1.

RAINWATER HARVESTING FOR AGRICULTURAL

PRODUCTION
Rainwater harvesting (RWH): is the technology used for collecting and storing rainwater for
human use from rooftops, land surfaces or rock catchments. RWH is a decentralised,
environmentally sound solution, which can avoid many environmental problems often caused
in centralised conventional large-scale water supply projects.

Rainwater is an important water source in many areas with significant rainfall but lacking
any kind of conventional, centralised supply system.
Rainwater is also a good option in areas where good quality fresh surface water or
groundwater is lacking.
It could be used as a supplement to piped water supply e.g. for toilet flushing, washing and
garden spraying

1.1 Methods of Rainwater Harvesting

Broadly there are two ways of harvesting rainwater
1. Surface runoff harvesting
2. Roof top rainwater harvesting
Rainwater harvesting is the collection and storage of rainwater for reuse on-site, rather than
allowing it to run off. These stored waters are used for various purposes such as gardening,
irrigation etc. Various methods of rainwater harvesting are described in this section.
1.1.1 Surface runoff harvesting
In both urban and rural areas, rainwater flows away as surface runoff. This runoff could be
caught and used for recharging aquifers by adopting appropriate methods.
Types of surface RWH systems include:
i.
ii.
iii.

Ground catchments (man-made)

Rock catchments (natural, impervious outcrops)
Collection of storm water in urbanized catchments for recharge

1.1.2 Roof Top rainwater harvesting

It is a system of catching rainwater where it falls. In rooftop harvesting, the roof becomes the
catchments, and the rainwater is collected from the roof of the house/building. It can either be
stored in a tank or diverted to artificial recharge system. This method is less expensive and
very effective and if implemented properly helps in augmenting the ground water level of the
area.
Types of roof top RWH systems include:

Simple roofwater collection system for households

Larger systems for educational institutions, stadiums, airports, and other facilities
Roofwater collection systems for high-rise buildings in urbanised areas

Components of the roof top rainwater harvesting

The illustrative design of the basic components of roof top rainwater harvesting system is given
in the typical schematic diagram shown in Fig .

Fig 1a: Components of Rooftop Rainwater harvesting

The system mainly constitutes of following sub components:

Catchments

Transportation

First flush

Filter

i.
Catchments
The surface that receives rainfall directly is the catchment of rainwater harvesting system. It
may be terrace, courtyard, or paved or unpaved open ground. The terrace may be flat
RCC/stone roof or sloping roof. Therefore the catchment is the area, which actually contributes
rainwater to the harvesting system.
ii.
Transportation
Rainwater from rooftop should be carried through down take water pipes or drains to
storage/harvesting system. Water pipes should be UV resistant (ISI HDPE/PVC pipes) of required
capacity. Water from sloping roofs could be caught through gutters and down take pipe. At
terraces, mouth of the each drain should have wire mesh to restrict floating material.
iii.
First Flush
First flush is a device used to flush off the water received in first shower. The first shower of
rains needs to be flushed-off to avoid contaminating storable/rechargeable water by the
probable contaminants of the atmosphere and the catchment roof. It will also help in cleaning
of silt and other material deposited on roof during dry seasons Provisions of first rain separator
should be made at outlet of each drainpipe.
iv.
Filter
There is always some skepticism regarding Roof Top Rainwater Harvesting since doubts are
raised that rainwater may contaminate groundwater. There is remote possibility of this fear
coming true if proper filter mechanism is not adopted. Secondly all care must be taken to see

that underground sewer drains are not punctured and no leakage is taking place in close
vicinity. Filters are used fro treatment of water to effectively remove turbidity, colour and
microorganisms. After first flushing of rainfall, water should pass through filters. A gravel, sand
and netlon mesh filter is designed and placed on top of the storage tank. This filter is very
important in keeping the rainwater in the storage tank clean. It removes silt, dust, leaves and
other organic matter from entering the storage tank. The filter media should be cleaned daily
after every rainfall event. Clogged filters prevent rainwater from easily entering the storage
tank and the filter may overflow. The sand or gravel media should be taken out and washed
before it is replaced in the filter.
A typical photograph of filter is shown in Fig 2.

Fig 2: Photograph of typical filter

There are different types of filters in practice, but basic function is to purify water. Different
types of filters are described in this section.
a) Sand Gravel Filter
These are commonly used filters, constructed by brick masonry and filleted by pebbles, gravel,
and sand as shown in the figure. Each layer should be separated by wire mesh. A typical figure
of Sand Gravel Filter is shown in Fig 3.

Fig 3: Sand Gravel Filter

b) Charcoal Filter
Charcoal filter can be made in-situ or in a drum. Pebbles, gravel, sand and charcoal as shown in
the figure should fill the drum or chamber. Each layer should be separated by wire mesh. Thin
layer of charcoal is used to absorb odor if any. A schematic diagram of Charcoal filter is
indicated in Fig 4.

Fig 4: Charcoal Filter

c) PVC Pipe filter
This filter can be made by PVC pipe of 1 to 1.20 m length; Diameter of pipe depends on the
area of roof. Six inches dia. pipe is enough for a 1500 Sq. Ft. roof and 8 inches dia. pipe should
be used for roofs more then 1500 Sq. Ft. Pipe is divided into three compartments by wire mesh.
Each component should be filled with gravel and sand alternatively as shown in the figure. A
layer of charcoal could also be inserted between two layers. Both ends of filter should have
reduce of required size to connect inlet and outlet. This filter could be placed horizontally or
vertically in the system. A schematic pipe filter is shown in Fig 5.

Fig 5: PVC-Pipe filter

d) Sponge Filter
It is a simple filter made from PVC drum having a layer of sponge in the middle of drum. It is
the easiest and cheapest form filter, suitable for residential units. A typical figure of sponge
filter is shown in Fig 6.

Fig 6: Sponge Filter

Methods of roof top rainwater harvesting
Various methods of using roof top rainwater harvesting are illustrated in this section.
a) Storage of Direct Use
In this method rain water collected from the roof of the building is diverted to a storage tank.
The storage tank has to be designed according to the water requirements, rainfall and
catchment availability. Each drainpipe should have mesh filter at mouth and first flush device
followed by filtration system before connecting to the storage tank. It is advisable that each
tank should have excess water over flow system.
Excess water could be diverted to recharge system. Water from storage tank can be used for
secondary purposes such as washing and gardening etc. This is the most cost effective way of
rainwater harvesting. The main advantage of collecting and using the rainwater during rainy
season is not only to save water from conventional sources, but also to save energy incurred on
transportation and distribution of water at the doorstep. This also conserves groundwater, if it
is being extracted to meet the demand when rains are on. A typical fig of storage tank is shown
in Fig 7.

Fig 7: A storage tank on a platform painted white

b) Recharging ground water aquifers

Ground water aquifers can be recharged by various kinds of structures to ensure percolation of
rainwater in the ground instead of draining away from the surface. Commonly used recharging
methods are:i.

Recharging of bore wells

ii. Recharging of dug wells.

iii. Recharge pits
iv. Recharge Trenches
v. Soak ways or Recharge Shafts
vi. Percolation Tanks
c) Recharging of bore wells
Rainwater collected from rooftop of the building is diverted through drainpipes to settlement or
filtration tank. After settlement filtered water is diverted to bore wells to recharge deep
aquifers. Abandoned bore wells can also be used for recharge.
Optimum capacity of settlement tank/filtration tank can be designed on the basis of area of
catchment, intensity of rainfall and recharge rate. While recharging, entry of floating matter
and silt should be restricted because it may clog the recharge structure. First one or two
shower should be flushed out through rain separator to avoid contamination. A schematic
diagram of filtration tank recharging to bore well is indicated in Fig 8 .

Fig 8 :Filtration tank recharging to bore well

d)Recharge pits

Recharge pits are small pits of any shape rectangular, square or circular, contracted with brick
or stone masonry wall with weep hole at regular intervals. Top of pit can be covered with
perforated covers. Bottom of pit should be filled with filter media.
The capacity of the pit can be designed on the basis of catchment area, rainfall intensity and
recharge rate of soil. Usually the dimensions of the pit may be of 1 to 2 m width and 2 to 3 m
deep depending on the depth of pervious strata. These pits are suitable for recharging of
shallow aquifers, and small houses. A schematic diagram of recharge pit is shown in Fig 9.

Fig 9: Recharge pit

e) Soak way or Recharge shafts
Soak away or recharge shafts are provided where upper layer of soil is alluvial or less pervious.
These are bored hole of 30 cm dia. up to 10 to 15 m deep, depending on depth of pervious
layer. Bore should be lined with slotted/perforated PVC/MS pipe to prevent collapse of the
vertical sides. At the top of soak away required size sump is constructed to retain runoff before
the filters through soak away. Sump should be filled with filter media. A schematic diagram of
recharge shaft is shown in Fig 10.

Fig 10 : Schematic Diagram of Recharge shaft

f) Recharging of dug wells
Dug well can be used as recharge structure. Rainwater from the rooftop is diverted to dug wells
after passing it through filtration bed. Cleaning and desalting of dug well should be done
regularly to enhance the recharge rate. The filtration method suggested for bore well
recharging could be used. A schematic diagram of recharging into dug well is indicated in Fig
11shown below.

Fig 11: Schematic diagram of recharging to dug well

g)Recharge trenches
Recharge trench in provided where upper impervious layer of soil is shallow. It is a trench
excavated on the ground and refilled with porous media like pebbles, boulder or brickbats. it is
usually made for harvesting the surface runoff. Bore wells can also be provided inside the
trench as recharge shafts to enhance percolation. The length of the trench is decided as per
the amount of runoff expected. This method is suitable for small houses, playgrounds, parks
and roadside drains. The recharge trench can be of size 0.50 to 1.0 m wide and 1.0 to 1.5 m
deep. A schematic diagram of recharging to trenches is shown in Fig below 12.

Fig 12: Recharging to trenches.

h) Percolation tank
Percolation tanks are artificially created surface water bodies, submerging a land area with
adequate permeability to facilitate sufficient percolation to recharge the ground water. These
can be built in big campuses where land is available and topography is suitable.
Surface run-off and roof top water can be diverted to this tank. Water accumulating in the tank
percolates in the solid to augment the ground water. The stored water can be used directly for
gardening and raw use. Percolation tanks should be built in gardens, open spaces and roadside
green belts of urban area.
Classification of water-harvesting systems

1.2 Micro-catchment Systems

Micro-catchment systems are those in which surface runoff is collected from a small catchment
area with mainly sheet flow over a short distance. Runoff water is usually applied to an
adjacent agricultural area, where it is either stored in the root zone and used directly by plants,
or stored
in a small reservoir for later use. The target area may be planted with trees, bushes, or with
annual crops. The size of the catchment ranges from a few square meters to around 1000 m 2.
Land catchment surfaces may be natural, with their vegetation intact, or cleared and treated in
some way to induce runoff, especially when soils are light. Non-land catchment surfaces
include the rooftops of buildings, courtyards and similar impermeable structures.
a. On-Farm Systems

On-Farm micro-catchment systems are simple in design and may be constructed at low cost,
making them easily replicable and adaptable. They have higher runoff efficiency than macrocatchment systems and do not usually need a water conveyance system. They allow soil
erosion to be controlled and sediments to be directed to settle in the cultivated area. Suitable
land-based micro-catchment techniques exist for any slope or crop. However, these systems
generally require continuous maintenance with a relatively high labor input.
Unlike macro-catchment systems, the farmer has control within his farm over both the
catchment and the target areas.
All the components of the system are constructed inside the farm boundaries. This is an
advantage from the point of view of maintenance and management, but because of the loss of
productive land it is only in the drier environments, where cropping is most risky, that farmers
are willing to allocate part of their farm to a catchment.
Some important land-based micro-catchment or on-farm water-harvesting systems in the dry
areas listed here below.
i. Contour ridges
These are bunds or ridges constructed along the contour line, usually spaced between 5 and 20
m apart. The first 12 m above the ridge is for cultivation, whereas the rest is the catchment.
The height of each ridge varies according to the slopes gradient and the expected depth of the
runoff water retained behind it. Bunds may be reinforced by stones if necessary.
Ridging is a simple technique that can be carried out by farmers. Ridges can be formed
manually, with an animal-driven implement, or by tractors with suitable implements. They may
be constructed on a wide range of slopes, from 1% to 50%. The key to the success of these
systems is to locate the ridge as precisely as possible along the contour. Otherwise water will
flow along the ridge, accumulate at the lowest point, eventually break through and destroy the
whole downslope system. Surveying instruments, or an A-Frame and hand tools, can be used
for contouring, but these methods are too sophisticated and time-consuming for most smallscale farmers.
The simplest method is a transparent, flexible tube 1020 m long, fixed on two scaled poles.
The tube is filled with water so that the two water levels are clear on the scale. Two people can
trace the contour by adjusting the position of one of the poles so that their water levels are the
same.
If precise contouring is not feasible, small cross-bunds (ties) may be added at suitable spacing
along the ridge to stop the flow of water along the ridge. Contour ridges are one of the most
important techniques for supporting the regeneration and new plantations of forages, grasses
and hardy trees on gentle to steep slopes in the steppe. In the semi-arid tropics, they are used
for arable crops such as sorghum, millet, cowpeas and beans.
A special form of contour ridge may be constructed for use with stone bunds on gentle slopes.
Stone bunds are permeable structures working only to slow down sheet flow and promote
infiltration. Earth can be excavated and added to the upstream side of the bund to turn it into
an impermeable contour ridge.
These stone bund systems can be used only if suitable large stones are available in the vicinity.
ii. Semi-circular and trapezoidal bunds
These are usually earthen bunds in the shape of a semi-circle, a crescent, or a trapezoid facing
directly upslope. They are created at a spacing that allows sufficient catchment to provide the
required runoff water, which accumulates in front of the bund, where plants are grown. Usually
they are placed in staggered rows.
The diameter or the distance between the two ends of each bund varies between 1 and 8 m
and the bunds are 3050 cm high. Cutting the soil to form the bund depression. Runoff is
intercepted here and stored in the plant root zone. If soil is cut upstream the slope is increased
and this

raises the runoff coefficient; in this way the technique can be used on level land, but it can also
be used on slopes up to 15%.
These bunds are used mainly for the rehabilitation of rangeland or for fodder production, but
may also be used for growing trees, shrubs and in some cases field crops (e.g. sorghum) and
vegetables (e.g. watermelons).
An eyebrow terrace is a form of semicircular bund supported by stones on the downstream
side. The greater the slope, the more the bunds have to be strengthened with stones. The
establishment and maintenance of this system is labor-intensive.
iii. Small pits/ planting pits (Zai, Zay, Chololo, Matengo, Ngoro)
The planting pit system is a Micro catchment technique. Pitting is a very old technique used
mainly in Western and Eastern Africa. It is excellent for rehabilitating degraded agricultural
lands. The pits are 0.32 m in diameter. The most famous pitting system is the zay system
used in Burkina Faso.
Planting pits are made on land which low permeability to allow for runoff collection. Planting
pits are holes dug to catch runoff and allow time for infiltration and they are usually fertilised
with organic matter in the form of plant debris or compost.
Pitting systems are generally used for cultivation of annual and perennial crops for example
sorghum, maize, millet, cowpeas, sweet potatoes, groundnuts and bananas. However, if the
pits are dug on flat instead of sloping ground, they may be regarded more as an in situ
moisture-conservation technique than as a water-harvesting one.
Useful design guidelines: The Zay form are dug with approximately 80 cm apart to a depth
of 5 to 15 cm, with a diameter of between 15 and 50 cm, but the planting pits also exists in
much greater size and with different spacing.
The labor requirement for digging a zay system is high and may constitute a considerable
investment in the first and even in subsequent years since, after each tillage, the pits have to
be restored. A special disk-plow may be adapted to create small pits for range rehabilitation.
Limitation: The planting pits will not maintain runoff water in sandy soils.
iv. Small runoff basins
Sometimes called negarim, small runoff basins consist of small diamond- or rectangular-shaped
structures surrounded by low earth bunds. They are oriented to have the maximum land slope
parallel to the long diagonal of the diamond, so that runoff flows to the lowest corner, where
the plant is placed.
The negarim is best used on even ground. The usual dimensions are 510 m in width and 10
25 m in length. Small runoff basins can be constructed on almost any gradient, including plains
with 12 % slopes; but on slopes above 5 %, soil erosion may occur and the bund height should
be increased. They are most suitable for growing tree crops,but may be used for other crops.
When they are used for trees, the soil should be deep enough to hold sufficient water for the
whole dry season.
If the catchment is well maintained, 3080 % of the rain can be harvested and used by the
crop. Soil conservation is a positive side-effect of negarims. Once the negarim system is
constructed, it lasts for years with little maintenance. Plowing to control weeds may not be
practical within the small space of each basin, so weeding may have to be done by hand or
with chemicals.
If the negarim is built on heavy or crusting soils, a high runoff coefficient may be achieved.
However, since the system supports high value crops, it can be economical to take measures to
induce additional runoff.

Layout of diamond-shaped Negarims, the common variation which is single, openended structures in "V", and planting of 2 seedlings which will experience different moisture conditions
to make sure that one will survive (Critchley et al, 1991).
v. Runoff strips
The technique of runoff strips is suitable for gentle slopes. The strips are used to support field
crops in the drier environments, where production is risky yields are low. The farm is divided
into strips along the contour. An upstream strip is used as a catchment, while a downstream
strip supports crops. The downstream strip should not be too wide (13 m), while the
catchment
width is determined in accordance with the amount of runoff water required. Runoff stripcropping can be fully mechanized and needs only a relatively low input of labor. The same
cropped strips are cultivated every year. Clearing and compaction may be needed to improve
runoff.
Agricultural inputs such as fertilizers and pesticides are applied to the cultivated area, as well
as water. Under good management, continuous cultivation of the cropped strip can build up soil
fertility and improve soil structure, making the land more productive. This technique is highly
recommended for barley cultivation. The catchment area can be used for grazing after the crop
has been harvested.
One problem the farmer may face, however, is that the distribution of water across the strip
may not be uniform. This happens especially on gentle slopes when the cropped strip is too
wide or if a small ridge is formed during cultivation along the upstream edge of the cropped
strip. To overcome this problem, it is recommended that the cropped strip should not exceed 2
m in width, and that water distribution should be helped by good preparation of the strip
surface.
vi. Inter-row systems
Inter-row systems, also called roaded catchments, may be the best technique to apply on flat
lands. Triangular cross sectional bunds or levees are constructed along the main slope of the
land. When high-value crops such as fruit trees and vegetables are involved, the bunds may be
compacted or possibly covered with plastic sheets or treated with water repellent materials to
induce more runoff. The bunds, with a height ranging from 40 to 100 cm, are built at distances
of
210 m. collected between the ridges and either directed to a reservoir at the end of a feed
canal or to a crop cultivated between the ridges.
The catchment area has to be weeded and compacted on a regular basis to maintain high
runoff output.
vii. Contour-bench terraces
Contour-bench terraces are constructed on very steep slopes to combine soil and water
conservation with water-harvesting techniques. Cropping terraces are usually built level and at
times, supported by stone walls to slow down the flow of water and control erosion. They are
supplied with additional runoff water from steeper, non-cropped areas between the terraces.
The terraces are usually provided with drains to release excess water safely.

Since they are constructed on steep mountainsides, most of the work is done by manual labor.
The drawback of this system is that construction and maintenance costs could be high.
There could be many others depending on the country and the farming traditions***
viii. Meskat
Meskat is a term used in Tunisia for an indigenous water-harvesting system supporting mainly
olives and figs. This system consists of a catchment, or meskat, occupying the slope adjacent
to a flat cultivated area.. Sometimes, the catchment areas are surrounded by a bund and may
be provided with spillways to let runoff flow between plots without causing erosion.
b. Rooftop Systems
Rooftop systems are also micro-cathcment systems. they collect and store rainwater from the
roofs of houses or large buildings, greenhouses, courtyards, and similar impermeable surfaces,
including roads. Most of the rain can be collected and stored. How the harvested water will be
used depends on the type of surface used and its cleanliness as well as users needs. Modern
roofing materials and gutters, for example, allow the collection of clean water suitable for
drinking and other domestic uses, especially in rural areas without tap water.

1.3 Macro-catchments
Macrocatchment water harvesting (MacroWH) systems usually consist of four components: the
catchment area, the runoff conveyance system, the storage system and the application area.
In the catchment area, rainwater runoff is collected from compacted surfaces, including
hillsides, roads, rocky areas, open rangelands, cultivated and uncultivated land and natural
slopes. Most MacroWH practices have a catchment area of less than 2 ha, in some cases
however runoff is collected from catchments as large as 200 ha. The runoff is conveyed
through overland, rill, gully or channel flow and either diverted onto cultivated fields (where
water is stored in the soil) or into specifically designed storage facilities. There where
concentrated runoff is directly diverted to fields, the application area is identical with the
storage area, as plants can directly use the accumulated soil water. The application or cropping
area is either terraced or
located in flat terrain. The ratio of the catchment to the application area (usually cultivated)
varies between 10:1 and 100:1. In the second case, a great variety of designed storage
systems keep the water till it is used either adjacent to the storage facilities or further away
(involving a conveyance system). The classification of technologies into FloodWH or MacroWH
is not always straight forward. It depends on the catchment size (FloodWH>MacroWH), the size
of rainfall event (FloodWH>MacroWH) and concentration / size of runoff which is tapped
(FloodWH harvest from the channel flow, MacroWH collects sheet and rill flow and shortdistance channel flow).
1.3.1 Water storage and purpose
Water stored in the soil is directly used for plant and crop growth prolonging the growing
season and bridging the dry spells allowing to produce crops and yields without demanding
irrigation systems. Designed storage facilities cover a broad range of open or closed structures.
Open storage include farm ponds and different types of dams (often earth dams). Closed
structures can be groundwater dams or above and below-ground tanks or reservoirs. Such
storage structures are often characterized by multipurpose use, prioritising domestic and
livestock consumption. During dry spells the water may sometimes used for supplementary
irrigation.
1.3.2 Most common technologies
These are: hillside runoff / conduit systems; large semi-circular or trapezoidal bunds (earth or
stone); road runoff systems and open surface water storage in dams, ponds and pans;
groundwater dams (subsurface, sand and perculation dams); above- or below-ground tanks
(cisterns); horizontal and injection wells.

1.3.3 Applicability
MacroWH practices are applicable in arid, semi-arid to sub-humid zones where it is necessary
to store water to bridge the dry season or to mitigate the impact of dry spells. They are often
situated in natural or man-made depressions, or even in ephemeral riverbeds. MacroWH is
required in areas with long dry periods and where rainfall fluctuates widely over time.
1.3.4 Resilience to climate variability
MacroWH systems are resilient to climate change as long as there is at least some precipitation
and runoff. Several consecutive drought years always pose a problem, depending on the size of
the storage system: they may lead to reservoirs failing to fill. During short dry spells MacroWH
systems provide an adaptation option for land users, as they can use the stored water for
supplementary irrigation.
Main benefits
Improved crop yields.
Improved year-round access to water for domestic and livestock consumption, as well as
for supplementary irrigation.
Reduced risk of crop failure by bridging prolonged dry periods and as such contribute to
food security and climate change adaptation.
Reduced damage from soil erosion and flooding by storing excess runoff water.
Main disadvantages
Open and shallow rainwater ponds and dams may dry out after the rainy seasons, as
the water is lost via seepage (except for rock catchment and sand dams) and
evaporation.
Health risks: open storage structures can be contaminated by animals and can provide
a breeding ground for disease-carrying insects. Sand dams are often contaminated as
they are seldom protected from animals.