Traffic and Highway Engineering ()

CVL 4324

Chapter 17

Soil Engineering for Highway Design

Dr. Sari Abusharar
Assistant Professor
Civil Engineering Department
Faculty of Applied Engineering and Urban Planning
2nd Semester 2015-2016

Outline of Presentation

Introduction

Soil Characteristics

Basic Engineering Properties of Soils

Classification of Soils for Highway Use

Soil Compaction

Special Soil Tests for Pavement Design

Frost Action in Soils

Introduction

Highway engineers are interested in the basic engineering
properties of soils because soils are used extensively in
highway construction.

Soil properties are of significant importance when a highway is
to carry high traffic volumes with a large percentage of trucks.

They are also of importance when high embankments are to be
constructed and when the soil is to be strengthened and used
as intermediate support for the highway pavement.

SOIL CHARACTERISTICS
The basic characteristics of a soil may be described in terms of its:

Origin
Formation
Grain size
Shape
4

SOIL CHARACTERISTICS
Origin and Formation of Soils
Soil can be defined from the civil engineering point of view as the
loose mass of mineral and organic materials that cover the solid crust
of granitic and basaltic rocks of the earth.

Soil is mainly formed by weathering and other geologic processes
that occur on the surface of the solid rock at or near the surface of
the earth.

Weathering occurs through either physical (mechanical) or
chemical means.

Soils may be described as residual or transported.

The geological history of any soil deposit has a significant effect
on the engineering properties of the soils.

Soils also may be described as organic (organic matter) or as
inorganic (mineral materials).
5

SOIL CHARACTERISTICS
Surface Texture
The texture of a soil can be described in terms of its appearance, which
depends mainly on the shapes and sizes of the soil particles and their
distribution in the soil mass.

Soils can be divided into two main categories based on their
texture such as coarse-grained soils and fine-grained soils.

Coarse-grained soils are sometimes defined as those with particle
sizes greater than 0.05 mm, such as sands and gravel.

Fine-grained soils are those with particle sizes less than 0.05 mm,
such as silts and clays.

The distribution of particle size in soils can be determined by
conducting a sieve analysis on a soil sample if the particles are
sufficiently large.
6

SOIL CHARACTERISTICS
Particle-size Classification

SOIL CHARACTERISTICS
Surface Texture

For soils containing particle sizes smaller than the lower limit
(0.075 mm), the hydrometer analysis is used.

A hydrometer is used to determine the specific gravity of the
suspension at different times. The specific gravity of the
suspension after any time t from the start of the test is used to
determine the maximum particle sizes in the suspension as

The above expression is based on Stokes law.

SOIL CHARACTERISTICS

SOIL CHARACTERISTICS
Surface Texture

The natural shape of a soil particle is either round, angular, or flat.
This natural shape is usually an indication of the strength of the soil,
particularly for larger soil particles.

Round particles are found in deposits of streams and rivers, have
been subjected to extensive wear, and are therefore generally
strong.

Flat and flaky particles have not been subjected to similar action and
are usually weak.

Fine-grained soils generally have flat and flaky-shaped particles.

Coarse-grained soils generally have round or angular-shaped
particles.

Soils with angular-shaped particles have more resistance to
deformation than those with round particles, since the individual
angular-shaped particles tend to lock together, whereas the rounded
10
particles tend to roll over each other.

BASIC ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF SOILS

Highway engineers must be familiar with those basic engineering
properties of soils that influence their behavior when subjected to
external loads.

The determination of how a specific soil deposit will behave when
subjected to an external load is rather complicated because soil
deposits may have heterogeneous properties .

Highway engineers must always keep in mind that the behavior of
any soil depends on the conditions of that soil at the time it is being
tested.

11

BASIC ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF SOILS

Phase Relations
A soil mass generally consists of solid particles of different minerals
with spaces between them. The spaces can be filled with air and/or
water. Soils are therefore considered as three-phase systems that
consist of air, water, and solids.

Figure 17.2 Schematic of the Three Phases of

a Soil Mass

12

BASIC ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF SOILS

Porosity
Porosity is defined as the ratio of the volume of voids to the total
volume of the soil and is designated as n as shown in Eq. 17.2.
Void Ratio
The amount of voids can also be measured in terms of the void ratio,
which is defined as the ratio of the volume of voids to the volume of
solids and is designated as e as shown in Eq. 17.3.

Combining Eqs. 17.2 and 17.3, we obtain

13

BASIC ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF SOILS

Moisture Content
The quantity of water in a soil mass is expressed in terms of the
moisture content, which is defined as the ratio of the weight of water
Ww in the soil mass to the oven dried weight of solids Ws expressed as
a percentage. It is given as

Degree of Saturation
The degree of saturation is the percentage of void space occupied by
water and is given as

The soil is saturated when the void is fully occupied with water, that is, when
S = 100%.
14

BASIC ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF SOILS

Density of Soil
A very useful soil property for highway engineers is the density of the
soil. The density is the ratio that relates the mass side of the phase
diagram to the volumetric side. Three densities are commonly used in
soil engineering: total or bulk density , dry density d, and submerged
or buoyant density .
Total Density
The total (or bulk) density is the ratio of the weight of a given sample
of soil to the volume or

The total density for saturated soils is the saturated density and is
given as
15

BASIC ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF SOILS

Dry Density
The dry density is the density of the soil with the water removed. It is
given as

The dry density is often used to evaluate how well earth embankments have
been compacted and is therefore an important quantity in highway
engineering.

Submerged Density
The submerged density is the density of the soil when submerged in
water and is the difference between the saturated density and the
density of water, or

w= 1.0 g/cm3, w= 62.4 pcf, w= 9.81 kN/m3

16

BASIC ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF SOILS

Specific Gravity of Soil Particles
The specific gravity of soil particles is the ratio of density of the soil
particles to the density of distilled water.

Other Useful Relationships

The basic definitions presented above can be used to derive other
useful relationships. For example, the bulk density can be given as

17

BASIC ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF SOILS

Source: Das. M.B., 2009 "Principles of Geotechnical Engineering", Seventh Edition, Thomson
Brooks.

BASIC ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF SOILS

Atterberg Limits

Clay soils with very low moisture content will be in the form of solids.
As the water content increases, however, the solid soil gradually
becomes plasticthat is, the soil easily can be molded into different
shapes without breaking up. Continuous increase of the water
content will eventually bring the soil to a state where it can flow as a
viscous liquid.

The water content levels at which the soil changes from one state to
the other are the Atterberg limits. They are:
 shrinkage limit (SL)
 plastic limit (PL)
 liquid limit (LL)
22

BASIC ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF SOILS

Figure 17.4 Consistency Limits

Shrinkage Limit (SL)

When a saturated soil is slowly dried, the volume shrinks, but the soil
continues to contain moisture. Continuous drying of the soil, however,
will lead to a moisture content at which further drying will not result
in additional shrinkage. The volume of the soil will stay constant, and
further drying will be accompanied by air entering the voids. The
moisture content at which this occurs is the shrinkage limit, or SL, of
23
the soil.

BASIC ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF SOILS

Plastic Limit (PL)
The plastic limit, or PL, is defined as the moisture content at which the
soil crumbles when it is rolled down to a diameter of one-eighth of an
inch. The moisture content is higher than the PL if the soil can be
rolled down to diameters less than one-eighth of an inch, and the
moisture content is lower than the PL if the soil crumbles before it can
be rolled to one-eighth of an inch diameter.
Liquid Limit (LL)
The liquid limit, or LL, is defined as the moisture content at which the
soil will flow and close a groove of one-half inch within it after the
standard LL equipment has been dropped 25 times. The equipment
used for LL determination is shown in Figure 17.5.
24

BASIC ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF SOILS

1/8 in.
Plastic limit procedures

1/2 in.

Figure 17.5 Schematic of the Casagrande

Liquid Limit Apparatus

25

BASIC ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF SOILS

Plasticity Index (PI)
The range of moisture content over which the soil is in the plastic state
is the difference between the LL and the PL and is known as the
plasticity index (PI).

26

BASIC ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF SOILS

Liquidity Index (LI)
The liquidity index, or LI, is used to reflect the properties of the natural
soil and is defined as

LI < 0, will have a brittle fracture

0<LI<1, will be in a plastic state
LI >1, the soil will be in a state of viscous liquid if sheared
27

BASIC ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF SOILS

Permeability
The permeability of a soil is the property that describes how water
flows through the soil. It is usually given in terms of the coefficient of
permeability (K), which is the constant of proportionality of the
relationship between the flow velocity and the hydraulic gradient
between two points in the soil. This relationship was first determined
by the French engineer Henry DArcy and is given as

28

BASIC ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF SOILS

Permeability

The coefficient of permeability of a soil can be determined in the
laboratory by conducting either a constant head or falling head test, or
in the field by pumping tests.

Clays and fine-grained soils have very low permeability; thus hardly any
flow of water occurs in these soils. Coarse-grained soils, such as gravel
and sands, have high permeability, which allows for water to flow easily
in them.

Soils with high permeability are therefore generally stable, both in the
dry and saturated states.

Note, however, that capillary action may occur in some permeable soils
such as dirty gravel, which may cause serious stability problems.

Capillary action is the movement of free moisture by capillary forces
through small diameter openings in the soil mass into pores that are
not full of water.
29

BASIC ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF SOILS

Shear Strength
The shear strength of soils is of particular importance to the highway
engineer, because soil masses will usually fail in shear under highway
loads. The shear strength of a soil depends on the cohesion and the
angle of internal friction and is expressed as

The degree of importance of either the cohesion or the angle of

internal friction depends on the type of soil.

30

BASIC ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF SOILS

In fine-grained soils such as clays, the cohesion component is the
major contributor to the shear strength. In fact, it usually is assumed
that the angle of internal friction of saturated clays is zero, which
makes the shearing resistance on any plane of these soils equal to
the cohesion C. Factors that affect the shear strength of cohesive
soils include the geologic deposit, moisture content, drainage
conditions, and density.

In coarse-grained soils such as sands, the shear strength is achieved
mainly through the internal resistance to sliding as the particles roll
over each other. The angle of internal friction is therefore important.
The value of the angle of internal friction depends on the density of
the soil mass, the shape of individual soil particles, and the surface
texture. In general, the angle of internal friction is high when the
density is high. Similarly, soils with rough particles such as angular
sand grains will have a high angle of internal friction.
31

BASIC ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF SOILS

The laboratory shearing strengths of soils can be obtained by
conducting either the triaxial test, the unconfined compression test,
or the direct shear test. These tests may be conducted either on the
undisturbed soil or on remolding soils. Note, however, that in using
remolded samples, the remolding should represent conditions similar
to those in the field.

The in situ shearing strengths of soils also can be obtained directly by
conducting either the plate-bearing test or cone penetration test.
Details of each of these tests can be found in AASHTOs Standard
Specifications for Transportation Materials and Methods of Sampling
and Testing.

32

CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS FOR HIGHWAY USE

The most commonly used classification system for highway purposes is
the American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials (AASHTO) Classification System. The Unified Soil Classification
System (USCS) also is used to a lesser extent. A slightly modified
version of the USCS is used fairly extensively in the United Kingdom.

AASHTO Soil Classification System

In the current publication, soils are classified into seven groups, A-1
through A-7, with several subgroups, as shown in Table 17.1. The
classification of a given soil is based on its particle size distribution, LL,
and PI. Soils are evaluated within each group by using an empirical
formula to determine the group index (GI) of the soils, given as

33

CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS FOR HIGHWAY USE

Notes:

The GI is determined to the nearest whole number.

A value of zero should be recorded when a negative value is obtained
for the GI.

In determining the GI for A-2-6 and A-2-7 subgroups, the LL part of
Eq. 17.18 is not usedthat is, only the second term of the equation is
used.

The group index of soils belonging to groups A-1-a, A-1-b, A-2-4, A-25, and A-3 is always 0.

Under the AASHTO system, granular soils fall into classes A-1 to A-3.
A-1 soils consist of well-graded granular materials, A-2 soils contain
significant amounts of silts and clays, and A-3 soils are clean but
poorly graded sands.
34

35

36

CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS FOR HIGHWAY USE

In general, the suitability of a soil deposit for use in highway construction
can be summarized as follows:
1. Soils classified as A-1-a, A-1-b, A-2-4, A-2-5, and A-3 can be used
satisfactorily as subgrade or subbase material if properly drained. In
addition, such soils must be properly compacted and covered with an
adequate thickness of pavement (base and/or surface cover)for the
surface load to be carried.
2. Materials classified as A-2-6, A-2-7, A-4, A-5, A-6, A-7-5, and A-7-6 will
require a layer of subbase material if used as subgrade. If these are to
be used as embankment materials, special attention must be given to
the design of the embankment.
3. When soils are properly drained and compacted, their value as
subgrade material decreases as the GI increases. For example, a soil
with a GI of zero (an indication of a good subgrade material) will be
better as a subgrade material than one with a GI of 20 (an indication
37
of a poor subgrade material).

38

CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS FOR HIGHWAY USE

X

Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)

The original form of this system was proposed by Casagrande in
1942 for use in the airfield construction works undertaken by the
Army Corps of Engineers ( ) during World War II. In
cooperation with the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation (
), this system was revised in 1952. At present, it is used widely
by engineers (ASTM Test Designation D-2487). The Unified
classification system is presented in Table 5.2.
Other symbols used for the classification are:
Wwell graded
Ppoorly graded
Llow plasticity (liquid limit less than 50)
Hhigh plasticity (liquid limit more than 50)

39

CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS FOR HIGHWAY USE

40

2. Unified Soil Classification System

41

CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS FOR HIGHWAY USE

This system classifies soils into two broad categories:
1. Coarse-grained soils that are gravelly and sandy in nature with
less than 50% passing through the No. 200 sieve. The group
symbols start with a prefix of G or S. G stands for gravel or
gravelly soil, and S for sand or sandy soil.
2. Fine-grained soils are with 50% or more passing through the
No. 200 sieve. The group symbols start with prefixes of M,
which stands for inorganic silt, C for inorganic clay, or O for
organic silts and clays.

42

CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS FOR HIGHWAY USE

For proper classification according to this system, some or all of the
following information must be known:
1. Percent of gravelthat is, the fraction passing the 76.2-mm
sieve and retained on the No. 4 sieve (4.75-mm opening)
2. Percent of sandthat is, the fraction passing the No. 4 sieve
(4.75-mm opening) and retained on the No. 200 sieve (0.075mm opening)
3. Percent of silt and claythat is, the fraction finer than the No.
200 sieve (0.075-mm opening)
4. Uniformity coefficient (Cu) and the coefficient of gradation (Cc)
5. Liquid limit and plasticity index of the portion of soil passing the
No. 40 sieve
43

CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS FOR HIGHWAY USE

Gravel

44

CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS FOR HIGHWAY USE

Sand

45

CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS FOR HIGHWAY USE

Fine Aggregate

46

CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS FOR HIGHWAY USE

Fine Aggregate

47

Examples

48

SOIL COMPACTION

When soil is to be used as embankment or subbase material in
highway construction, it is essential that the material be placed in
uniform layers and compacted to a high density.

Proper compaction of the soil will reduce subsequent settlement and
volume change to a minimum, thereby enhancing the strength of the
embankment or subbase.

The strength of the compacted soil is directly related to the
maximum dry density achieved through compaction.

SOIL COMPACTION
The zero-air void curve shown in Figure 17.11 is the theoretical moisturedensity curve for a saturated soil and zero-air voids, where the degree of
saturation is 100%. This curve usually is not attained in the field, since the
zero-air void cannot be attained.
Points on the curve may be calculated
from as

Figure 17.11 Typical Moisture-Density

Relationship for Soils

SOIL COMPACTION

This phenomenon is due to the effect of moisture on the soil
particles. At low moisture content, the soil particles are not
lubricated, and friction between adjacent particles prevents the
densification of the particles. As the moisture content is increased,
larger films of water develop on the particles, making the soil more
plastic and easier for the particles to be moved and densified.

When the optimum moisture content is reached, however, the
maximum practical degree of saturation (where S 100%) is attained.
The degree of saturation at the optimum moisture content cannot
be increased by further compaction because of the presence of
entrapped air in the void spaces and around the particles. Further
addition of moisture therefore results in the voids being overfilled
with water, with no accompanying reduction in the air. The soil
particles are separated, resulting in a reduction in the dry density.

SOIL COMPACTION
Optimum Moisture Content

The determination of the optimum moisture content of any soil to be
used as embankment or subgrade material is necessary before any
field work is commenced.

Most highway agencies now use dynamic or impact tests to
determine the optimum moisture content and maximum dry density.

The two types of tests commonly used are the standard AASHTO or
the modified AASHTO.

SOIL COMPACTION
Effect of Compacting Effort
Compacting effort is a measure of the mechanical energy imposed on
the soil mass during compaction. In the laboratory, it is given in units
of ft-lb/in.3 or ft-lb/ft3, whereas in the field it is given in terms of the
number of passes of a roller of known weight and type. The
compactive effort in the standard AASHTO test, for example, is
approximately calculated as

SOIL COMPACTION
Effect of Compacting Effort

d
w

Figure 17.12 Effect of Compactive Effort in Dry

Density

Figure 17.12 shows that as the compactive effort increases, so does

the maximum dry density. Also, the compactive effort required to
obtain a given density increases as the moisture content of the soil
decreases.

SOIL COMPACTION
Field Compaction Procedures and Equipment
Field Compaction Procedures

The first step in the construction of a highway embankment is the
identification and selection of a suitable material. This is done by
obtaining samples from economically feasible borrow pits or borrow
areas and testing them in the laboratory to determine the group of
each.

In cases where it is necessary to use materials in other groups,
special consideration should be given to the design and construction.
For example, soils in groups A-4 and A-6 can be used for
embankment construction if the embankment height is low, the field
compaction process is carefully controlled, and the embankment is
located where the moisture content is not expected to exceed that at
which the construction was undertaken.

SOIL COMPACTION
Field Compaction Procedures and Equipment
Field Compaction Procedures

A factor that also significantly influences the selection of any material
is whether that material can be economically transported to the
construction site. Having identified suitable materials, their optimum
moisture contents and maximum dry densities are determined.

Embankment Formation. Highway embankments are formed by
spreading thin layers of uniform thickness of the material and
compacting each layer at or near the optimum moisture content.

The process of constructing one layer at a time facilitates obtaining
uniform strength and moisture content in the embankment. End
dumping or compaction of thick layers on the other hand may result
in variable strengths within the embankment, which could lead to
differential settlement between adjacent areas.

SOIL COMPACTION
Field Compaction Procedures and Equipment
Field Compaction Procedures

Most states stipulate a thickness of 6 to 12 inches (15 to 30 cm) for
each layer, although the thickness may be increased to 24 inches
when the lower portion of an embankment consists mainly of large
boulders.

All transportation agencies have their own requirements for the
minimum density in the field. Some of these are based on the
AASHTO specifications for transportation materials.

Table 17.7, on the next page, gives commonly used relative density
values for different embankment heights. The relative density is
given as a percentage of the maximum dry density obtained from the
standard AASHTO (T99) test.

SOIL COMPACTION
Field Compaction Procedures and Equipment
Field Compaction Procedures

SOIL COMPACTION
Field Compaction Procedures and Equipment
Control of Embankment Construction

The construction control of an embankment entails frequent and
regular checks of the dry density and the moisture content of
materials being compacted.

The bulk density is obtained directly from measurements obtained in
the field, and the dry density is then calculated from the bulk density
and the moisture content.

The laboratory moisture-density curve is then used to determine
whether the dry density obtained in the field is in accordance with
the laboratory results for the compactive effort used.

These tests are conducted by using either a destructive method or a
nondestructive method.

SOIL COMPACTION
Field Compaction Procedures and Equipment

Destructive method
In determining the bulk density by the destructive method, a
cylindrical hole of about a four inch diameter and a depth equal to
that of the layer is excavated.
The total weight of the excavated material is obtained, usually in the
field laboratory, and the moisture content determined. The compacted
volume of the excavated material is then measured by determining the
volume of the excavated hole by one of three methods: sand
replacement, oil, or balloon.

SOIL COMPACTION
Field Compaction Procedures and Equipment

Destructive method
The destructive methods are all subject to errors.
For example, in the sand replacement method, adjacent vibration will
increase the density of the sand in the excavated hole, thereby
indicating a larger volume hole. Large errors in the volume of the hole
will be obtained if the balloon method is used in holes having uneven
walls, and large errors may be obtained if the heavy oil method is used
in coarse sand or gravel material.

SOIL COMPACTION
Field Compaction Procedures and Equipment

Nondestructive method
The nondestructive method involves the direct measurement of the in
situ density and moisture content of the compacted soil, using nuclear
equipment.

One advantage of the nondestructive method is that results are
obtained speedily, which is essential if corrective actions are
necessary.

Another advantage is that more tests can be carried out, which
facilitates the use of statistical methods in the control process.

The main disadvantages are that a relatively high capital expenditure
is required to obtain the equipment, and that field personnel are
exposed to dangerous radioactive material, making it imperative that
strict safety standards be enforced when nuclear equipment is used.

SOIL COMPACTION
Field Compaction Equipment
Compaction equipment used in the field can be divided into two main
categories. The first category includes the equipment used for
spreading the material to the desired layer or lift thickness, and the
second category includes the equipment used to compact each layer of
material.
Spreading Equipment. Spreading of the material to the required
thickness is done by bulldozers and motor graders. Several types and
sizes of graders and dozers are now available on the market. The
equipment used for any specific project will depend on the size of the
project. A typical motor grader is shown in Figure 17.14.

Spreading Equipment

Figure 17.14 Typical Motor Grader

SOIL COMPACTION
Field Compaction Equipment
Compacting Equipment. Rollers are used for field compaction and
apply either a vibrating force or an impact force on the soil. The type
of roller used for any particular job depends on the type of soil to be
compacted.
smooth wheel or drum roller
rubber-tired roller
Sheepsfoot roller
Tamping foot roller

SOIL COMPACTION
Field Compaction Equipment
A smooth wheel or drum roller applies contact pressure of up to 55
lb/in.2 over 100 percent of the soil area in contact with the wheel. This
type of roller is generally used for finish rolling of subgrade material
and can be used for all types of soil material except rocky soils. Figure
17.15(a) shows a typical smooth wheel roller.

(a) Smooth wheel roller

SOIL COMPACTION
Field Compaction Equipment
The rubber-tired roller is another type of contact roller, consisting of a
heavily loaded wagon with rows of 3 to 6 tires placed close to each
other. The pressure in the tires may be up to 100 lb/in.2. They are used
for both granular and cohesive materials. Figure 17.15(b) shows a
typical rubber-tired roller.

(a) Smooth wheel roller

SOIL COMPACTION
Field Compaction Equipment
The sheepsfoot has a drum wheel that can be filled with water. The
drum wheel has several protrusions, which may be round or
rectangular in shape, ranging from 5 to 12 in.2 in area. The protrusions
penetrate the loose soil and compact from the bottom to the top of
each layer of soil, as the number of passes increases. Contact
pressures ranging from 200 to 1000 lb/in.2 can be obtained from
sheepsfoot rollers, depending on the size of the drum and whether or
not it is filled with water. The sheepsfoot roller is used mainly for
cohesive soils. Figure 17.16 on page 932 shows a typical sheepsfoot
roller.

Figure 17.16 Typical Sheepsfoot Roller

SOIL COMPACTION
Field Compaction Equipment
Tamping foot rollers are similar to sheepsfoot rollers in that they also
have protrusions that are used to obtain high contact pressures,
ranging from 200 to 1200 lb/in.2. The feet of the tamping foot rollers
are specially hinged to obtain a kneading action while compacting the
soil. As with sheepsfoot rollers, tamping foot rollers compact from the
bottom of the soil layer. Tamping foot rollers are used mainly for
compacting fine-grained soils.

Tamping foot rollers

SPECIAL SOIL TESTS FOR PAVEMENT DESIGN

The most commonly used test is the
California Bearing Ratio Test.

California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Test

CBR test involves the determination
of the load-deformation curve of the
soil in the laboratory using the
standard CBR testing equipment
shown in Figure 17.17.

It was originally developed by the
California Division of Highways in
1929 prior to World War II and was
used in the design of some highway
pavements.

Figure 17.17 CBR Testing Equipment

SPECIAL SOIL TESTS FOR PAVEMENT DESIGN

California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Test

The test is conducted on samples of soil compacted to required
standards and immersed in water for four days, during which time
the samples are loaded with a surcharge that simulate the estimated
weight of pavement material the soil will support.

The objective of the test is to determine the relative strength of a soil
with respect to crushed rock, which is considered an excellent coarse
base material.

This is obtained by conducting a penetration test on the samples still
carrying the simulated load and using a standard CBR equipment. The
CBR is defined as

SPECIAL SOIL TESTS FOR PAVEMENT DESIGN

California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Test

The unit load for 0.1 piston in standard crushed rock is usually taken
as 1000 lb/in.2 (6.9 Mpa), which gives the CBR as

The test is fully described in Standard Specifications for Transportation

Materials and Methods of Sampling and Testing by AASHTO and is
standardized under the AASHTO designation of T193.
The main criticism of the CBR test is that it does not correctly simulate
the shearing forces imposed on subbase and subgrade materials as
they support highway pavements.

FROST ACTION IN SOILS

When the ambient temperature falls below freezing for several days,
it is quite likely that the water in soil pores will freeze.

Since the volume of water increases by about 10 percent when it
freezes, the first problem is the increase in volume of the soil.

The second problem is that the freezing can cause ice crystals and
lenses that are several centimeters thick to form in the soil.

These two problems can result in heaving of the subgrade (frost
heave), which may result in significant structural damage to the
pavement.

FROST ACTION IN SOILS

In general, three conditions must exist for severe frost action to occur:
1. Ambient temperature must be lower than freezing for several
days.
2. The shallow water table that provides capillary water to the frost
line must be available.
3. The soil must be susceptible ( )to frost action.
Current measures taken to prevent frost action, include removing
frost-susceptible soils to the depth of the frost line and replacing them
with gravel material, lowering the water table by installing adequate
drainage facilities, using impervious membranes or chemical additives,
and restricting truck traffic on some roads during the spring thaw.

End of Chapter 17

78

HW # 3
Problems
17-2
17-4
17-7
17-9
17-11
17-15
17-17

79