter across the
Maltase
Intestinal
intestine
2 glucoses
Maltose
Intestinal glands
Dipeptidases
Hydrolyzes
pairs
acids
Sucrase
Intestinaltrypsinogen
glands to trypsin
Small intestine
Sucrose glucose, fructose
synapticEnteropeptidase
cleft.
Converts
Lactase
Intestinal glands
Small intestine
Lactose glucose, galactose
Neurotransmitter binds to receptors on
action
Relaxation:
K
the postsynaptic membrane, triggering
potential
Table 1

Site
+
+
+
+
+ Site
+
Enzyme
Production
Function
Function
Ca2+ is pumped back into the sarcoplasmic
depolarization.
Surface Colony Growth
Starch
Digestion
Gastric
glands
+
+

Stomach
Hydrolyzes
specific
peptide bonds
Pepsin
reticulum.
Na
A
B
C (chiefAcells)
C+ +

B
Strain 1 +
+
+
+ +
+ Hydrolyzes
+
+
+
specific peptide bonds
Bone Formation and Remodeling
K
Strain 2 +Trypsin +

+
+

Converts chymotrypsinogen to chymotrypsin

key: + = growth; = no growth
Osteoblast: builds bone
Pancreas
Chymotrypsin
Hydrolyzes specific peptide bonds
action
K
Small

Osteoclast: breaks down bone
potential
Carboxypeptidases
Table 2
+
+
+
Hydrolyzes

+Intestine
terminal
peptide bond at C-terminus
Reformation: inorganic ions are absorbed from
A and B

+
+
+
+

Surface
Colony Growth Deep-Agar Colony Growth
NaHydrolyzes terminal peptide bond at N-terminus
the blood for use in bone
Aminopeptidase

+
+
+
+

Intestinal glands
Dipeptidases
pairs
of amino acids
Degradation (resorption): inorganic ions are
+
+
+ +

Hydrolyzes

Strain 1
+
K
Enteropeptidase
Converts trypsinogen to trypsin
released into the blood
Strain 2
+
+
key: + = growth; = no growth
Table 1
Surface Colony Growth Starch Digestion
03_MCAT_QS_Biology.indd 10
4/10/14 12:05 PM
A
B
C
A
B
C
+

CIRCULATION
Circulatory Pathway Through Heart
pulmonary veins
L. pulmonary artery
aorta
L. atrium
mitral valve

R. pulmonary artery

IMMUNE SYSTEM

Respiration

L. ventricle
superior vena cava
R. atrium
inferior vena cava

septum
tricuspid Valve R. ventricle

Superior and inferior vena cava right atrium

right ventricle pulmonary arteries lungs
pulmonary veins left atrium left ventricle
aorta body
Three portal systems: Blood travels through an extra
capillary bed before returning to the heart.
Liver (hepatic), kidney, and brain
(hypophyseal)

Fetal Circulation
Foramen ovale: connects right and left atria
Ductus arteriosus:Nervous
connects
pulmonary
artery
system,
epidermis,
lens
Ectoderm
to aorta. Along with
foramen
of eye,
inner ovale,
ear shunts
Attractoderm
blood away from lungs
Lining of digestive tract, lungs,
Endoderm
umbilical vein
Ductus
venosus: connects
liver and pancreas
Endernal
organs
to inferior vena cava,
connecting
Muscles,
skeleton,umbilical
circulatory
Mesoderm
circulation to central
circulation
system,
gonads, kidney
Meansoderm

The body distinguishes between self and

nonself (antigens).
Exchange
occurs across
trachea
Humoral Immunity (Specific Defense)
the thin walls
bronchus
B-lymphocytes
of alveoli.
plasma cells make and
memory cells
Deoxygenated
release antibodies (IgG,
blood
remember antigen,
IgA, IgM, IgD, IgE),
enters the
upepidermis,
secondary
Nervousspeed
system,
lens
Ectoderm
which induce antigen
pulmonary
response
of eye, inner
ear epidermis, lens
system,
Attractoderm bronchioleNervous
Ectoderm
phagocytosis
capillaries
of
eye,ofinner
ear tract, lungs,
Attractoderm
Lining
digestive
Endoderm
that surround

Active
imumunity:
antibodies
are produced
liver and
pancreas tract, lungs,
Lining
of digestive
Endernal organs
Endoderm
the alveoli.
during an immune response
liver
and
pancreas
Muscles,
skeleton,
circulatory
Endernal
organs
Mesoderm
O2 from the
Passive
immunity: antibodies produced by
diaphragm
system, gonads,
kidney
Muscles,
skeleton,
circulatory
Meansoderm
Mesoderm
inhaled air
onekidney
organism are transferred to another
alveoli
system, gonads,
Meansoderm
diffuses down Hormone
organism Action
Source
its gradient
Stimulates follicle maturation;
Follicle-stimulating
Source
Action spermatogenesis
Hormone (FSH)
into the capillaries,
where
it binds with
ovulation;
testosterone
synthesis
Stimulates
follicle
maturation;
spermatogenesis
Luteinizing (LH)
Follicle-stimulating
(FSH)
Cell-Mediated
Immunity
(Specific Defense)
hemoglobin
and returns
adrenal cortex
to makesynthesis
and secrete
Stimulates ovulation;
testosterone
Luteinizing
(LH) to the heart.
Adrenocorticotropic (ACTH)
glucocorticoids
CO2 from the tissues diffuses from the
Stimulates
adrenal cortex T-lymphocytes
to make and secrete
Adrenocorticotropic (ACTH)
Stimulates
theT-cells
thyroid to produce thyroid
Anterior pituitary
glucocorticoids
capillaries
to
the
alveoli,
and
is
exhaled.
cytotoxic
Thyroid-stimulating (TSH)
hormones
Stimulates the thyroid to produce thyroid
Anterior pituitary
destroy milk
cellsproduction
directly and secretion
Thyroid-stimulating
(TSH)
Stimulates
hormones
Prolactin
suppressor T-cells
Fetal Respiration
Inhibits
theT-cells
perception
of pain
the brain
Stimulates
milk
production
andinsecretion
Endorphins
Prolactin
helper
regulate B- and T-cells
Fetal hemoglobin
has a higher affinity for
Stimulates
and muscle
Inhibits
the bone
perception
of paingrowth/lipolysis
in the brain
Growth hormone
Endorphins
activate
B- and T-cells
to decrease anti-antigen
uterine
contractions
during labor,
oxygen than
adult hemoglobin.
Stimulates bone
and
muscle growth/lipolysis
Growth
Oxytocinhormone
and macrophages
by
activity
Hypothalamus;
milk secretion
during
lactation during labor,
Stimulates
uterine
contractions
Gas and Oxytocin
nutrient exchanges occur across
the
stored
in
secreting
lymphokines
Hypothalamus;
Antidiuretic (ADH,
milk
secretion
during
lactation
placenta.
posterior
Stimulates water reabsorption
in kidneys
storedpituitary
in
memory
cells
vasopressin)(ADH,
Antidiuretic

Gas Exchange

Thyroid hormones (T3, T4)

vasopressin)
DIGESTION
Calcitonin
Thyroid
hormones (T3, T4)
Parathyroid hormone
Calcitonin
Parathyroid
hormone
Glucocorticoids

posterior pituitary
Thyroid
Thyroid
Parathyroid

Stimulates
reabsorption
Stimulates water
metabolic
activity in kidneys
Nonspecific
Immune
Response
Decreases
(tones
down)
blood calcium
level
Stimulates metabolic activity
Increases blood
calcium
level
Decreases
(tones
down)
blood calcium
level cilia, macrophages,
Includes
skin,
passages
lined
with
Increases blood
blood calcium
glucose level
level and decreases
Increases
inflammatory
response,
and interferons (proteins that
protein
synthesis;
anti-inflammatory
Increases
blood glucose
level and decreases
Increases
water reabsorption
kidneys
help synthesis;
prevent
the
spreadin of
a virus)
protein
anti-inflammatory
Increases
kidneys
Increases water
blood reabsorption
glucose levelinand
heart rate

% saturation of hemoglobin

Parathyroid
Source
Action
HormoneBlood Components
Adrenal cortex
Glucocorticoids
Mineralocorticoids
Stimulates follicle maturation; spermatogenesis
Follicle-stimulating (FSH)
Adrenal
cortex
Plasma: aqueous mix of nutrients, wastes,
Mineralocorticoids
Stimulates ovulation; testosterone synthesis
Luteinizing (LH)
Epinephrine, Norepinephrine
Adrenal medulla
hormones, blood proteins, gases, and salts
Stimulates adrenal cortex to make and secrete
Epinephrine, Norepinephrine
Adrenal medulla
Increases
blood
glucose
and heart
rate in
Lymphatic
System
Adrenocorticotropic (ACTH)
Stimulates
conversion
of level
glycogen
to glucose
glucocorticoids
carry oxygen
Erythrocytes (red blood cells):
Glucagon
the
liver;
increases
blood
glucose
Stimulates
conversion
of
glycogen
to
glucose
in

Lymph
vessels
meet
at
the
thoracic
duct in the
Stimulates the thyroid to produce thyroid
Anterior pituitary
Pancreas
pharynx
oral cavity Glucagon
Insulin
Hemoglobin: four subunits carry O2 and CO2.
Lowers
glucose;
increases
glycogen
stores into the left
Thyroid-stimulating (TSH)
the liver;blood
increases
blood
glucose
upper
chest
and
neck,
draining
hormones
Pancreas
tongueInsulin
Somatostatin
Supresses
secretion
glucagon glycogen
and insulinstores
Iron controls binding and
releasing.
Lowers
blood
glucose;ofincreases
subclavian
vein of the cardiovascular
system.
Stimulates milk production and secretion
Prolactin
Testosterone trachea
Testes
Maintains male
secondary
sexualand
characteristics
Somatostatin
Supresses
secretion
of glucagon
insulin

Oxygenhemoglobin
dissociation:
Inhibits
the
perception
of
pain
in
the
brain
Vessels
carry lymph
(excess
interstitial
Endorphins
Estrogen
Maintains
female
secondary
sexualcharacteristics
characteristics
Testosterone
Testes
Maintains
male
secondary
sexual
Ovary/Placenta
esophagus
Stimulates bone and muscle growth/lipolysis
100
Growth hormone Factors leading to right
and lacteals
collect
fats by absorbing
Progesterone
Promotesfluid),
growth/maintenance
of endometrium
Estrogen
Maintains
female
secondary
sexual
characteristics
Ovary/Placenta
Stimulates
uterine
contractions
during
labor,
Melatonin
Pineal
Regulateschylomicrons
sleepwake cycles
in the
small intestine.
Progesterone
Promotes
growth/maintenance
of endometrium
shift of curve:Hypothalamus;
Oxytocin
80
milk secretion during lactation
osmoregulation
and vasodilation
Atrial natriuretic peptide
Heart
Involved
Melatonin
Pineal
Regulates
sleepwake
cycles
nodes
are
in
Lymph
swellings along the vessels
stored in
Temperature
Antidiuretic (ADH,
Thymosin
Thymus
Stimulates
T-cell
development
Atrial
natriuretic peptide
Heart
Involved
in
osmoregulation
andcells
vasodilation
posterior pituitary 60Stimulates water reabsorption in kidneys
with
phagocytic
(leukocytes); they
vasopressin)
Thymosin
Thymus
Stimulates T-cell development
Bohr Effect
remove
foreign
particles
from lymph.
40
Thyroid hormones (T3, T4)
Stimulates metabolic activity
stomach
Thyroid
I
Rest
All gates closed

pH, PCO
Calcitonin
Decreases (tones down) blood calcium level liver
+
pancreas
2
20
Depolarization
Nagates
gates
open
Lipid
Digestion
III
Rest
All
closed
Parathyroid hormone
Parathyroid
Increases blood calcium level
gallbladder
curve shifts to the RIGHT
O2 release to
Repolarization
Na++ gates
gates open
inactivate
IIIII
Na
colon Depolarization
Increases blood
level and decreases
pH shiftsglucose
DOWN
When
chyme is present, the duodenum secretes
Glucocorticoids
+
0
K +gates
duodenum
tissuesAdrenal
enhanced
40
60anti-inflammatory
80
100
protein20synthesis;
cortex
III
Repolarization
Na
gatesopen
inactivate
PO (mmHg)
theopen
hormone cholecystokinin (CCK) into the blood.
small intestine
IV
Hyperpolarization
gates
closed
Mineralocorticoids
Increases water reabsorption in kidneys
when H+
KAll+ gates
CCK
stimulates the secretion of pancreatic
IV
Hyperpolarization
All
gates
closed
[ H+level
]: and heart rate
allosterically
to Hb.Increases
PCO leads
Epinephrine, Norepinephrine
Adrenalbinds
medulla
blood to
glucose
2
enzymesReceives
and bile, and promotes satiety.
Blood
RBC
Antibodies
Donates
carbonic
Stimulates conversion of glycogen to glucose in
type rectumRBC
antigen
to: Bile is made
From:in the liver and emulsifies fat in
anhydrase
Blood
Antibodies
Donates
Receives
Glucagon
the
liver;
increases
blood
glucose
anus
+

A
A
anti-B
A, ABthe smallFrom:
A,intestine;
O
CO2 + H2Pancreas
O H2CO3 H + HCO3
type
antigen
to:
its not an enzyme.
Insulin
Lowers blood glucose; increases glycogen stores
anti-A
B, AB
AB
B, O
O
AB
AB
anti-B
A,
A,

Lipase
is
an
enzyme made in the pancreas
Somatostatin
Supresses
secretion
of
glucagon
and
insulin
Leukocytes (white blood cells): function in immunity
AB
A,
B
None
AB
only
All
B
B
anti-A
B, AB
B, O
Testosterone
Testes
Maintains male secondary sexual characteristics
that hydrolyzes
O
None
anti-A, B
All only
O only lipids in the small intestine.
AB
A,
B
None
AB
All
Platelets: clotting
Estrogen
Maintains female secondary sexual characteristics
Ovary/Placenta
O
None
anti-A, B
All
O only
Carbohydrate
Digestion
Progesterone
Promotes growth/maintenance
Platelets release thromboplastin,
which (along of endometrium
Melatonin
Pineal
sleepwake cycles
Hydrolysis Reaction
Enzyme
Production Site
Function Site
with cofactors
calcium Regulates
and vitamin
K) converts
Atrial natriuretic peptide
Heart
Involved in osmoregulation and vasodilation
Hydrolysis Reaction
Enzyme
Production Site
Function Site
inactive prothrombin
toStimulates
active thrombin.
Salivary amylase
Thymosin
Thymus
T-cell development
Salivary glands
Mouth
Starch maltose
(ptyalin) amylase
Thrombin converts fibrinogen into fibrin, which
Salivary
Salivary
Mouth
Starch
Pancreatic amylase
Pancreasglands
Small intestine
Starch
maltose
maltose
(ptyalin)
surrounds blood cells to form the clot.
I
Rest
All gates closed
Maltase amylase
Intestinal glands
maltose
2 glucoses
Maltose
Pancreatic
Pancreas
Small
intestine
Starch

II
Depolarization
Na+ gates open
Sucrase
2glucose,
Sucrose
Maltase
Intestinal glands
Small intestine
glucosesfructose
Maltose
III
Repolarization
Na+ gates inactivate
Blood Typing
Lactase
Lactose glucose,
Sucrase
Intestinal glands
Small intestine
glucose,galactose
fructose
Sucrose
K+ gates open
Antigens IV
are located
on the surface
of red
blood
Lactase
Intestinal glands
Small intestine
Lactose glucose, galactose
Hyperpolarization
All gates
closed
Protein
DigestionProduction Site Function Site
cells.
Enzyme
Function
Gastric glands
Production
Site Function
StomachSite Hydrolyzes specificFunction
peptide bonds
PepsiEnzyme
n
Blood
RBC
Antibodies
Donates
Receives
(chief cells)
Gastric
glands
type
antigen
to:
From:
Stomach
Hydrolyzes specific peptide bonds
Pepsin
(chief cells)
Hydrolyzes specific peptide bonds
Trypsin
A
A
anti-B
A, AB
A, O
Converts chymotrypsinogen
to chymotrypsin
Hydrolyzes
specific peptide bonds
B
B
anti-A
B, AB
B, O
Trypsin
Converts
chymotrypsinogen
to
chymotrypsin
Pancreas
Chymotrypsin
Hydrolyzes
specific
peptide
bonds
AB
A, B
None
AB only
All
Small
Pancreas
O
None
anti-A, B
All
O only
Chymotrypsin
Hydrolyzes specific peptide bonds
Carboxypeptidases
Hydrolyzes terminal peptide bond at C-terminus
Intestine
Small
A and B
Carboxypeptidases
Blood cells with Rh factor are Rh+; these individuals
Hydrolyzes
Intestine
Aminopeptidase
Hydrolyzes terminal
terminal peptide
peptide bond
bond at
at C-terminus
N-terminus
A and B
blood cells lack
produce
no anti-Rh
RhSite
Hydrolysis Reaction
Enzyme
Production
Site antibody.
Function
Intestinal glands
Dipeptidases
pairs of amino
Aminopeptidase
Hydrolyzes terminal
peptideacids
bond at N-terminus
the antigen; these individuals produce an antibody
Enteropeptidase
Converts trypsinogen
to trypsin
Salivary amylase
Intestinal glands
Dipeptidases
Hydrolyzes
pairs of amino
acids
Salivary glands
Mouth
Starch maltose
if exposed.
(ptyalin)
Enteropeptidase
Converts trypsinogen to trypsin
Pancreatic amylase
Pancreas
Small intestine
Starch maltose
Table 1
Maltase
Intestinal glands
Small intestine
Maltose 2 glucoses
TableGrowth
1
Surface Colony
Starch Digestion
Sucrase
Intestinal glands
Small intestine
Sucrose glucose, fructose
A
B
C
A
BDigestion
C
Surface
Colony
Growth
Starch
Lactase
Intestinal glands
Small intestine
Lactose glucose, galactose
35
25

03_MCAT_QS_Biology.indd 11

Strain 1

A+

B+

+
C

4/10/14 12:05 PM

of eye, inner ear

Lining of digestive tract, lungs,
liver and pancreas
Muscles, skeleton, circulatory
system, gonads, kidney

Attractoderm
Endoderm
Endernal organs
Mesoderm
Meansoderm

CLASSICAL GENETICS

MOLECULAR GENETICS
Source

Hormone

Ectoderm
Attractoderm
Endoderm
Endernal organs
Mesoderm
Meansoderm
GENETICS

Action

Nervous system, epidermis, lens

of eye, inner ear
Lining of digestive tract, lungs,
liver and pancreas
Muscles, skeleton, circulatory
system, gonads, kidney

OF PROKARYOTIC CELLS

Source
Action
Hormone
Law of segregation: Homologous alleles
Many bacteria contain plasmids, or extragenomic
Nucleic
Stimulates follicle maturation; spermatogenesis
Follicle-stimulating
(FSH) Acids
Stimulates follicle maturation; spermatogenesis
Follicle-stimulating (FSH)
(chromosomes) separate so that each gamete has
material. Plasmids that can be integrated into the
Stimulates
ovulation;
testosterone
synthesis
Luteinizing (LH)
Stimulates ovulation; testosterone synthesis
Basic unit: nucleotide (sugar, nitrogenous Luteinizing (LH)
one copy of each gene.
genome are known as episomes.
Stimulates adrenal cortex to make and secrete
Stimulates adrenal cortex to make and secrete
base, phosphate)
Adrenocorticotropic (ACTH)
Adrenocorticotropic
(ACTH)
glucocorticoids
glucocorticoids
If both parents are Rr, the alleles separate
Transformation occurs when a bacterium
DNAs sugar: deoxyribose; RNAs sugar: ribose
Stimulates the thyroid to produce thyroid
Anterior pituitary
Stimulates the thyroid to produce thyroid
Anterior pituitary
to give a genotypic ratio of 1:2:1 and a Thyroid-stimulating (TSH)
Thyroid-stimulating (TSH)
acquires a piece of genetic material from
hormones
hormones
2 types of bases: double-ringed purines
phenotypic ratio of 3:1.
the environment and integrates that
Stimulates milk production and secretion
Prolactin
Stimulates milk production and
secretion
Prolactin
(adenine, guanine) and single-ringed
Inhibits the perception of pain in the brain
Endorphins
piece of genetic material into the host
Inhibits
the
perception
of
pain
in
the
brain
Endorphins
Law of independent assortment: Alleles of unlinked
pyrimidines (cytosine, uracil, thymine)
Stimulates bone and muscle growth/lipolysis
Growth hormone
cell genome. This is a common method
Stimulates bone and muscle growth/lipolysis
Growth hormone
genes assort independently in meiosis.
DNA double helix: antiparallel strands joined
Stimulates uterine contractions during labor,
Oxytocin
Hypothalamus;
by which antibiotic resistance can be
Stimulates
uterine
contractions
during
labor,
milk
secretion during lactation

by base pairs (A=T, G

C)
Oxytocin
Hypothalamus;
For two traits: AaBb parents will produce AB,
milk secretion during lactation
acquired. stored in
Antidiuretic (ADH,
stored in
posterior
pituitary
Stimulates
water reabsorption in kidneys

RNA is usually single-stranded: A pairs with
Ab, aB, and ab gametes.
Antidiuretic (ADH,
vasopressin)
posterior pituitary
Stimulates water reabsorption in kidneys Conjugation is the bacterial form of mating
U, not T
vasopressin)
Thyroid hormones (T3, T4)
Stimulates metabolic activity
The phenotypic ratio for this cross is 9:3:3:1.
Thyroid
(sexual reproduction). It involves two cells
Decreases (tones down) blood calcium level
Thyroid hormones (T3, T4)
Stimulates metabolic activityCalcitonin
Thyroid
Parathyroid
Parathyroid
Increases blood calcium level
Calcitonin
Decreases (tones down) blood
calciumhormone
level forming a cytoplasmic bridge between them
Increases blood glucose level and decreases
Statistical Calculations
that allows for the transfer of genetic material.
Glucocorticoids
Parathyroid hormone
Parathyroid
Increases blood calcium level
protein
synthesis; anti-inflammatory
Adrenal cortex
Increases blood glucose level
and decreases The transfer is one-way, from the donor male
Mineralocorticoids
Increases water reabsorption in kidneys
Glucocorticoids
The probability of producing a genotype that
protein synthesis; anti-inflammatory
Adrenal cortex
(+) to the recipient female (). The bridge is
Adrenal medulla
Increases blood glucose level and heart rate
requires multiple events to occur equals the
Mineralocorticoids
Increases water reabsorptionEpinephrine,
in kidneysNorepinephrine
made from appendages called sex
pili that
product of the probability of each event.
Stimulates conversion
of glycogen to glucose in
Epinephrine, Norepinephrine
Adrenal medulla
Increases blood glucose level
and heart rate
Glucagon
are found on the donor male. To form the pili,
the liver; increases blood glucose
The probability of producing a genotype that
Pancreas
Insulin to glucose in
Stimulates conversion of glycogen
Lowers
blood
glucose;
increases glycogen stores
bacteria must contain plasmids known as sex
Glucagon
can be the result of multiple different events
Transcriptional Regulation
Somatostatin
Supresses secretion of glucagon and insulin
the (Prokaryotes)
liver; increases blood glucose
factors.
Pancreas
Testosterone
Testes
Maintains male secondary sexual characteristics
equals the sum of each probability minus the
Insulin
glycogen stores
Regulated by the operon: Lowers blood glucose; increases
Estrogen
Maintains female secondary sexual characteristics
probability of multiple events occurring. Somatostatin
Supresses secretion of glucagon
and insulin Transduction occurs when a bacteriophage
Ovary/Placenta
Progesterone
Promotes
growth/maintenance of endometrium
Structural genes: have DNA that codes for protein
Testosterone
Testes
Maintains male secondary sexual characteristicsacquires genetic information from a host
Melatonin
Pineal
Regulates sleepwake cycles
Estrogen
Maintains
female
secondary
sexual
characteristics
cell. Sometimes, when the new virions are
Operator gene: repressor binding site
Atrial natriuretic peptide
Heart
Involved in osmoregulation and vasodilation
Ovary/Placenta
Genetic Mapping
Progesterone
Promotes growth/maintenance
of endometrium assembled in a host cell, some of the genetic
Thymosin
Thymus
Stimulates T-cell development
st binding site
Promoter gene: RNA polymerases 1
Melatonin
Pineal
Regulates
sleepwake
cycles
Crossing over during meiosis I can unlink
material from the host cell is packaged along
Inducible systems need an inducer for
Atrial natriuretic peptide
Heart
Involved in osmoregulation and vasodilation
genes (prophase I).
with the viral genetic material. Then, the
I
Rest
All gates closed
Thymosin
Thymus
Stimulates T-cell development
transcription to occur. Repressible systems
II
Depolarization
Na+ gates open
Genes are most likely unlinked when far apart.
bacteriophage infects another bacterium,
need a corepressor to inhibit transcription.
III
Repolarization
Na+ gates inactivate
resulting in transfer of bacterial genetic
One map unit is 1% recombinant frequency
K+ gates open
I
Rest
All gates closed
IV
Hyperpolarization
All gates closed
material.
(1 centimorgan).
II
Depolarization
Na+ gates open

Given
recombination
frequencies

Mutations

III

8
Z

X and Y: 8%
X and Z: 12%
Y and Z: 4%

8
12

12

8
12

Patterns of
Inheritance

Enzyme
Salivary amylase

Repolarization

Na+ gates inactivate

Point: One nucleotide is substituted by

K+ gates open
IV
Hyperpolarization
All gates closed
another; they are silent if the sequence of
amino acids doesnt change.
Blood
RBC
Antibodies
Donates
Receives
Frameshift:
Insertions or deletions shift reading
type
antigen
to:
From:
frame. Protein doesnt form, or is nonfunctional.

A
B
AB
Viruses
O

A
B
A, B
None

anti-B
anti-A
None
anti-A, B

A, AB
B, AB
AB only
All

Blood
RBC
type bacterium antigen
genome
A
A
bacteriophage
B
B
lysis of
bacterial cell,
A, B
release of AB
viral progenyO
None

A, O
B, O
Enzyme
All
O only Salivary amylase

Antibodies
anti-B
anti-A
None
viral
genome B
anti-A,
enters bacterium

Donates
to:
release of prophage
A, AB
B, AB
AB only
All

lytic cycle

lysogenic cycle

Production Site

Acellular structures of double- or single- (ptyalin)

Pancreatic amylase
stranded DNA or RNA in a protein coat
Maltase
Hydrolysis
Reaction
Production
Site
Function
Site
Lytic cycle: virus kills the host cell
Sucrase
Lactase
Salivary
Lysogenic cycle: virus enters host genome
glands
Mouth
Starch maltose

Receives
From:
A, O
B, O integrated prophage
with
All replicates
bacterial cell
O only

Salivary glands
replication of

progeny assembly

viral chromosome

Pancreas
Intestinal glands
Intestinal glands
Intestinal glands

Function Site

may enter
lysogenic
cycle

Hydrolysis Reaction

prophage integrates

Mouth

Starch maltose

Small intestineprophage
Small intestine
Small intestine
Small intestine

Starch maltose
Maltose 2 glucoses
Sucrose glucose, fructose
Lactose glucose, galactose

may enter
lytic cycle

Autosomal recessive: skips generations(ptyalin)

Pancreatic amylase
Pancreas
Small intestine
Starch maltose
Enzyme
Production Site Function Site
Function
Autosomal dominant: appears in every Maltase
DATA
ANALYSISGastric glands
Intestinal glands
Small intestine
Pepsin
2 glucoses
Maltose
Stomach
Hydrolyzes specific peptide bonds
(chief cells)
generation
Sucrase
Intestinal glands
Small intestine
Sucrose glucose, fructose
Hydrolyzes specific peptide bonds
A researcher performed the following experiments in
Experiment 2
X-linked (sex-linked): no male-to-male Lactase
Intestinal glands
Small intestine
Lactose Trypsin
glucose, galactose
Converts chymotrypsinogen to chymotrypsin
order to investigate the metabolism of two different
transmission, and more males are affected
The two strains were incubated in the same manner
Pancreas
Chymotrypsin
Hydrolyzes specific peptide bonds
strains of bacteria, Strain 1 and Strain 2.
Enzyme
Production Site Function Site
Function
as in Experiment 1. Two 100 mL portions of agar were
Small
Carboxypeptidases
Gastric glands
Hydrolyzes terminal peptide bond at C-terminus
Intestine
Stomach
Hydrolyzes specific peptide
Pepsin
poured into two beakers, which were maintained at
A and bonds
B
EVOLUTION
(chief cells)
Experiment 1
Aminopeptidase
Hydrolyzes terminal peptide bond at N-terminus
Hydrolyzes specific peptide bonds 43C. Next, 0.2 mL of broth culture from Strain 1 was
Intestinal glands
Trypsin
Dipeptidases pipetted
Hydrolyzes pairs of amino acids
When frequencies are stable, the population
Strains 1 and 2 were incubated
in separate
broth
Converts
chymotrypsinogen
to chymotrypsin into the first beaker, and 0.2 mL of broth
Enteropeptidase
Converts trypsinogen to trypsin
is in HardyWeinberg equilibrium: no
culture
from Strain
2
was
pipetted
into the second
cultures
for 24 hours at 37C.Hydrolyzes
A sample
of peptide
each bonds
Pancreas
Chymotrypsin
specific
mutations, large population, random mating,
beaker. The agar was swirled around to distribute
culture
was
streaked
onto
three
different
platesA,
Small
Carboxypeptidases
Table 1
Hydrolyzes terminal
peptide bond atthe
C-terminus
no migration, and equal reproductive success
bacteria evenly through the media, and then
Intestine a different
B, and Ceach containing
starchagar
A and B
Surface Colony Growth Starch Digestion
poured
onto
plates.
These
plates
were
incubated
Aminopeptidase medium; the plates were then incubated for another
Hydrolyzes terminal peptide bond at N-terminus
A
B
C
A
B
C
p + q = 1; p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
48 Intestinal
hours at
37C. The plates were
then
examined
glands
Dipeptidases
Hydrolyzes
pairs
of amino acids for 48 hours at 37C and then examined for colony
Strain 1 +
+
+

Strain
2 on
+ the +agar surface

+ and +lower
down
both
Enteropeptidase for surface colony growth and Converts
trypsinogen
to trypsin growth
stained
with iodine
key: + = growth; = no growth
p = frequency of dominant allele
within the oxygen-poor agar layer.
solution to determine the extent of starch digestion.
q = frequency of recessive allele
p2 = frequency of dominant homozygotes
2pq = frequency of heterozygotes
q2 = frequency of recessive homozygotes

Strain 1
Strain 2

Table 1
Surface Colony Growth Starch Digestion
A
B
C
A
B
C
+
+
+

+
+

+
+

key: + = growth; = no growth

Table 2
Surface Colony Growth

Deep-Agar Colony Growth

Strain 1

Strain 2

+
+
key: + = growth; = no growth

Table 2
Once incubated, bacteria will grow if nutrients they can metabolize are available. Keep this in mind as you interpret the procedure and results.
Surface Colony Growth Deep-Agar Colony Growth
Experiment 1 and Table 1: What are the important aspects? Two strains (1 and 2) Experiment 2 and Table 2: Note the significant differences between the two
Strain
1 Look at Table 1,
+
undergo identical incubation on 3 plates with different starch
agars.
experiments. This time, the strains were separately distributed within the agar
one strain at a time. The researcher observes growth and starch digestion. Strain 1 grows
instead of jointly
streaked on top of multiple agars. The researcher observes
Strain 2
+
+
key: + = growth;
= on
no growth
on all plates, but doesnt digest the starch: it must be using another nutrient to grow. We
growth
top and within, the assumption being that the top is oxygen-rich and
dont know that Strain 1 cant digest starchwe just know that its not digesting it in the within is oxygen-poor. What does it mean that Strain 1 only grows in an oxygen-rich
first 48 hours. Strain 2 uses starch to grow on plates A and B, but doesnt digest starch environment? It is an obligate aerobe that requires oxygen for metabolism. What
or grow on plate C. Again, we dont know that Strain 2 cant digest the starch in medium does it mean that Strain 2 can grow in oxygen-rich and oxygen-poor environments?
Cwe just know its not doing so in the first 48 hours.
It is a facultative anaerobe.

03_MCAT_QS_Biology.indd 12

4/10/14 12:05 PM

Example

Geometric Arrangement
of Electron Pairs around
the Central Atom

Angle between
Electron Pairs

Shape

KINETICS & EQUILIBRIUM

Experimental determination of rate law: The values of k,
x, and y in the rate law equation (rate = k[A]x[B]y) must be
determined experimentally for a given reaction at a given
temperature. The rate is usually measured as a function of
the initial concentrations of the reactants, A and B.

Efficiency of Reactions

Eauncatalyzed
uncatalyzed
free energy

Regions of
Electron Density

Eacatalyzed
catalyzed

free energy

reaction coordinate

Law of Mass Action

Eaforward

Eareverse

H2 + Cl2

Kc =

Complex Ion (Coordination Compound)

A Lewis acidbase adduct with a cation bonded
to at least one electron pair donor (including
water). Donor molecules are called ligands and use
coordinate covalent bonds. The central cation can
be bonded to the same ligand multiple times in a
process called chelation.


 cC + dD
aA + bB 

2 HCl
reaction coordinate

COMPOUNDS & STOICHIOMETRY

A mole is the amount of a substance that contains
the same number of particles that are found in a
12.000 g sample of carbon-12.
The molecular or formula weight is measured in amu
per molecule (or formula unit). The molar mass is
measured in grams per mole.
Combustion reactions: A fuel, such as a hydrocarbon,
is reacted with an oxidant, such as oxygen, to
produce an oxide and water.
CH4 (g) + 2 O2 (g) CO2 (g) + 2 H2O (g)
Combination reactions: Two or more reactants form
one product.

Intermolecular Forces
1.

Hydrogen bonding: The partial positive charge

of the hydrogen atom interacts with the partial
negative charge located on the electronegative
atoms (F, O, N) of nearby molecules.

Single-displacement reactions: An atom (or ion) of

one compound is replaced by an atom of another
element.

Dipoledipole interactions: Polar molecules

orient themselves such that the positive region
of one molecule is close to the negative region
of another molecule.
+ H

Cl

+ H

Cl

+ H

3.

Cl

Properties of the Equilibrium Constant

Pure solids and liquids dont appear in expressions.
Keq is characteristic of a given system at a given
temperature.
If Keq >> 1, an equilibrium mixture of reactants
and products will contain very little of the reactants
compared to the products.
If Keq << 1, an equilibrium mixture of reactants
and products will contain very little of the products
compared to the reactants.
If Keq is close to 1, an equilibrium mixture of
products and reactants will contain approximately
equal amounts of the two.
Le Chteliers principle is used to determine the
direction in which a reaction at equilibrium will
proceed when subjected to a stress, such as a
change in concentration, pressure, volume, or
temperature. The key is to remember nthat
1 a system
to which these kinds of stresses are applied tends to
change so as to relieve the applied stress.
In a nutshell:

04_MCAT_QS_GenChem.indd 14

The spectator ion (SO24) does not take part in the

overall reaction, but simply remains in solution
throughout. The net ionic equation would be:
Zn (s) + Cu2+ (aq) Cu (s) + Zn2+ (aq)
Neutralization reactions: These are a specific type
of double-displacement reactions that occur when
an acid reacts with a base to produce a solution of a
salt (and, usually, water):
Factors affecting reaction rates: reactant
concentrations, temperature, medium, catalysts

CaCl2 (aq) + 2 AgNO3 (aq) Ca(NO3)2 (aq) + 2 AgCl (s)

HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)

asymmetrical
distribution

electron

Double-displacement reactions: Also called

metathesis reactions; elements from two different
compounds displace each other to form two new
compounds.

Zn (s) + Cu2+ (aq) + SO24 (aq)

Cu (s) + Zn2+ (aq) + SO24 (aq)

nucleus
+

[A] [B]

Kc is the equilibrium constant (c stands for

concentration).

Net ionic equations: These types of equations

are written showing only the species that actually
participate in the reaction. Consider the following
equation:

Dispersion forces: The bonding electrons in

covalent bonds may appear to be equally
shared between two atoms, but at any
particular point in time they will be located
randomly throughout the orbital. This permits
unequal sharing of electrons, causing transient
polarization and counterpolarization of the
electron clouds of neighboring molecules,
inducing the formation of more dipoles.
symmetrical
distribution

Zn (s) + CuSO4 (aq) Cu (s) + ZnSO4 (aq)

2.

Decomposition reactions: A compound breaks down

into two or more substances, usually as a result of
heating or electrolysis.
2 HgO (s) 2 Hg (l) + O2 (g)

S (s) + O2 (g) SO2 (g)

[C] [D]

Catalysts are unique substances that increase

reaction rate without being consumed; they do this
by lowering the activation energy.

THERMOCHEMISTRY
The law of conservation of energy dictates that
energy can be neither created nor destroyed, but that
all thermal, chemical, potential, and kinetic energies
are interconvertible.

Systems:
Isolated: no exchange of energy/matter with the
environment. Bomb calorimetry creates a nearly
isolated system.
Closed: can exchange energy but not matter with the
environment
Open: can exchange both energy and matter with
the environment. Human beings are open systems
because they can take in energy and matter (eat),
release matter into the environment (respiration,
urination, defecation), and release energy into the
environment (heat transfer from the skin and mucous
membranes).

4/10/14 12:06 PM

System processes:
Isothermal: temperature of system remains constant
Adiabatic: no heat exchange occurs
Isobaric: pressure of system remains constant
Isovolumetric (isochoric): volume remains constant
Heat: the transfer of thermal energy from one object
to another.
Endothermic: reactions that absorb heat energy
Exothermic: reactions that release heat energy

endothermic

THE GAS PHASE

1 atm = 760 mmHg 760 torr = 101,325 Pa
Do not confuse STP with standard conditionsthe
two standards involve different temperatures and are
used for different purposes. STP (0C or 273 K, 1 atm)
is generally used for gas law calculations; standard
conditions (25C or 298 K, 1 atm, 1 M concentrations)
is used when measuring standard enthalpy, entropy,
Gibbs free energy, and electromotive force.

Boyles Law
PV = k or P1V1 = P2V2

exothermic

Charless Law

heat
heat
heat

V1
V2
V
= k or
=
T1
T2
T

Gay-Lussacs Law

P
P
P
= k or 1 = 2
T
T1
T2

Deviations due to pressure: As the pressure of a

gas increases, the particles are pushed closer and
closer together. At moderately high pressure, a gass
volume is less than would be predicted by the ideal
gas law due to intermolecular attraction.
Deviations due to temperature: As the temperature
of a gas decreases, the average velocity of the
gas molecules decreases and the attractive
intermolecular forces become increasingly
significant. As the temperature of a gas is reduced,
intermolecular attraction (a) causes the gas to
have a smaller volume than would be predicted. At
extremely low temperatures, the volume of the gas
particles themselves (b) causes the gas to have a
larger volume than would be predicted.
Van der Waals equation of state: accounts for the
deviations from ideality that occur when a gas does
not closely follow the ideal gas law
2

heat

Constant-volume and constant-pressure calorimetry:

used to indicate conditions under which the heat
changes are measured
q = mcT, where q is the heat absorbed or released
in a given process, m is the mass, c is the specific
heat, and T is the change in temperature
States and state functions: are described by the
macroscopic properties of the system. These
properties magnitudes depend only on the initial
and final states of the system, and not on the path
of the change. Common state functions include
pressure, density, temperature, volume, enthalpy,
internal energy, free energy, and entropy.

n1
n2
n
= k or
=
V1
V2
V

Combined Gas Law

Integrates Boyles Law, Charless Law, and GayLussacs Law
P1V1
P2V2
=
T1
T2

The reverse of any reaction has an enthalpy of the

same magnitude as that of the forward reaction, but
its sign is opposite.
Bond dissociation energy: an average of the energy
required to break a particular type of bond in one
mole of gaseous molecules:
energy

Daltons law of partial pressures: states that the

total pressure of a gaseous mixture is equal to
the sum of the partial pressures of the individual
components
PT = PA + PB + PC +
PA = PTXA

PV = nRT

Real Gases

where XA =

n A (moles of A)
n T (total moles)

Kinetic molecular theory of gases: an explanation of

gaseous molecular behavior based on the motion of
individual molecules

Standard heat of formation (Hf ): the enthalpy

change that would occur if one mole of a compound
was formed directly from its elements in their
standard states

Hesss law: states that enthalpies of reactions are

additive

1 mole of gas at STP = 22.4 L

Ideal Gas Law

Enthalpy (H): is used to express heat changes at

constant pressure

Standard heat of reaction (Hrxn): the hypothetical

enthalpy change that would occur if the reaction
were carried out under standard conditions
Hrxn = (sum of H f of products)
(sum of H f of reactants)

(P + n 2a )(V nb) = nRT

V

Avogadros Principle

Average molecular speeds

1
3
mv2 = kBT
2
2
Root-mean-square speed

K=

Decreasing the volume of a sample of gas makes it

behave less ideally because the individual gas particles
n1
are in closer proximity in a smaller volume.
(They are
more likely to engage in intermolecular interactions.)
Entropy (S): the measure of the distribution of energy
(randomness) throughout a system
Suniverse = Ssystem + Ssurroundings
Gibbs free energy (G): combines the two factors
that affect the spontaneity of a reactionchanges in
enthalpy, H, and changes in entropy, S
G = H TS
If G is negative, the reaction is spontaneous.
If G is positive, the reaction is nonspontaneous.
If G is zero, the system is in a state of equilibrium;
thus, G = 0 and H = TS.

urms =

(3RMT )

PHASES & PHASE CHANGES

pressure

heat

liquid

solid

critical
point
triple
point

gas

temperature

Bond enthalpy: The standard heat of reaction

can be calculated using the values of bond
dissociation energies of particular bonds
(given in a table).
=
Hrxn
Hbonds broken Hbonds formed

Reaction quotient (Q): Once a reaction commences,

the standard state conditions no longer hold. For the
reaction:

 cC + dD
aA + bB 

Q=

04_MCAT_QS_GenChem.indd 15

[C] [D]

[A] [B]

Colligative properties: These are physical properties

derived solely from the number of particles present,
not the nature of those particles. These properties
are usually associated with dilute solutions. Molality
(m) must be used, in addition to the van t Hoff factor
(i) for ionic compounds.
Freezing point depression
Tf = iK f m
Boiling point elevation
Tb = iKbm

4/10/14 12:06 PM

 = MRT

Vapor pressure lowering (Raoults law)

PA = XAPA; PB = XBPB
Solutions that obey Raoults Law are called ideal
solutions.
125
heating of water vapor

temperature (C)

100
heat used to vaporize water to
water vapor

75

Arrhenius definition: An acid is a species that

produces excess H+ (protons) in an aqueous
solution, and a base is a species that produces
excess OH (hydroxide ions).
BrnstedLowry definition: An acid is a species
that donates protons, while a base is a species that
accepts protons.
Lewis definition: An acid is an electron pair acceptor,
and a base is an electron pair donor.

Oxidation: loss of electrons

Reduction: gain of electrons
Oxidizing agent: causes another atom to undergo
oxidation, and is itself reduced
Reducing agent: causes another atom to be reduced,
and is itself oxidized

Galvanic Cells

Properties of Acids and Bases

50

heating of water

25

pH = log[H+] = log(

1
+
[H ]

pOH = log[OH] = log(

-25

REDOX REACTIONS & ELECTROCHEMISTRY

ACIDS AND BASES

Osmotic pressure

heat used to melt ice to water

heating of ice

[OH ]


 H+ (aq) + OH (aq)
H2O (l) 

Kw = [H+][OH] = 1014

heat added (each division = 4 kJ)

pH + pOH = 14
Grahams law of diffusion and effusion
Diffusion: occurs when gas molecules distribute
through a volume by random motion
Effusion: the flow of gas particles under pressure
from one compartment to another through a small
opening:

Weak Acids and Bases


 H O+ (aq) + A (aq)
HA (aq) + H2O (l) 
3
+

Ka =

Kb =

[H3O ][A ]
[HA]

A redox reaction occurring in a galvanic cell has

a negative G and is therefore a spontaneous
reaction. Galvanic cell reactions supply energy and
are used to do work.

[B ][OH ]
[BOH]

Salt formation: Acids and bases may react with each

other, forming a salt and (often, but not always)
water in a neutralization reaction.
HA + BOH BA + H2O

Both diffusion and effusion have the same formula:

r1
1
=2
r2

m
2
m1

SOLUTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.

5.

6.
7.

All salts containing alkali metal (Group 1) or

ammonium (NH4+) cations are water-soluble.
All salts containing the nitrate (NO3) or acetate
(CH3COO) anions are water-soluble.
All chlorides, bromides, and iodides are watersoluble, with the exception of Ag+, Pb2+, and Hg2+.
All salts of the sulfate ion (SO42) are watersoluble, with the exception of Ca2+, Sr2+, Ba2+,
and Pb2+.
All metal oxides are insoluble, with the
exception of the alkali metals and CaO, SrO,
BaO, all of which hydrolyze to form solutions of
the corresponding metal hydroxides.
All hydroxides are insoluble, with the exception
of the alkali metals and Ca2+, Sr2+, and Ba2+.
All carbonates (CO32), phosphates (PO43),
sulfides (S2), and sulfites (SO32) are insoluble,
with the exception of the alkali metals and
ammonium.

Hydrolysis: This is the reverse reaction, where the salt

ions react with water to give back the acid and base.

Mass of solute
=
100%
Mass of solution

# of molofcompound
100%
Mole fraction:
total# of molesinsystem
# of molofsolute
Molarity:
literofsolution

Titration and Buffers

strong acid and strong base

Titration is
a procedure
used to
determine the
molarity of an
acid or base
by reacting a
known volume
of a solution
of unknown
concentration
with a known
volume of
a solution
of known
concentration.
The halfequivalence
point defines
pH = pKa
B A S IC

weak acid and strong base

HendersonHasselbalch equation:
is used to estimate the pH of a
solution in the buffer region where the
concentrations of the species and its
conjugate are present in approximately
equal concentrations
[conjugate base]
[weak acid]

Molality: #ofmolofsolute
kgofsolvent

pH = pKa + log

#ofgramequivalentweightsofsolute
Normality:
literofsolution

pOH = pKb + log

04_MCAT_QS_GenChem.indd 16

Electrolytic Cells

Amphoteric species: is one that can act either

as an acid or a base, depending on its chemical
environment

Units of Concentration
Percent composition by mass:

This energy can be harnessed by placing the

oxidationreduction half-reactions in separate
containers called half-cells. The half-cells are then
connected by an apparatus that allows for the flow
of electrons.

[conjugate acid]
[weak base]

3
3

A redox reaction occurring in an electrolytic cell has

a positive G and is therefore nonspontaneous. In
electrolysis, electrical energy is required to induce a
reaction. The oxidation and reduction half-reactions
are usually placed in one container.
Reduction potential of each species is defined as
the tendency of a species to acquire electrons and
be reduced. Standard reduction potential, E , is
measured under standard conditions: 25C, 1 M
concentration for each ion in the reaction, a partial
pressure of 1 atm for each gas and metals in their
pure state.
Standard reduction potentials are used to calculate
the standard electromotive force (emf or Ecell
) of a
reaction, the difference in potential between two
half-cells.
emf = Ered, cathode Ered, anode

3
4

Gibbs free energy, G, is the thermodynamic

criterion for determining the spontaneity of a
reaction.
G = nFEcell

A C ID IC

4/10/14 12:06 PM

DETERMINING ORGANIC MECHANISMS

Step 1: Know Your Nomenclature
If given compound names in a question stem or
passage, be able to draw them. If working with
reaction diagrams, be able to name the compounds.
Step 2: Identify the Functional Groups
What functional groups are in the molecule? Do
these functional groups act as acids or bases? How
oxidized is the carbon? Are there functional groups
that act as good nucleophiles, electrophiles, or
leaving groups? This will help define a category of
reactions that can occur with the given functional
groups.

ORGANIC OXIDATIONREDUCTION
Level 0 (no bonds to heteroatoms): alkanes
Level 1: alcohols, alkyl halides, amines
Level 2: aldehydes, ketones, imines
Level 3: carboxylic acids, anhydrides, esters,
amides
Level 4 (four bonds to heteroatoms): carbon
dioxide

Oxidation = loss of electrons, fewer bonds to hydrogens,

more bonds to heteroatoms (O, N, halogens)
Reduction = gain of electrons, more bonds to
hydrogens, fewer bonds to heteroatoms

Good reducing agents include sodium, magnesium,

aluminum, and zinc, which have low electronegativities
and ionization energies. Metal hydrides are also good
reducing agents, like NaH, CaH2, LiAlH4, and NaBH4,
because they contain the H ion.

Reducing Agents

Oxidation
PCC takes a primary alcohol to an aldehyde.
PCC

OH

Treatment of phenols with oxidizing agents produces

quinones.
OH

HBr

OH2+

Br

Br

H2O

These molecules can be further oxidized to form a

class of molecules called hydroxyquinones. Many
hydroxyquinones have biological activity.
O
OH

Ubiquinones

The dipole moment of aldehydes causes an elevation

of boiling point, but not as high as alcohols because
there is no hydrogen bonding.

Synthesis
Oxidation of primary alcohols
Ozonolysis of alkenes

Reactions
O

NaI
+
I

ClSO2

SO3

+
R

+ Base
R

H
Nu

Nu

Aldol condensation
An aldehyde acts both as nucleophile (enol form)
and electrophile (keto form). One carbonyl forms an
enolate, which attacks the other carbonyl. After the
aldol is formed, a dehydration reaction results in an
,-unsaturated carbonyl.
O (reacts in
O
C
R

OH

catalytic H

protonated
form)

C
CH3

C
CH2

H
O

enol

H2O

C
CH2

H
aldol addition product

C
C
R
H
aldol condensation
product
R

Decarboxylation
O

H 2O
+
cat. H

OH

OH

H+

Nu

O
LiAIH4

O
H

Mesylates (SO3CH3) are derived from

methanesulfonic acid.
Tosylates (SO3C6H4CH3) are derived from
toluenesulfonic acid.

LiAIH4

Alcohols can be converted to mesylates or tosylates

to make them better leaving groups for nucleophilic
substitution reactions.

O
R

Nucleophilic addition to a carbonyl

Alcohols and Reactivity

OH

H:Base

OH
LiAlH4
or
NaBH4

Base
R

cat. H+

OH

HO

1,4-benzoquinone

Reactions of enols (Michael additions)

Na2Cr 2O7

Alcohols can be used as protecting groups for

carbonyls, as reaction with a dialcohol forms
an unreactive acetal. After other reactions, the
protecting group can be removed with aqueous acid.

p-benzenediol
(hydroquinone)

Reduction

OH+2

OH

Joness reagent, KMnO4, and alkali dichromate

salts will convert secondary alcohols to ketones
and primary alcohols to carboxylic acids.

Quinones and Hydroxyquinones

Tertiary alcohols cannot be oxidized without

breaking a carboncarbon bond.

Substitution reactions after protonation or leaving

group conversion

Br

H2SO4

Reactions

+H+

Aldehydes

OH

Addition of water to double bonds

SN1 and SN2 reactions
Reduction of carboxylic acids, aldehydes,
ketones, and esters
Aldehydes and ketones with NaBH4 or
LiAlH4
Esters and carboxylic acids with LiAlH4

Ubiquinone can be reduced to ubiquinol, which can

later be reoxidized to ubiquinone. This is sometimes
called the Q cycle.

Alcohols

Synthesis

Ubiquinone is also called coenzyme Q and is a vital

electron carrier associated with Complexes I, II,
and III of the electron transport chain.

Step 5: Identify the First Step of the Reaction

If the reaction involves an acid or a base:
protonation or deprotonation
If the reaction involves a nucleophile:
nucleophile attacks electrophile, forming a bond
If the reaction involves an oxidizing or
reducing agent: most oxidized functional
group is oxidized or reduced, accordingly

Higher boiling points than alkanes

Weakly acidic hydroxyl hydrogen

H+

H2SO4

Step 4: Identify the Most Reactive Functional Group(s)

More oxidized carbons tend to be more reactive
to both nucleophileelectrophile reactions and
oxidationreduction reactions. Note the presence of
protecting groups that exist to prevent a particular
functional group from reacting.

OH

Oxidizing Agents
Good oxidizing agents have a high affinity for
electrons (such as O2, O3, and Cl2) or unusually high
oxidation states (like Mn7+ in permanganate, MnO4,
and Cr6+ in chromate, CrO42).

OH

The hydrogen of the hydroxyl group of a phenol is

particularly acidic because the oxygen-containing
anion is resonance-stabilized by the ring.

Na2Cr2O7

Step 3: Identify the Other Reagents

Are the other reagents acidic or basic? Are they
specific to a particular reaction? Are they good
nucleophiles or a specific solvent? Are they good
oxidizing or reducing agents?

Step 6: Consider Stereoselectivity

If there is more than one product, the major product
will generally be determined by differences in strain
or stability between the two molecules. Products
with conjugation (alternating single and multiple
bonds) are significantly more stable than those
without.

PHENOLS & QUINONE DERIVATIVES

OH

OH

tosyl chloride

OH

05_MCAT_QS_OChem.indd 18

4/10/14 12:08 PM

Carboxylic Acid Derivatives

Carboxylic Acids
Carboxylic acids have pKa values around 4.5 due
to resonance stabilization of the conjugate base.
Electronegative atoms increase acidity with inductive
effects. Boiling point is higher than alcohols because
of the ability to form two hydrogen bonds.

Synthesis

Carboxylic acid derivatives contain three bonds to

heteroatoms (O, N, halides, and so forth). As such,
they can be interconverted through nucleophilic acyl
substitution by swapping leaving groups.

KMnO 4

OH

O
CH3Cl

CH3COH + NH+4

CH3CN

Reactions
Formation of soap by reacting carboxylic acids with
NaOH; arrange in micelles

O
+

NH3

Acyl halides are the most reactive

Anhydrides
Carboxylic acids and esters
Amides are the least reactive

+
NH2

O
O

+
H3N

A reaction that proceeds down the order of reactivity can

occur spontaneously by nucleophilic acyl substitution.

Hydrolysis of nitriles

Formation from an anhydride

Carboxylic acid derivatives can be ranked based on

descending reactivity:

Oxidation of primary alcohols with KMnO4

OH

Amides

O
+
O

OH

H2N

Formation from an ester

A reaction that proceeds up the order of reactivity requires

special catalysts and specific reaction conditions.
Hydrolysis (requires acid)

Anhydrides
Synthesis via dehydration of two carboxylic acids

O
ONa +
nonpolar tail

polar head

Intramolecular formation of a cyclic anhydride

Nucleophilic acyl substitution

Ester formation

O
OH

Reduction to an amine

+ H2O

OH

O
LiAlH4

NH2

phthalic anhydride

ortho-phthalic acid

NH2

Esters
Transesterification

Reduction to alcohols

Nitrogen-Containing Compounds
Hydrolysis

H2O

O
H +

Strecker Synthesis
Decarboxylation
O

H3O

Reagents: aldehyde, ammonium chloride (NH4Cl),

potassium cyanide (KCN)

NH3
O

NH+3

NH2

CN

H2O

H2N

Cyclic Carboxylic Acid Derivatives

H2N

H2O

H2N

OH

Cyclic amides are called lactams. These are named

according to the carbon atom bound to the nitrogen:
-lactams contain a bond between the -carbon and
the nitrogen, -lactams contain a bond between the
-carbon and the nitrogen, and so forth.

H2N
R

N
O
H
-lactam

N
O
H
-lactam

H2O

H2N

Gabriel (Malonic-Ester) Synthesis

-acetolactone -propiolactone -butyrolactone -valerolactone

05_MCAT_QS_OChem.indd 19

O
+

CO2C2H5
H
CO2C2H5

CO2C2H5
N

SN2

H
CO2C2H5

base

potassium
phthalimide

CO2H
C
H

CO2

H3O ,

CO2
O

H2N

CO2

CO2C2H5

NaOH
H2O,

O Na+

HO

RC

O Na+ + HO

HO

O
O

RC

O Na+

soap

glycerol

CO2C2H5
C
CO2C2H5

Phosphoric acid is a phosphate group or inorganic

phosphate (Pi). At physiologic pH, inorganic
phosphate includes both hydrogen phosphate

(HPO2
4 ) and dihydrogen phosphate (H2PO4).
,
which
is
released
Pyrophosphate (PPi) is P2O4
7
during the formation of phosphodiester bonds
in DNA. Pyrophosphate is unstable in aqueous
solution, and is hydrolyzed to form two
molecules of inorganic phosphate.
4
O
O

diethyl
bromomalonate

H3N

NaOH

RC

PHOSPHORUS-CONTAINING COMPOUNDS

OH

O
O

triacylglycerol

N K + Br

OH

Reagents: potassium phthalimide, diethyl

bromomalonate

Cyclic esters are called lactones. These are named

not only based on the carbon bound to the oxygen,
but also the length of the carbon chain itself.

NH 2

NH2

OH

OH

H2 N

Lactones

OH+
H2N

N
O
H
-lactam

OH+2

NH3

O
N
H
-lactam

H2N

RC

RC

OH

OH

proton
transfer

OH
NH+3

OH

proton
transfer

Lactams

+
OH

LAH

O
NH

+OH

H2O

OH+2

NH+

Saponification
+

RC
N

O
+

OH 2

OH

NH2

NH+2

OH

OH

proton
transfer

+
O

Reduction

NH+3
H

OH

OH

+ OH

N
O

CO2C2H5

RBr
SN2

P
O

P
O

Nucleotides with phosphate groups, such

ATP, GTP, and those in DNA, are referred to as
organic phosphates.

4/10/14 12:08 PM

Spectroscopy

Purification Methods
Extraction separates dissolved substances based
on differential solubility in aqueous vs. organic
solvents.

Distillation separates liquids based on boiling point,

which depends on intermolecular forces. Types are
simple, fractional, and vacuum.

Infrared spectroscopy measures molecular vibrations

of characteristic functional groups.
Wavenumber (cm1)

Functional Group
Alkanes

thermometer

Alkenes
condenser

vacuum adapter

clamp

clamp

water inlet
receiving flask
ice bath

heat source
vacuum distillation

1200

3080 3140

1645

Alkynes

2200

Aromatic

3300
2900 3100

C
C
C

1475 1625

Alcohols

3100 3500

H (broad)

Ethers

1050 1150

Aldehydes

2700 2900

(O)C

1700 1750

to vacuum source
water outlet
distilling flask

Vibration

2800 3000

Ketones

1700 1750

Carboxylic acids

1700 1750

2800 3200

H (broad)

3100 3500

H (sharp)

Amines

UV spectroscopy involves passing ultraviolet

light through a chemical sample and plotting
absorbance vs. wavelength. It is most useful for
studying compounds containing double bonds and
heteroatoms with lone pairs.

Filtration separates solids from liquids.

1HNMR is a form of nuclear magnetic resonance.

Type of Proton

Column

Column packing

residue
filter paper

to vacuum trap

Approximate Chemical Shift (ppm)

Downfield from TMS
0.9
1.25
1.5
4.66
23
68.5
24.5
3.44
910
22.5
22.6
15.5
412
10.512
15

RCH3
RCH2
R3CH
CH=CH
CCH
ArH
CHX
CHOH/CHOR
RCHO
RCHCO
CHCOOH/CHCOOR
CHOHCH2OH
ArOH
COOH
NH2

glass projection to
hold up packing

Hb

Ha

clean filter flask

deshielding

Cl

Cl

shielding

Hb

Hb
TMS

filtrate
a

vacuum filtration

fractional distillation

Chromatography uses a stationary phase and a

mobile phase to separate compounds based on
polarity and/or size.
solvent front

X
1

thin-layer chromatograms

solvent
sand

silica or alumina

sand
glass wool or cotton
stopcock to control flow

Rf = X
Y

Simple distillation can be used to separate two liquids

with boiling points below 150C and at least 25C apart.
Vacuum distillation should be used when a liquid to
be distilled has a boiling point above 150C. To prevent
degradation of the product, the incident pressure is
lowered, thereby lowering the boiling point.

05_MCAT_QS_OChem.indd 20

7.0

6.0

5.0

4.0

3.0

2.0

1.0

0.0

(ppm)

When analyzing an NMR spectrum, look for:

Fractional distillation should be used when two

liquids have boiling points less than 25C apart. By
introducing a fractionation column, the sample boils
and refluxes back down over a larger surface area,
improving the purity of the distillate.
Recrystallization separates solids based on
differential solubility in varying temperatures.
Electrophoresis is used to separate biological
macromolecules based on size and/or charge.

Types of protons: corresponds to the number

of peaks seen in the spectrum
Position of peaks: the further left-shifted
(downfield) the peak, the more deshielded
the proton. Usually this corresponds to more
electron-withdrawing groups
Integration of peaks: the larger the integration,
the more protons contained under the peak
Splitting: hydrogens on adjacent carbons will
split a peak into n + 1 subpeaks, where n is the
number of hydrogens on the adjacent carbon

Type of
Chromatography

Mobile Phase

Stationary Phase

Common Use

Thin-layer or Paper

Nonpolar solvent

Polar card

Identify a sample

Reverse-phase

Polar solvent

Nonpolar card

Identify a sample

Column

Nonpolar solvent

zPolar gel or powder

Separate a sample into

components

Ion-exchange

Nonpolar solvent

Charged beads in column

Separate components by charge

Size-exclusion

Nonpolar solvent

Polar, porous beads in

column

Separate components by size

Affinity

Nonpolar solvent

Beads coated with antibody

or receptor for a target
molecule

Purify a molecule (usually a

protein) of interest

Gas (GC)

Inert gas

Crushed metal or polymer

Separate vaporizable compounds

High-performance
liquid (HPLC)

Nonpolar solvent

Small column with

concentration gradient

Similar to column, but more

precise

collection flask

column chromatography

8.0

4/10/14 12:08 PM

HyDroStAticS & FLUiD DynAMicS

Specific gravity =

circUitS

eLectroStAticS

kg
m
Density () =
[SI units: 3 ]
V
m

current: the flow of electric charge. Current is given

by:
Q
C
[SI units: ampre (A) = s ]
I=
t
(The direction of current is the direction positive
charge would flow, or from high to low potential.)

coulombs Law

subtance
kg
[no units]; water = 103 3
water
m

+q1

Pressure: a scalar quantity defined as force per unit

N
F
area: P =
[SI units: pascal = 2 ]
A
m
For static fluids of uniform density in a sealed
vessel, pressure: P = gz
Absolute pressure in a fluid due to gravity
somewhere below the surface is given by the
equation P = Po + gz
gauge pressure: Pg = P Patm

q2

Weight = gV

F=

kq1q2
r

ohms Law and resistance

[SI units: newtons]

V = IR (can be applied to entire circuit or individual

resistors)
L
resistance: opposition to the flow of charge. R =
A
(Resistance increases with increasing temperatures
with most conductors.)

electric Field
field lines

[SI Units: ohm ()]

continuity equation: A1v1 = A2v2

F
Q
E = qe = 2 [SI units: N or V ]
C
M
r
A positive point charge will move in the same
direction as the electric field vector; a negative
charge will move in the opposite direction.

Bernoullis equation: P + 1 v 2 + gh = constant

2

Archimedes Principle
Fbuoy = fluid gVsubmerged
N
3

The electrical potential energy of a charge q at a point

in space is the amount of work required to move it
from infinity to that point.

6
1

N
3

U = qV = qEd =

6
1

If the weight of the fluid displaced is greater

than or equal to the objects weight, then it
will float.

A change in the pressure applied to an

enclosed fluid is transmitted undiminished to
every portion of the fluid and to the walls of
the containing vessel.

Series circuits
Is
3

b
5V

c
d

The dipole feels no net

translational force, but
experiences a torque
about the center causing
it to rotate so that
the dipole moment aligns
with the electric fi eld.

Fe

Req = R1 + R2 + R3 +

IT = I1 = I2 = I3 =

Ip

Fe=qE

I1

I2

I3

In

Rp R 1

R2

R3

Rn

1 = 1 + 1 + 1 + ...
Req R1 R2 R3

VT = V1 = V2 = V3 = ...
IT = I1 + I2 + I3 + ...

Ip

electrical Potential
The amount of work required to move a positive test
charge q from infinity to a particular point divided by
U

Power Dissipated by resistors

2
P = IV = V = I2R

the test charge: V = q [SI units: volt = ]

C

capacitors
V

capacitance: the ability to store charge per unit

Q
voltage. It is given by: C =
V
A

C' =

Cp C1

C3

Cn

Capacitors in parallel: add

Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3 +

load

A2

energy Stored by capacitors

d2

d1

electron pump

F1
A1

VT = V1 + V2 + V3 + ...

Parallel circuits

Potential Difference (Voltage)

Pascals Principle

At any junction within a circuit, the sum of

current flowing into that point must equal the
sum of current leaving.
The sum of voltage sources equals the sum of
voltage drops around a closed-circuit loop.

p is the dipole moment

(p = qd).

The buoyant force is equal to the weight of the

displaced fluid.
If the weight of the fluid displaced is less than
the objects weight, the object will sink.

1.

kQq
[SI units: J]
r

electric Dipoles

3 N displaced

Kirchhoffs laws:

2.

electrical Potential energy (U)

circuit Laws

+V

Q
U = 1 QV = 1 CV 2 = 1
2

2 C

kQ
J
W
Voltage (V) = q =
[SI units: volt = ]
r
C

F2

When two oppositely charged parallel plates

are separated by a distance d, an electric field
is created, and a potential difference exists
between the plates, given by: V = Ed

C1

Capacitors in series:
add as reciprocals,
then take reciprocal
of sum

1
1
1
1
=
+
+
+ ...
C eq
C1 C2 C3

C2
Cs
C3

C4

F
F
P = 1 = 2 and A1d1 = A2d2
A1
A2
so, W = F1d1 = F2d2

06_MCAT_QS_PhysMath.indd 22

4/10/14 12:09 PM

WAVeS

oPticS

Describing Waves

Converging lenses

refraction

c
m
n = (speed of light = 3 108 )
S
v

Longitudinal wave

f>0

Snells law: n1sin 1 = n2 sin 2. When n2 > n1, light

bends toward the normal; when n2 < n1, light bends
away from the normal.

Transverse wave

For an object beyond the focal length, the

image formed is real and inverted.
For an object inside the focal length, the
image formed is virtual, upright and enlarged.
There is no image formed if an object is at the
focal point.

n
n

Wave formulas

1
T

Diverging lenses

Diffraction

v =

Standing Waves
A
N

= 2L

N
A

=L

Open pipes
= 2L (n = 1, 2, 3)
n
nv
=
(n = 1, 2, 3)
2L

L =
2

L=
3
L =
2

The open ends of the pipes are always antinodes

(max amplitude).

To locate dark fringes, use the formula:

a sin = n (n = 1, 2, 3)

Spherical Mirrors

AtoMic AnD nUcLeAr PHenoMenA

optics equation: 1 + 1 = 1 = 1
o

Any of units of distance may be used, but all

units used must be the same.
Concave mirrors

f>0

L = 5

SoUnD
Sound propagates through a deformable medium by
the oscillation of particles parallel to the direction of
the waves propagation.

If an object is placed inside the focal length of

a concave mirror instead, the image formed is
behind the mirror, enlarged and virtual.
Convex mirrors

f<0

P
W
[SI units: 2 ]
A
m

Sound level () = 10 log

I
I
0

[unit: decibel = dB]

(Note than an increase of 10 dB is an increase in

intensity by a factor of 10. An increase of 20 dB is an
increase in intensity by a factor of 100.)

Doppler effect
When a source and a detector move relative
to one another, the perceived frequency of
the sound received differs from the actual
frequency emitted even though the source
velocity and frequency is unchanged.

f = f

(v v D )
(v v S )

Stationary source: vs = 0
Stationary detector: vD = 0

E = hf =

hc

K is the maximum kinetic energy of an

ejected electron; W is the minimum
energy required to eject an electron,
called the work function.

nuclear Binding energy

L = 3
4

The closed end of the pipe is always a node, and the

open end is always an antinode.

Photoelectric effect

K = hf W

L =

Closed pipes
4L
=
(n = 1, 3, 5)
n
nv
=
(n = 1, 3, 5)
4L

m < 1 image reduced; m > 1 image

enlarged; m = 1 image same size
Inverted image has a negative m; erect image
has a positive m

= 2L

The ends of the strings are always nodes. Nodes

occur where the displacement is zero.

i
0

Magnification (m) =

Regardless of the position of the object, a

convex mirror forms only a virtual upright
image.

thin Spherical Lenses

Optics equation: 1 = 1 + 1
f

observer and detector moving closer:

+ sign in numerator
sign in denominator
observer and detector moving apart:
sign in numerator
+ sign in denominator

Mass defect: the difference between the sum of the

masses of nucleons in the nucleus and the mass
of the nucleus. The mass defect results from the
conversion of matter to energy, embodied by:
E = mc2. This energy is the binding energy that holds
nucleons within the nucleus.

exponential Decay
Half-life
n = noet
Alpha decay
238U 234Th + 4He
92
90
2
Beta-minus decay
137 Cs 137Ba + 0 e +
ve
55
56
1
Beta-plus decay
22Na 22Ne + 0 e+ + v
11
10
+1
e
percentage of radioactive nuclei remaining

Strings
= 2L (n = 1, 2, 3)
n
nv
=
(n = 1, 2, 3)
2L

intensity (I ) =

f<0

100

50

25
12.5
6.25
3.125
1.5625

number of half-lives

06_MCAT_QS_PhysMath.indd 23

4/10/14 12:09 PM

MAtHeMAticS

DAtA AnALySiS

Finding the resultant using the component method:

estimation
Scientific notation: A method of simplifying
calculations by reducing numbers to a significand
between one and ten and the exponent power of ten:
0.0000037 = 3.7 106. Allows estimation by powers
of ten, which is often all that is necessary on the MCAT.
Multiplication: If you round one number up, round
the other down to compensate.
Division: If you round one number up, round the
other up to compensate.

Resolve vectors into x- and y-components

Sum all the vectors in the x-direction to get the
resultant for the x-direction, and do the same
for the y-components
The magnitude of the resultant R = R x2 + R y2

right-Hand rule for Finding Direction

of cross-Product resultant
The right-hand rule is used
to fi nd the direction of a
vector that is the product of
two other vectors. If c = A B,
then c is represented by the
palm while A is represented
by the thumb and B is
represented by the fi ngers.

roots and Logarithms

x

x2

x2

x2

x2

36

11

121

16

256

49

12

144

17

289

64

13

169

18

324

16

81

14

196

19

361

25

10

100

15

225

20

400

This table can be used to estimate even-powered

roots of numbers. When taking square roots of a
number raised to a power, remember not to take the
square root of the exponent, but to divide it by two.
Logarithmic identities
A
= log A log B
B
B
log A = B log A

converting common and natural logarithms

log x =
log (n

In x
2.303

10m)

Scientific method: determine whether sufficient

background exists and whether the question is testable
Finer method: determine whether a study is
Feasible, interesting, novel, ethical, and relevant

error Sources
Small sample size: amplifies the effects of
statistical anomalies
Defects in precision and accuracy: create
random or systematic variations in the data

m + 0.n

68%

45
30

Probability
Mutually exclusive: two events that cannot
occur together
independent: the probability of either event is
not affected by the occurrence of the other
For independent events:
P(A and B) = P(A) P(B)
Probability is usually expressed as a percent, but all
math should be completed using decimals.

Statistical testing

2
1

60
1

45
1

opposite
hypotenuse
adjacent
cos =
hypotenuse
opposite
tan =
adjacent
sin =

Vector Addition and Subtraction

tip-to-tail method of finding resultant of two vectors:

Q
PQ P
Q

Q
P+Q

2.4%

13.5%

34%

34%

13.5%

+1

+2

2.4%

0.15%

+3

Bias: systematic data error. Common types

include selection bias, detection bias,
and the Hawthorne effect. Minimized by
proper participant selection, blinding, and
randomization.
confounding: an analysis error wherein a
variable that has a relationship with the other
two variables is overlooked

ethics
Beneficence: the requirement to do good
nonmaleficence: do no harm
Autonomy: the right of individuals to make
decisions for themselves
Justice: the need to consider only morally
relevant differences between patients and to
distribute healthcare resources fairly

generalizability
Statistical significance and causality do not make
something generalizable or a good intervention.
clinical significance and the target population must
also be considered.

Visual Data interpretation

graphs: analyze the axes first to determine
whether the scale is linear, logarithmic, or
semilog and what the units are. Determine
whether relationships are direct or inverse.
Pie charts: compare portions of data to a
whole or relative responses of a group
Bar charts and histograms: compare absolute
or relative responses between groups
Box plots: contain information about
measures of central tendency and distribution;
may be comparative or single

1000
km
minus 299,000
s

0.15%

Speed of light

med x

null hypothesis: a hypothesis of no difference;

always the comparator
p-value: the probability that results were obtained
by chance given that the null hypothesis is true
confidence interval: a range of values believed
to contain the true value with a given level of
probability (confidence)

99.7%

trigonometry

x med

P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) P(A and B)

95%

positively skewed

Question Selection

Hills criteria: help determine the strength of causal

relationships. Only temporality is necessary.

1
= log A
A

log

reSeArcH DeSign

controls: experimental subjects that are maintained

with similar but noninterventional treatments to
establish causality.

log

Mean: the average of the data points;

impacted heavily by outliers
Median: the central value of a data set; not
affected by outliers
Mode: the most common data point(s); not
affected by outliers
range: the difference between the largest and
smallest value in a set; impacted heavily by
outliers
Standard deviation: a measure of how spread out
values are from the mean; affected by outliers

negatively skewed

causality

log A B = log A + log B

Measures of central tendency and Distribution

900

800

true speed

700

Experiment No.

06_MCAT_QS_PhysMath.indd 24

4/10/14 12:09 PM