W I S C O N S I N D E P A R T M E N T

O F N A T U R A L R E S O U R C E S

RESEARCH
REPORT 195

MARCH 2014

Literature Review of the Effects of Ultrasonic Waves on

Cyanobacteria, Other Aquatic Organisms, and Water Quality
By Gina LaLiberte, Bureau of Science Services
Elizabeth Haber, Bureau of Water Quality

Executive Summary
Ultrasound technologies have been promoted as an effective means of minimizing
cyanobacterial blooms in ponds and lakes, but little is known about the effects of
ultrasound on non-target organisms or ecosystem processes when implemented on
a large scale in complex natural systems. To better understand possible effects of this
technology, we summarize the available scientific literature on the effects of sonication
and anti-cyanobacterial, ultrasound devices.
Ultrasound (sound waves at approximately 20 kHz) induces vibrations and ruptures gas
vacuoles that control cyanobacterial buoyancy. Cyanobacteria then sink and cannot
restore their buoyancy in the lower light levels at the lake bottom. Ultrasound has
worked well in short-term, laboratory tests (<30 minutes) to inactivate and sediment
cyanobacterial cells. Despite the fact that sonication can destroy cyanobacterial cells
and release cyanotoxins to the surrounding water, we could find no large-scale studies
that investigated cyanotoxin release.
Many scientific studies have tested ultrasound on organisms, primarily over short periods of time. Sonication effects on non-target organisms could be greater than effects
demonstrated in short-term, laboratory studies if anti-algal units are used continuously
as recommended by manufacturers. Information on the specific wavelengths and
intensities produced by the devices, however, is proprietary and publically inaccessible. Therefore, we reviewed studies which used ultrasound frequencies believed to be
similar to those of anti-algal, sonication units on non-cyanobacterial organisms. Effects
of sonication on non-target organisms reported include:
Bacteria Ultrasound is used to kill bacteria in wastewater treatment and aquaculture facilities. Bacterially mediated nutrient cycles and organic matter processing
could be affected by whole-lake sonication.
Algae A wide variety of both microalgae and macroalgae are vulnerable to cell
injury and death from ultrasound treatments. Because algae provide the foundation
of the aquatic food web, ultrasound treatments could have far-reaching effects.
(continued)

 Plants Treatment of aquatic plants with high frequencies of ultrasound has led to
cell membrane disruption and loss of leaves, buoyancy, and vitality.
Zooplankton Ultrasound ballast water treatment systems caused high mortality
in cladocerans, rotifers, and brine shrimp, reducing them to debris after one to four
second exposures.
Mollusks Ultrasound is used to kill snails in aquaculture settings and can be used to
disable and kill zebra mussels (Dreissena polymorpha) at all life history stages.
Insects High frequency ultrasound has killed developing fruit flies. Water boatmen
(Hemiptera: Corixidae) and caddis fly larvae (Trichoptera) communicate with ultrasound. It is possible that ultrasound devices could interfere with their behavior.
Amphibians Amphibian embryonic tissue was destroyed and embryos were killed
by exposure to high frequency ultrasound wavelengths.
Fish High-frequency ultrasound has been used to deter alewives (Alosa pseudoharengus) from power plant intakes. Channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) fingerlings in
aquaculture ponds treated with ultrasound were deterred from feeding and required
four hours without treatment in order to feed. Ultrasound makes skin permeable
and is used in aquaculture for immersion vaccination. Fish exposed to ultrasound in
natural systems could thus be at risk for disease or contaminant uptake because of
increased skin permeability.
Humans Ultrasound device intensity levels are proprietary information so the
effects of the devices on humans are unknown. The owners manual for one product
includes warnings of tissue injury and discourages contact of the transducers with
the body. The risk of exposure to lower-level ultrasound is unknown. Exposure to
cyanotoxins released from damaged cyanobacterial cells also potentially poses a
health risk to humans.
Manufacturers may have additional data on the effects of ultrasonic devices on
non-target organisms, but those data are not available to the public. It also is worth
noting that if anti-algal, ultrasound devices are not powerful enough to harm non-target organisms, they may also be ineffective against cyanobacteria.
Sonication units are usually coupled with aeration and circulation devices in largescale systems, which may affect the units efficacy or impact water quality. Circulation devices may induce the recruitment of inactivated cyanobacterial cells from the
sediments into the water column, re-establishing bloom conditions. Coupling sonication with microbubble treatment could potentially lead to cell lysing and toxin release.
Ultrasound also can dissociate phosphate from particles, making it available for uptake.
Circulation and aeration may increase turbidity, destratify the water column, and facilitate nutrient release from the sediments in some systems.
We reviewed three field studies of sonication in large systems. These studies demonstrated mixed results for chlorophyll and cyanobacterial densities, with the greatest
effects when additional flushing and circulation treatments were included. Sediment
nutrients increased in one study, while in another sonication may have led to increased
nutrients in the water column.
In our review, we found that most sonication studies were laboratory based and
short in duration. Although ultrasound has been shown to inactivate cyanobacteria
in short-term, small-scale laboratory studies, extrapolating ultrasounds efficacy and
safety to longer term, larger scale treatments remains difficult given the lack of field
studies and inaccessibility of information on device wavelengths and intensity. Our
review found that ultrasound may release cyanotoxins from cyanobacterial cells, pose
potential health hazards to humans, adversely affect non-target organisms, have
adverse ecological effects on food webs and nutrient processing, and affect recreational fishing opportunities.

All photos in this publication were taken by Gina LaLiberte.

Contents
Introduction, 1
Ultrasound and Ultrasonic Waves, 1
Effects of Ultrasonic Waves on Cyanobacteria, 1
Effects of Ultrasonic Waves on Cyanotoxin Release in Laboratory Studies, 2
Free Radical and Hydrogen Peroxide Generation, 2
Commercial Products Using Ultrasonic Technology, 2
Field Investigations of Ultrasound Applications in Large Systems, 3
Lake Senba, Japan, 3
Two Ponds in Gyeryong-si, Chungnam, Korea, 3
Reservoirs in the United Kingdom, 4
Biological Effects of Ultrasonic Waves on Non-target Species, 4
Bacteria, 4
Algae, 4
Plants, 5
Zooplankton, 5
Mollusks, 5
Insects, 6
Amphibians, 6
Fish, 6
Humans, 6
Impacts on Water Quality, 7
Conclusions, 7
Literature Cited, 8
Appendix A. Industry-reported Effects of Ultrasound
Treatment on 13 Cyanobacterial Taxa and 54 Algal Taxa, 10
Disclaimer: Mention of trade names and commercial products does not
constitute endorsement of their use.

Cyanobacterial

bloom-forming

taxa

common

in

Wisconsin

lakes.

Aphanizomenon.

Dolichospermum
(formerly Anabaena).

Planktothrix rubescens.

Microcystis.

Introduction
Ultrasound devices are currently used for microbial control
and treatment in water treatment plants, aquaculture facilities, reservoirs, and ornamental water bodies such as golf
course ponds. Ultrasounds use is promoted for addressing
algae and cyanobacteria concerns in ponds and lakes, but
little is known about its effects on non-target organisms or
ecosystem processes when implemented on a large scale in
complex natural systems. Colucci (2010) recently reviewed
the existing ultrasound literature to determine feasibility
of ultrasound use for algae control in a spring-fed pool in
the city of Austin, Texas. Because the federally endangered
Barton Springs salamander (Eurycea sosorum) lives in the
pool, information on ultrasonic impacts to aquatic life was
required by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service for approval
to test the devices. Little specific information was available,
and Colucci (2010) concluded that without information
about the safety of ultrasonic exposure to aquatic biota
and humans, the spring-fed pool was not an appropriate location for testing ultrasonic algae control devices.
The lack of readily available information also has made
it challenging for the Wisconsin Department of Natural
Resources to respond adequately to recent interest in use
of ultrasound devices in Wisconsin lakes. To address this
situation, we conducted a more comprehensive review of
available scientific information on the effects of ultrasound
on cyanobacteria (including cyanotoxin releases), non-target aquatic organisms, and water quality.

Ultrasound and Ultrasonic Waves

Ultrasonic waves are waves of sound that are outside
the range of human hearing, typically at a frequency of
>20,000 Hz (20 kHz). The effects of ultrasonic waves on
cells can be divided into two categories, thermal and
mechanical, although both types of effects can occur
simultaneously. Thermal effects are limited to increased
temperature of the cell as a result of absorbing the energy
from the ultrasonic waves, while the mechanical effects
can vary in manifestation and severity.
The use of ultrasonic waves for algae control capitalizes
on the mechanical effects of the sound waves on algae
cells. Vibrations caused by sound waves make gas vesicles
in the cells resonate. Bubbles form, expand, and contract
inside the cells in a process called cavitation. The ultrasound eventually ruptures the bubbles, damaging the cells.
The degree of cavitation, and thus the effect on the cell, is
regulated by the frequency, intensity, and duration of the
sound waves (Rajasekhar et al. 2012b).

Many authors report the intensity used in their studies

as the watts (W) supplied to their ultrasound transducer,
instead of the power or intensity produced by the waves
emitted from the transducer. Joyce et al. (2010) and
Rajasekhar et al. (2012b) note that intensities are more correctly given as W/cm3 or W/mL. Most ultrasound studies,
however, do not give intensity using these units, so it is difficult to compare results between studies. Throughout our
review, we present ultrasound frequencies and intensities
as they are reported by the cited authors.

Effects of Ultrasonic Waves on

Cyanobacteria
Many planktonic cyanobacteria, including numerous
bloom-forming species, regulate their buoyancy using
vacuoles, which are filled with a series of gas-filled vesicles.
Cavitation leads to vesicle rupture and vacuole collapse
(Lee et al. 2001). After the vacuoles collapse, the cyanobacteria can no longer float, so they sink to the lake
bottom. In the absence of adequate light at the bottom
the cells are unable to restore their vesicles and buoyancy,
so they die (Lee et al. 2001). If enough light is available,
however, vesicles are able to regenerate and the cyanobacterial cells regain buoyancy control (Walsby 1992).
Other effects of ultrasonic waves on cyanobacteria
include disruption of photosynthesis, damage of cell membranes due to lipid peroxidation, and differential susceptibility to ultrasound waves at different stages in the cell division
cycle (Ahn et al. 2003, Tang et al. 2004, Zhang et al. 2006).
Ultrasound has been found to effectively inactivate
cyanobacteria in simple systems tested in the laboratory.
Most laboratory experiments use exposures <10 seconds in
duration, and ultrasound frequencies between 20-28 kHz,
although some trials used higher frequencies of up to 1.7
MHz. Typically, short exposures led to cavitation followed
by sedimentation of treated Microcystis cells in the reactor
vessels (Lee et al. 2001, Ahn et al. 2003, Joyce et al. 2010,
Rajasekhar et al. 2012a, Wu et al. 2012). Some researchers cultured sonicated cells and found reduced re-growth
after seven to nine days (Lee et al. 2001, Rajasekhar et al.
2012a).
A few studies examined cyanobacterial taxa other than
Microcystis and found similar inhibition results. Hao et al.
(2004a, b) found inhibition of Spirulina platensis at 20
kHz and 1.7 MHz. Rajasekhar et al. (2012a) found greater
growth inhibition in Anabaena circinalis than Microcystis
aeruginosa at 20 kHz and 0.085 W/mL, possibly because
sonication broke Anabaena filaments into small pieces and
because Anabaena has weaker gas vesicles.

Microcystis.

Effects of Ultrasonic Waves on Cyanotoxin

Release in Laboratory Studies
Cyanobacteria are capable of producing a number of toxins
which, if ingested in sufficient amounts, can cause illness
or even death in humans and animals. These toxins include
neurotoxic anatoxins and saxitoxins, cytotoxic cylindrospermopsins, and hepatotoxic microcystins, which are the most
commonly occurring cyanotoxins in aquatic systems worldwide (Chorus and Bartram 1999). One of the concerns with
any sort of cyanobacterial bloom treatment is the potential
release of a large amount of cyanotoxins, particularly in
drinking water sources, wildlife habitat, or recreational
waters. The potential release of cyanobacterial toxins via
ultrasonic treatment of blooms presents a concern for public health, as well as potential impacts to aquatic biota.
Most sonication studies have focused on the genus
Microcystis and the microcystins produced by these organisms. Lee et al. (2001) analyzed filtrate of ultrasonic-treated
Microcystis suspensions via high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) for microcystins. The suspensions were
determined to contain microcystin-LR and microcystin-RR
prior to sonication. Suspensions were sonicated for 10
minutes at a frequency of 28 kHz and power of 1,200 W.
Microcystin-RR was released after 10 minutes of treatment.
Ma et al. (2005) investigated the dynamics of microcystin release and degradation when Microcystis suspensions
were treated with a variety of ultrasound frequencies
and powers. They found cell destruction and microcystin
release after irradiation at 20 kHz and 30-W intensity for
five to nine minutes. They found no increase of microcystin release at higher intensities with zero to five minutes
of sonication, and a decrease in microcystin levels due to
molecule degradation. They found that a low concentration of microcystin was degraded to 35% of original levels
after 30 minutes of sonication at 20 kHz and 30 W, but
did not investigate this treatment with higher levels of
microcystin that would be considered moderate to high
risk by the World Health Organization (2003).
Zhang et al. (2006) examined the effects of sonication
for five minutes at 25 kHz and 0.32 W/mL on Microcystis
aeruginosa. They found that sonication degraded extracellular microcystin slightly, and seemed to inhibit microcystin release in the following 14 days when sonicated cells
were cultured.
Broekman et al. (2010) found that when low-power
ultrasound was applied to bacterial assemblages in tandem
with microbubbles from an aeration system, cavitation,

cell inactivation, and lysing occurred at lower power than

by ultrasound alone. Rajasekhar et al. (2012b) noted that
this method could be effective in treating cyanobacteria
in large quantities of water, but that it risks cell lysing and
cyanotoxin release.
Rajasekhar et al. (2012a) demonstrated that at all
ultrasonic intensities tested (at 20 kHz at 0.043-0.32 W/
mL), sonication led to immediate increases in extracellular
microcystin in filtrates of cell suspensions. This was true of
both longer exposure times (>10 minutes) at low power
intensity (0.043 W/mL) and five minutes of sonication
at high intensity (0.32 W/mL). Longer exposure times
also led to reductions in microcystin concentrations, due
to breakdown of microcystin molecules by ultrasound.
Rajasekhar et al. (2012a) noted that studies using similar
ultrasonic frequencies and intensities may have experienced different results in microcystin releases due to differences in the Microcystis strains tested, cellular microcystin
content, or resistance of cell walls to sonication. Ultrasound may have very different results in the field than in
the laboratory, as natural cyanobacterial assemblages can
be genetically diverse (Miller and McMahon 2011).
All of the laboratory-based studies we reviewed limited
their ultrasound treatments of cyanobacteria to relatively
short periods. Despite the use of ultrasound devices in
recreational water bodies and drinking water reservoirs,
we found that no studies that were conducted over long
periods in larger systems (see Field Investigations
below) had included sampling or analysis for cyanotoxins.

Free Radical and Hydrogen Peroxide

Generation
Generation of free radicals and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
from ultrasound treatment of water may play a role in the
efficacy of ultrasound treatment. Joyce et al. (2010) noted
that in 30-minute laboratory trials of different ultrasound
frequencies and powers, at higher frequencies (864 kHz)
more free radicals are produced (H and biocidal OH)
which may combine to form hydrogen peroxide and thus
enhance the effectiveness of ultrasound treatment in algal
inactivation. Although hydrogen peroxide is a naturally
occurring byproduct of oxidative metabolism, large
amounts of this compound can harm or kill cells.

Commercial Products Using

Ultrasonic Technology
Several ultrasonic units marketed for algae removal are
available. Small-scale, ultrasonic machines include the
LG Sonic line (LG Sonic, http://www.lgsonic.com/)
and SonicSolutions line (AlgaeControl.US, http://www.
algaecontrol.us/). The large-scale Jet Streamer/Algae
Hunter system marketed by Kapex Manufacturing combines ultrasonic treatment with a water circulation and
microbubble oxygenation apparatus to treat cyanobacterial blooms (Yoshinaga and Kasai 2002, Herald 2011).
Large-scale treatments usually require multiple sonication devices and may include additional treatment
strategies. Aeration and circulation devices, along with
decreasing water residence time through flushing, have
been coupled with sonication in large-scale projects

(Nakano et al. 2001, Lee et al. 2002, Ahn et al. 2007).

These accessory treatments may potentially exacerbate
bloom problems, especially in shallow lakes, or may lead
to the lysing of cyanobacterial cells and the release of
toxins into the surrounding water.
One working hypothesis for sonication treatment of
blooms is that cavitation causes cyanobacterial cells to settle on the lake bottom where, in the absence of light, they
are unable to regenerate gas vacuoles and regain buoyancy (Lee et al. 2001). Verspagen et al. (2004), however,
found recruitment of Microcystis from sediments to the
water column was induced by passive processes such as
wind-induced mixing in shallow areas and bioturbation of
sediments by invertebrates, not by changes in buoyancy.
Verspagen et al.s (2004) study examined naturally sedimented Microcystis cells, not cells which had lost buoyancy
from sonication-induced vacuole disruption. It is possible,
however, that circulation devices could induce cyanobacterial recruitment into the water column from sediments,
where exposure to higher light levels would enable rapid
vacuole regeneration (Lee et al. 2000) and re-establishment of bloom conditions.
Broekman et al. (2010) investigated sonication control of bacterial populations in industrial water systems.
They found that bacterial cells could be lysed at lower
ultrasound powers if air microbubbles were added to the
treatment. The authors did not specify the makeup of the
bacterial assemblages, but since cyanobacteria are true
bacteria, they could possibly be subjected to lysing and
toxin release if treated with a combination of ultrasound
and microbubbles.

Field Investigations of Ultrasound

Applications in Large Systems
Although much of the research on ultrasonic wave effects
on cyanobacteria has been conducted in laboratories,
there are several studies from lakes, ponds, and reservoirs
which provide insight about the feasibility of this approach
in large systems. Below we summarize three published
field studies (Nakano et al. 2001 and Lee et al. 2002, Ahn
et al. 2007, and Purcell et al. 2013) of ultrasonic wave
efficacy on cyanobacterial blooms. None of these studies
included detailed investigation of cyanobacterial cell sedimentation rates or measurements of algal toxins.

Lake Senba, Japan

A hypereutrophic and high-use recreational waterbody
in Japan, Lake Senba (32 ha) has experienced annual
cyanobacterial blooms. The shallow depth (average of
1 meter), agricultural watershed, and municipal sewage
disposal regime have contributed greatly to the cyanobacterial problem in the lake. A combination of ultrasonic
treatment, water jet circulation, and an increased rate of
flushing river water through the lake was employed to
alleviate the cyanobacterial bloom problem (Nakano et
al. 2001, Lee et al. 2002). Ten circulator modules were
installed in the lake. Lake water was pumped into a circulator module, irradiated by two 100-W, 200-kHz ultrasound transducers for approximately five seconds, and
then ejected from the circulator. The lake was treated and
monitored for two years. When lake flushing reached the
desired water residence time, chlorophyll-a, suspended
solids, and transparency were improved. Water quality,
however, degraded when the flow rate decreased in the
second year of treatment and the lake again experienced
high chlorophyll concentrations, increased suspended
solids, and decreased transparency. The reduced flow rate
in the second year could have allowed sonicated cyanobacteria to settle on the lake bottom, regrow their gas
vesicles, and resuspend to reach impaired conditions. Total
phosphorus in the water decreased significantly during the
treatment period. Total nitrogen was higher than previous
years in the first year of treatment but lower in the second
year. Chemical oxygen demand (COD) was reported as
decreasing in treatment years; peak COD was lower than
in the pre-treatment years but during treatment COD
in lake water was consistently higher than inflow water.
Sediment total nitrogen and total phosphorus generally
increased during the treatment period, although levels
sampled near the treatment apparatus did not increase.
In their conclusions, Nakano et al. (2001) point out that
mixing and flushing are important for the prevention
of buoyancy renewal and thus for the prevention of the
further proliferation of cyanobacteria.

Two Ponds in Gyeryong-si, Chungnam,

Korea

Several studies from lakes and ponds provided insight about the
feasibility of this approach in large systems.

Ahn et al. (2007) tested the efficacy of ultrasound in

removing cyanobacteria from two eutrophic neighboring
ponds (7,000 m3 and 9,000 m3) over a 49-day period
from mid-August to the end of September. One pond was
untreated and served as a control, while the other pond

was treated with a combination of ultrasonic irradiation

(630 W, 22 kHz) and water pumps. Sonication treatments
consisted of 85 seconds of irradiation followed by 30 second breaks. Sonication and circulation were halted accidentally from day 7 to day 11 of testing, and then were
halted intentionally from day 23 to day 34. Chlorophyll-a
concentration in the treatment pond was significantly
lower than that of the control pond. The treatment pond
chlorophyll-a concentration, however, quickly rose to the
control level when the sonication/pump apparatus was
intentionally shut off for 11 days, and the chlorophyll-a
did not return to lower levels when the apparatus was
switched on again. Cyanobacteria immediately became
the dominant taxa when the apparatus was shut off in the
treatment pond, then diatoms became dominant when
treatment resumed. The authors proposed that the persistence of the high chlorophyll concentrations was due
to the algal community shifting to a diatom-dominated
system that is less susceptible to sonication. Total nitrogen
and total phosphorus levels were higher in the treatment
pond than in the control pond, though heavy rain caused
a landslide in the treatment pond that could be responsible for the higher nutrient levels. The circulation pumps
increased turbidity in the treated pond. The proportion of
cyanobacteria and the overall algal densities were lower in
the treated pond. Treatment may have killed algae other
than cyanobacteria, resulting in the lower overall densities,
but the authors did not include these data in their paper.

Reservoirs in the United Kingdom

Purcell et al. (2013) tested ultrasound in field trials at
reservoirs operated by three United Kingdom water utility
companies. Trials in several reservoir sites gave inconsistent results.
Trials at northwest England reservoirs over four years
used 40-W, 28-kHz ultrasound transducers. There were no
significant differences between cell densities in treated and
untreated reservoirs in the northwest reservoirs, possibly
because the reservoirs were not sampled on the same
dates and because cell densities never exceeded 25,000
cells/mL and thus never reached bloom density. Trials
at a southeast England reservoir used 40-W, 40-50-kHz,
floating transducers. After five months of treatment with
ultrasound, there were no differences in chlorophyll-a
between treatments and controls, possibly because of
methodological artifacts which were not explained in the
paper. Green algae and diatoms trended toward lower
densities in the sonicated treatment, while cyanobacterial
densities were significantly lower in the sonicated treatment. However, when the authors compared the results
to the previous three years algal density data, they concluded that there were no significant differences between
the sonication and control treatments.
Trials at East Anglia reservoirs occurred over 27 weeks.
The power and frequencies of the ultrasound used were
not reported. Chlorophyll-a was reduced in the treated
reservoir. Although there was no significant difference
between cell densities in treated and control reservoirs,
there was a trend toward reduction in cyanobacterial and
diatom cell densities in the sonicated reservoir, and diatom
densities were decreased more than the cyanobacteria.

Biological Effects of Ultrasonic

Waves on Non-target Species
Besides inducing cavitation and vacuole collapse in cyanobacterial cells, ultrasonic sound waves can cause harm to
other aquatic organisms. We were unable to find publically
available studies in which ultrasound devices marketed
for cyanobacterial control were tested for potential effects
on non-target aquatic organisms. Colucci (2010) found
this as well in her literature review, and in correspondence
with industry representatives learned that some testing
has been conducted, but these studies have not been
published nor have the results been made available to the
scientific community.
Nevertheless, ultrasound has been tested at varying
degrees on aquatic organisms, and studies of its effects on
organisms exist from the earliest days of ultrasound use
(Harvey and Loomis 1928, cited in Miller 1983a). Ultrasound is used in wastewater treatment (Madge and Jensen
2002), as an anti-biofouling strategy for marine applications (Gmez Olmedilla, 2012), and as a ballast water
treatment (Holm et al. 2008). Most trials of sonication
effects on organisms are conducted over short periods
of time (a few seconds to 20 minutes), but some manufacturers recommend continuous operation of anti-algal
sonication devices (LG Sonic, http://www.lgsonic.com/
ultrasonic-algae-control/, accessed 01 May 2013; Sonic
Solutions n.d.). As a result, the exposure of non-target
organisms to ultrasound deployed in a lake setting could
potentially exceed the exposures tested in laboratory studies. Below we describe some possible effects of ultrasonic
waves on non-target aquatic organisms.

Bacteria
Ultrasound can be used to kill bacteria in water as a disinfection method in wastewater treatment and aquaculture.
The physical effects of cavitation inactivate and lyse bacteria (Drakopoulou et al. 2009, Broekman et al. 2010).
Zimba and Grimm (2008) discuss some unpublished
research on bacteria in their aquaculture trade magazine
article. They tested ultrasound on channel catfish (Ictalurus
punctatus) fingerlings in tanks and found that sonicated
tanks had lower turbidity and lower bacterial counts. They
suggest that ultrasound could be used to reduce pathogenic bacteria numbers in aquaculture ponds. If anti-algal,
ultrasound devices are capable of killing bacteria in natural
systems, this could lead to deleterious effects on bacterially-mediated nutrient cycles and organic matter processing
in lakes.

Algae
Algae are the foundation of aquatic food webs, so adverse
effects of ultrasonic devices on non-target algal species
could have far-reaching effects in aquatic ecosystems.
Diatoms in particular are an important, high-quality food
source for higher trophic levels.
Appendix A lists 67 algal taxa, mostly identified to
genus, which may be killed or otherwise incapacitated by
anti-algal, ultrasonic devices. The list includes 13 cyanobacteria, 32 green algae, 16 diatoms, one chrysophyte,

Waterweeds (Elodea) were frequently tested, and ultrasonic effects of these higher frequencies include cavitation
and cell death (Miller 1983a, 1983b).
Wu and Wu (2007) investigated the effects of a range
of frequencies (20 kHz to 2 MHz) on water chestnut (Trapa
natans). They found that after 10 seconds of ultrasonic
waves aimed at a target spot on the plants, the 20 kHz
frequency (1.8 MPa acoustic pressure amplitude) caused
significant cell membrane disruption leading to loss of
leaves, buoyancy, and vitality.
Diatom.

three cryptophytes, and two euglenoid algae. We compiled the appendix from manufacturer and vendor sources,
but it is unclear whether this information was taken from
scientific literature or from unreleased industry studies.
Ahn et al. (2007) investigated ultrasound devices in
ponds containing cyanobacteria, diatoms, and green
algae. Chlorophyll-a levels and percent cyanobacteria
were reduced in the sonicated pond. The authors did not
present cell density or biomass data for non-cyanobacterial taxa, so diatoms and green algae may have been killed
by the ultrasonic treatment as well, as indicated by the
decrease in chlorophyll-a in the treated pond.
Holm et al. (2008) investigated sonication of phytoplankton for four minutes at 19 kHz for ballast water
treatment. The diatom Thalassiosira eccentrica required
exposure times of 2.1 to 3.8 minutes at intensities ranging
from 14 to 17 W/cm2 to kill 90% of cells. The dinoflagellate Pfiesteria piscicida required exposure times of 8.1 to
10.4 minutes at intensities ranging from 13 to 19 W/cm2
for a 90% reduction in survival.
Rajasekhar et al. (2012a) examined sonication treatment
of a small, unicellular coccoid green alga, Chlorella sp., at
20 kHz and 0.085 W/mL for zero to 20 minutes. Sonication
did not reduce Chlorella concentration below the initial
concentrations, but the authors note that their results with
Chlorella may not be representative of all green algae.
A number of other studies have treated green algae with
higher ultrasound frequencies (1 MHz to 2 MHz) and found
deleterious effects. These include cytoplasmic clumping in
Hydrodictyon, induction of cellular currents and cavitation
in Nitella, and emulsification of cell contents and loss of turgor in Spirogyra and Nitella (Dyer et al. 1976, ElPiner et al.
1965, Goldman and Lepeschkin 1957, Harvey and Loomis
1928, Hopwood 1931; all reviewed in Miller 1983a).
These taxa of green algae provide habitat for aquatic
invertebrates (J.D. Hall, Department of Botany, Academy of
Natural Sciences of Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA, pers.
comm.) so their loss from ultrasound treatment could result
in reduced invertebrate populations. Additionally, their loss
would make more nutrients available for uptake by other
primary producers, including cyanobacteria.

Plants
Numerous studies demonstrate deleterious effects of ultrasound on plants, but many of them use higher frequency
ultrasound in the 1 MHz to 2 MHz range so results are
more difficult to compare to the 20 kHz frequencies typically thought to be used in anti-algal, sonication devices.

Zooplankton
Ultrasound has been investigated as a control for zooplankton in ballast water. Holm et al. (2008) tested
ultrasound effects on a cladoceran (Ceriodaphnia dubia),
rotifers (Brachionus plicatilis, B. calyciflorus, and Philodina
sp.), and brine shrimp (Artemia sp.). Testing was done
in a flow-through system and investigated the exposure
time and energy density needed to kill 90% of organisms
when using an ultrasound frequency of 19 kHz. Holm et
al. (2008) found that contact times of one to four seconds and an energy density of 6-19 J/mL resulted in high
mortality. Organisms either passed through the system or
were reduced to debris. Microjets within the zooplankton caused by the collapse of cavitation bubbles were
the hypothesized cause of zooplankton mortality in the
experiments. This 19-kHz treatment was most effective
against zooplankton larger than 100 m, and exposure
times below 10 seconds and energy densities less than
20 J/mL resulted in 90% mortality (Holm et al. 2008).
Because intensity levels of anti-algal, ultrasonic devices are
proprietary information, it is unknown whether the ballast
control treatment levels are in a range similar to what is
produced by those devices.

Mollusks
Ultrasound has been found to be effective in killing snails
which serve as parasite hosts in aquaculture settings.
Goodwiller and Chambers (2012) sonicated ramshorn
snails (Planorbella trivolvis) in a tank at a frequency of 20
kHz and power up to 89 W (the specific power levels they
used were unreported). Snails were placed five to 13 cm
from the sonicator and in tests of five to 120 seconds of
sonication of groups of 10 snails, 0 to 100% of snails died,
with 40% dead after 30 seconds and 70% after 60 seconds. Death was hypothesized to be from internal injuries,
as the sonication produced clouds of cavitation bubbles.
Additional experiments that were run over 90-second
intervals appeared to kill 35% of snails outright and mortally wound an additional 33% of snails, which died within
four days of the conclusion of the experiment.
Ultrasound has been investigated as a method for zebra
mussel (Dreissena polymorpha) control, although frequencies below ultrasound are most often used (Kowalewski et
al. 1993, Donskoy and Ludiyanskiy 1995). Donskoy and
Ludiyanskiy (1995) cite research in which ultrasound ranging from 20 kHz to 380 kHz was used to induce cavitation
and mortality in veliger, juvenile, and adult zebra mussels.
No information on the effects of ultrasound on native
mussel glochidia (juvenile life stages) could be found.

Insects
Miller (2007) cites a study by Child and Carstensen (1982)
in which pulsed ultrasound (peak intensity 10-20 W/cm2,
2 MHz), destroyed cell membranes and killed cells of fruit
flies (Drosophila) as eggs hatched and larvae developed
gas-filled respiratory channels. Child and Carstensen
(1982) hypothesized that the ultrasound affected the gas
bodies within the respiratory channels. These are higher
frequencies than those typically believed to be used by
anti-algal, sonication devices, but these studies indicate
that sonication could have deleterious effects on insects.
Some aquatic insects are known to communicate with
ultrasonic sound. Water boatmen (Hemiptera: Corixidae:
Micronecta) produce courtship songs which are partially
in ultrasonic range (approximately 5-22 kHz) (Sueur et
al. 2011). Caddisfly larvae (Trichoptera: Hydropsychidae:
Cheumatopsyche, Diplonectra, and Hydropsyche) produce
ultrasonic sounds which serve as territorial displays (Silver
1980). Ultrasound generated by anti-algal, ultrasonic
devices potentially could interfere with aquatic insect
communication and behavior.

Amphibians
Amphibian embryonic tissue was destroyed and amphibian embryos suffered mortality after being exposed to
ultrasonic waves (Sarvazyan et al. 1982, Pashovkin et al.
2006). Sarvazyan et al. (1982) irradiated common frog
(Rana temporaria) and African clawed frog (Xenopus laevis)
eggs and tissue at 0.88 MHz and at average intensities
of 0.025-0.1 W/cm2. Pashkovin et al. (2006) employed a
variety of frequencies and durations and induced almost
complete mortality of Rana temporaria embryos after five
to 15 minutes at 0.88 MHz and 0.2-0.7 W/cm2. While
these studies used ultrasound frequencies which exceed
the frequencies usually employed in cyanobacterial studies, they demonstrate a potentially deleterious effect of
sonication on amphibians.

Fish
Despite the use of anti-algal, ultrasonic units in aquaculture ponds, we found no publically available information
that addressed the effects of non-medical, ultrasound uses
on fish and only a small number of papers that dealt with
behavioral responses to ultrasound.
Some marine fish (Clupeidae: cod [Gadus morhua],
herring and shad [Alosa aestivalis, A. sapidissima, Clupea
harengus], and Gulf menhaden [Brevoortia patronus])
can detect ultrasound (up to 180 kHz), which elicits
anti-predator behavior (Astrup 1999, Popper et al. 2004),
but research on ultrasound detection in freshwater fish is
scarce. Ultrasound (122-128 kHz, 190 dB) has been used
as a method to deter alewives (Alosa pseudoharengus)
from a Lake Ontario power plant intake (Ross et al. 1993,
1996). Alewives are members of the same family that
includes the marine fish species known to detect ultrasound. In addition to using the inner ear for ultrasound
detection (Popper et al. 2004), the lateral line, swim
bladder, or receptors in the epidermis may also play roles
in ultrasound detection in fish (Astrup 1999).

Zimba and Grimm (2008) noted in a trade magazine

article that in tank trials with channel catfish fingerlings,
continuous operation of ultrasound devices deterred fish
from feeding. Their trials were modified to allow a fourhour period without ultrasound treatment around the
feeding time. Continuous operation of ultrasound devices
could interfere with fish feeding or other behavior in a
natural setting.
Ultrasound enhances uptake of particles into cells by
inducing cavitation and by widening intercellular spaces,
thus increasing permeability of the skin (e.g., sonication at
3 MHz and 2.2 W/cm2; Frenkel et al. 2000a). This effect
of ultrasound has been used for a variety of applications
in aquaculture, including transport of silver chloride
nanoparticles (Frenkel et al. 2000b) and vaccination. Fernandez-Alonso et al. (2001) used ultrasound (24 seconds
at 40 kHz and 40 W in a small bath sonicator) to transfer
viral hemorrhagic septicemia plasmids into trout fingerlings as a form of immersion vaccination.
Zohar et al. (1991) note in their U.S. patent that for
fish, crustaceans, and mollusks, compounds which can
be administered with their ultrasound-enhanced method
include proteins, nucleic acid sequences, antibiotics, antifungals, steroids, vitamins, nutrients, minerals, hormones,
and vaccines. They state that frequencies and intensities
used to implement molecule transfer range from 20 kHz
to 10 MHz and 0 to 3 W/cm2. Exposures of a few minutes are sufficient, and they consider excessive exposure
as being greater than one hour (Zohar et al. 1991). It is
possible that fish in natural systems could be at risk for
disease or possibly environmental contaminant uptake
if their ultrasound exposure is great enough to induce
epidermal permeability.

Humans
The safety of ultrasound use for medical applications
should not be extrapolated to other situations. The
acoustic pressure generated in one study to disrupt and
sink cyanobacterial cells exceeded the maximum acoustic
pressure allowed by the NATO Undersea Research Centre
(NURC) by over 35 decibels, despite being within the safe
mechanical index range used for diagnostic ultrasound
(NURC 2006, Kotopoulis et al. 2009). Kotopoulis et al.
(2009) tested higher frequencies (200 kHz to 2.5 MHz)
than those believed to typically be produced by anti-algal,
ultrasound devices. The maximum acoustic pressure exposure to human divers and marine mammals allowed by
NURC is 708 Pa at frequencies up to 250 kHz (Kotopoulis
et al. 2009). Exceeding these levels, as Kotopoulis et al.
(2009) did to burst cyanobacterial vacuoles, could cause
serious damage to divers and aquatic mammals, and the
authors urge caution in using their cyanobacteria removal
techniques when aquatic animals are present. It is not
clear if these devices also pose a risk of tissue damage
to humans swimming near the devices, or if they may
cause cumulative effects from repeatedly swimming in the
lower intensity ultrasonic treatment area. Kotopoulis et al.
(2008), in a conference abstract, report that if ultrasound
in the clinical diagnostic range from 200 kHz to 2.5 MHz
is used for algal eradication, the safe swimming distance

would be several meters away from the ultrasound source.

These frequencies are higher than most used in cyanobacterial treatment investigations. Ultrasound device intensity
levels are proprietary information, so we are unable to
determine whether the intensity levels required for scaling
up lower frequency treatments for larger systems would
have an effect on humans.
Tissue damage from cavitation is a potential risk with
ultrasound exposure at certain frequencies, intensities,
and lengths of exposure. The owners manual for Sonic
Solutions Algae Control Systems (Sonic Solutions, n.d.)
includes the following warning in the safety information:

7. WARNING Risk of injury. May cause tissue

damage. DO NOT place the transducer against your
head or chest while the device is operating.
The release of cyanobacterial toxins from burst or damaged cyanobacterial cells poses a potential risk to human
health from operation of these devices in lakes. Current
guidance to the public advises them to visually assess
water bodies and to avoid ingestion of water if cyanobacterial scums or turbid, pea soup conditions are present,
as those conditions represent high to very high risk of
adverse health effects (World Health Organization 2003;
Wisconsin Department of Health Services, www.dhs.wisconsin.gov/eh/bluegreenalgae/understandingalgae.
htm). Hypothetically, if an ultrasonic device were powerful
enough to remove an algal scum in a short period of time,
recreational users could be presented with a situation in
which toxins were present but the absence of the scum
did not indicate risky conditions for exposure.

Impacts on Water Quality

Sonication and the supplementary treatments with which
it may be coupled may adversely affect water quality. Ahn
et al. (2003) noted increases in total dissolved phosphorus
and orthophosphate in sonicated pond enclosures, and
attributed this to ultrasounds ability to dissociate phosphate from particles. Long-term treatment could thus
fuel additional algal growth. Ahn et al. (2007) found that
in a pond treated with a combination of sonication and
circulation, the water pumps increased turbidity. Circulation and aeration devices may destratify the water column,
which in some systems may enhance nutrient release
from lake sediments, further impacting water quality and
promoting algal blooms (Hupfer and Lewandowski 2008,
James 2012).

Conclusions
Most studies of ultrasound on cyanobacteria are short,
laboratory-based studies. It is difficult to draw conclusions
on the effects of the continuous operation of anti-algal,
ultrasound devices in large aquatic systems from the few
field studies that are available in the peer-reviewed, publically-available scientific literature. Additionally, there is a
lack of information on wavelengths and intensities used by
the devices because that remains proprietary information.
We reviewed studies using ultrasound frequencies believed

to be in a range similar to those generated by anti-algal,

ultrasound devices. Sonication does appear to inactivate
cyanobacteria in very short-term, small laboratory experiments. Ultrasound intensity and duration, however, will
likely be different when these devices are used in natural
systems. Intensity may effectively be lower with larger volumes of water. The effects of continuously operated units
as recommended by manufacturers (LG Sonic, http://
www.lgsonic.com/ultrasonic-algae-control/ accessed 01
May 2013; Sonic Solutions n.d.) may differ from those of
five to 10-minute laboratory trials.
Concerns for the use of sonication technology include
the potential release of cyanotoxins from lysed cyanobacterial cells. This would pose a hazard not only to the
organisms living in or foraging in the lake, but to humans
and their pets recreating on the water as well. Ultrasound
is used in recreational waters and drinking water reservoirs (Purcell et al. 2013), but data on algal toxins in
large systems treated with ultrasound are absent from the
scientific literature.
The devices themselves may pose potential health hazards. Depending on the duration, intensity, and proximity
to swimmers, ultrasonic algae control technology could
cause harm to humans. One study found that the acoustic pressure generated to burst cyanobacterial vacuoles
greatly exceeded the criteria proposed by NATO for divers
and aquatic mammals (NURC 2006, Kotopoulis et al.
2009). The owners manual for one manufacturers devices
warns that tissue damage could result if the transducer
is placed against the head or chest while operating and
states that the device should always be unplugged before
cleaning or handling (Sonic Solutions n.d.). If the sonication device assemblage in a lake is prominent or noticeable, such as the swan-shaped Lake Senba units (Nakano
et al. 2001, Lee et al. 2002), people could be drawn to
them out of curiosity and receive high dosages of ultrasound irradiation while swimming near them.
We have reviewed numerous scientific studies which
detail the negative effects of ultrasound on aquatic organisms. The ecological effects should also be considered, particularly changes to aquatic food webs if high-quality food
sources such as diatoms or zooplankton are killed. Effects
on recreational opportunities should also be considered if
fish will not feed when exposed to ultrasonic waves.
If ultrasonic devices truly are effective in large systems,
our review of ultrasound effects on non-target organisms
indicates that they potentially could affect adversely a
great number of non-target species in lakes, as well as
potentially pose some risk to humans using lakes for recreation. On the other hand, if the devices are not powerful
enough to cause harm to aquatic organisms, they may not
be effective against cyanobacteria either. Mason (2007)
advocates ultrasound use in environmental remediation
and protection as a link between green chemistry,
green engineering, and physics. Ultrasound does offer
potential for treating the conditions caused by eutrophication, but the biology and ecology of aquatic organisms
and their habitats must be considered as well.

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10
3 4

F





F

F
F

F
F

Achnanthidium minutissimum (Ktzing)

Czarnecki (reported as Achnanthes minutissima)
Cocconeis placentula Ehrenberg
Cyclotella sp.
Eolimna minima (Grunow) Lange-Bertalot &
Schiller (reported as Navicula minima)
Fragilaria capucina Desmazires
Fragilaria sp.
Gomphonema parvulum (Ktzing) Ktzing
Gomphonema sp.
Navicula sp. (certain species)
Nitzschia sp.
Nitzschia sp. (certain species)
Nitzschia palea (Ktzing) W. Smith
Pinnularia sp.
Planothidium lanceolatum (Brbisson ex Ktzing)
Round & Bukhtiyarova (reported as
Achnanthes lanceolata)
Synedra ulna (Nitzsch) Ehrenberg
(reported as Fragilaria ulna)
Tabellaria sp.

F
F

F
F

F
F


F

F

F
F
F

F


F

Diatoms (Kingdom Chromista, Phylum Bacillariophyta)

Anabaena sp.
Aphanizomenon sp.
(also misspelled as Amphanizomenon sp.)
Chroococcus sp.
Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii
(Woloszynska) Seenayya & Subba Raju
Heteroleibleinia sp.
Leptolyngbya sp.
Lyngbya sp.
Merismopedia tenuissima Lemmermann
Microcystis sp.
Microcystis sp. (larger colonies)
Oscillatoria
Planktothrix sp.
Pseudanabaena sp.
(also misspelled as Pseudoanabaena sp.)

F

F


F

F
F

F

F


F

F
F

F
F
F


F
F

F
F

Effects of sonication vs cyanobacteria

75-95%
Not
Partial or 75% Resistent
100%
75-95%
50%
Not
and algae species:
Killed effectiveness killed Affected effectiveness
[sic]
effectiveness effectiveness effectiveness Controlled controlled

Cyanobacteria (Kingdom Bacteria, Phylum Cyanobacteria)

Source:*
1 2

This list was compiled from manufacturer and vendor documentation, and a presentation at an aquatic weed control workshop. See source list at end of table.

Appendix A. Industry-reported Effects of Ultrasound Treatment on 13 Cyanobacterial Taxa and 54 Algal Taxa

11

F
F
F

F
F

F
F
F
F

F
F
F
F

F



F

F
F

F
F
F

F



F

is a marine species. Plagioselmis nannoplanctica (Skuja) Novarino, Lucas & Morrall may instead be the correct species
(it was transferred from Rhodomonas minuta var. nannoplanctica Skuja).

1This

(continued on next page)

Acutodesmus acuminatus
(Lagerheim) Tsarenko (reported as
Scenedesmus acuminates [sic])
Acutodesmus obliquus
(Turpin) Hegewald & Hanagata
(reported as Scenedesmus obliquus)
Ankistrodesmus falcatus (Corda) Ralfs
Aphanochaete sp.
Botryococcus braunii Ktzing
Chara sp.
Chlamydomonas sp.
Chlorella sp.
Chloromonas botrys Pascher
Cladophora sp.
Closterium sp.
Coelastrum sp.
Cosmarium sp.
Crucigenia sp.
Desmodesmus abundans
(Kirchner) Hegewald (reported as
Scenedesmus abundans)
Desmodesmus quadricaudatus
(Turpin) Hegewald (reported as
Scenedesmus quadricauda)
Dictyosphaerium sp.
Gloeocystis sp.
Lagerheimia sp.

Green Algae (Kingdom Plantae, Phylum Charophyta & Phylum Chlorophyta)

Euglena sp.
Phacus sp.

Euglenoid Algae (Kingdom Protozoa, Phylum Euglenophyta)

Cryptomonas erosa Ehrenberg

Cryptomonas sp.
Rhodomonas lacustris var. nannoplanctica
(Skuja) Javornicky (reported as
Rhodomonas minuta)1

Cryptophytes (Kingdom Chromista, Phylum Cryptophyta)

Tribonema sp.

Chrysophytes (Kingdom Chromista, Phylum Ochrophyta)

F
F
F
F

F

F

F

F
F

F
F
F
F

F
F

F
F
F
F


F
F
F

12
3 4

F


F

F

F

F
F

*Sources:
1. LG Sound. Date unknown. Some algae types proven effectively killed by ultrasound. http://www.ecosmarte.com.au/
sonic/effectiveness.pdf. Accessed 01 May 2013. (Link is no longer active; document is available by request from the authors of this review.)
2. Pond Algae Control from KLM Solutions website (Sonic Solutions vendor). Date unknown. Ultrasonic Algae Control.
http://www.pondalgaecontrol.com/ultrasound.shtml. Accessed 17 July 2013.
3. Stoney Creek Fisheries & Equipment, Inc. website (Impact Tec vendor). Date Unknown. Ultra Sonic Algae Control.
http://www.stoneycreekequip.com/form/ultrasonicinfo.htm. Accessed 17 July 2013.
4. Whatley, K. 2013. How Ultrasonic Technology Kills and Controls Algae. 8 May 2013 Presentation at Aquatic Weed Control Short Course,
Coral Springs, FL. http://www.conference.ifas.ufl.edu/aw/Presentations/2-Wednesday/Grand%20Floridian/Session%208b/
0300%20Whatley.pdf. Accessed 17 July 2013.

Micractinium sp.
Nitella sp.
Oedogonium sp.
Oocystis pusilla Hansgirg
Oocystis sp.
Pediastrum sp.
Pithophora sp.
Pseudopediastrum boryanum
(Turpin) E. Hegewald
(reported as Pediastrum boryanum)
Sphaerocystis schroeteri Chodat
Spirogyra sp.
Staurastrum sp.
Stigeoclonium sp.
Ulothrix sp.

F
F
F

F

F

Effects of sonication vs cyanobacteria

75-95%
Not
Partial or 75% Resistent
100%
75-95%
50%
Not
and algae species:
Killed effectiveness killed Affected effectiveness
[sic]
effectiveness effectiveness effectiveness Controlled controlled

Green Algae (Kingdom Plantae, Phylum Charophyta & Phylum Chlorophyta) continued

Source:*
1 2

(continued from page 11)

Gloeotrichia.

Planktonic algae.

13

14

Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge and thank Scott Van Egeren, Brian Weigel, and an anonymous
reviewer for their comments and suggestions which improved this manuscript.

Abbreviations
cm = centimeter
dB = decibel
J = joule
kHz = kilohertz
MHz = megahertz
mL = milliliter
MPa = megapascal
Pa = pascal
m = micrometer
W = watt

Author Contact Information

Gina LaLiberte, Research Scientist, Bureau of Science Services, Wisconsin Department of
Natural Resources, 2801 Progress Road, Madison, WI 53716. Phone: (608) 221-5377.
E-mail: [email protected].
Elizabeth Haber, Research Scientist, Bureau of Water Quality, Wisconsin Department of
Natural Resources, P.O. Box 7921, Madison, WI 53707-7921. Phone: (608) 266-1902.
E-mail: [email protected].

Production Credits
Editor: Dreux J. Watermolen
Graphic Design: Michelle E. Voss
Photography: Gina LaLiberte

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