Class: XII Topic:-Communication Systems: Physics

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Class: XII
Topic :- Communication Systems
Communication System :
A process by which information is transmitted from a source located at one point to a receiver located
at another point in an intelligible form. The set up used to achieve this goal is called communication system.
Information :- It is a news which one wants to convey.
Message:- It is the physical form of information produced by the source. Example: symbols, time varying quantity etc.
Signal :- It is the electrical analog of the message at the source. A signal may be defined as the single-valued
function of time (that conveys the information) and which, at every instant of time, takes a unique value.
A communication system consists of three major parts :a) Transmitter
(b) Communication channel (c) Receiver

Block Diagram of an Electronic Communication System

When one person talks in normal conversation to another, the speaker is the transmitter conveying the
information, the intervening air is the channel and listener is the receiver.
Transmitter :It is a set up that transmits the message to the receiver through a communication channel. The basic
functions of this set up are to transform the message signal in to a form suitable for transmission over the channel to
the receiver and transmit it. The original message is not suitable for transmission from the channel to the receiver. It
requires to be modified to a form suitable for transmission. This modification is achieved by means of a process known
as modulation.
The basic components of a transmitter are :a) A message signal generator
b) Modulator or encoder
c) Antenna
Communication Channel :The term channel implies the medium through which the message travels from transmitter to the
receiver. During the process of transmission and reception the signal gets distorted due to noise introduced in the
system. The noise so introduced is an unwanted energy usually of a random character and may be caused by various
sources. The communication channel carries the modulated wave from the transmitter to the receiver. It can be a
transmission line, an optical fibre or merely free space in which the signal is radiated as an electromagnetic wave.
Receiver :-

The purpose of a receiver is to reconstruct the original message or data after its propagation through
the communication channel. The process consisting of decompiling of the carrier wave in the modulating signal is
broadly termed as demodulation. The exact set up employed at the receiving end depends upon the modulation process
employed in the transmitter i.e. whether the transmission was analog or digital. The antenna receives the modulated
wave transmitted feed to the demodulator. The demodulator extracts the original signal the process of demodulation
provides a means of recovering the original signal from the modulated wave.
Physics

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Terminology used in Electronic Communication System


1) Transducer: A device that converts one form of energy into another form of energy is called a transducer.
Examples microphone (converts sound into electrical energy), loudspeaker
(converts electrical energy into sound energy)
2) Signal: The information converted in electrical form that is suitable
for transmission is called a signal. Signals are of two types analog &
digital.
Analog signal: A continuously varying signal (voltage or current)
is called an analog signal. Sine wave is a fundamental analog signal
sound and picture signals in T.V. are analog in nature.
Digital signal: A signal (voltage or current) that can have only
two discrete values is called a digital signal. A square wave is a digital
signal. The signal has only two values. These values are labelled as high (1) & low (0).
3) Noise:The unwanted electrical signal which gets interfered with information signal during its propagation
through the transmission medium is called noise. Efforts should be made to minimize noise level in a
communication system.
4) Transmitter: It is a device which processes a message signal into a form suitable for transmission & then
transmits it to the receiving end through channel.
5) Receiver : A system that enables the desired modulated wave to be separated from all other modulated waves
coming into antenna is called a receiver. In receiver signal is extracted from modulated wave.
6) Attenuation : The loss of strength of a signal while propagating through the medium is called attenuation.
7) Amplification : The process of raising the strength of a signal is called amplification & it is done using an
amplifier. The energy needed for additional signal strength is obtained from D.C. power source.
8) Bandwidth : The bandwidth of an electronic circuit is the range of frequencies over which it operates nicely.
9) Modulation : The signals in communication are low frequency signals and therefore cannot be transmitted to
large distances. In order to transmit signal it is superimposed on a high frequency carrier wave. This process is
called modulation.
10) Demodulation : The process of extracting signal from modulated wave is called demodulation.
11) Repeater:- It is a combination of transmitter, amplifier & receiver which picks up the weak signal
from the transmitter, amplifies the signal & then retransmits it to the receiver. It is used for long
range communication.
12) Antenna: - It is a conductor of small length which is used to radiate or receive electromagnetic
wave (em wave). It acts as a conversion device. At the transmitting end, it transforms electrical
signal into electromagnetic (em) wave & at receiving end it transforms em wave into electrical
Dipole Antenna
signal. The design of an antenna depends on frequency of Carrier wave & Directivity of beam etc.
(a) Hertz Antenna: - It is a straight conductor of length l
is wavelength of wave
/ 2 . where
transmitted or received. It is grounded. (b) Marconi Antenna: - It is a straight antenna of
length l
/ 4 . It held vertically with its lower end touching the ground.
There are two type of antenna:(i) Dipole Antenna: - It is omni directional. It is used in transmission of radio wave. The length of
dipole antenna is / 2 .
(ii) Dish Antenna: - It is a directional antenna. It has a parabolic reflector with an active element Dish Antenna
called dipole or horn feed at focus of the reflector. It transmits waves in a particular direction. It is
used in radar & satellite communication.
13) Range: - The largest distance between the source & destination up to which a signal can be received with
sufficient strength.
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Bandwidth of Signals

In communication system the message signal can be voice, music, picture or computer data. Each of
these signals has different range of frequencies. This is called band width of the signal
S.N. Signal
Frequency Range
Bandwidth
1.
Speech
300 Hz 3100 Hz
2800 Hz
2.
Music
20 Hz 20 kHz
20 kHz
3.
Video
----------4.2 MHz
4.
T.V. Signal
--------6 MHz
A Rectangular Wave can be generated by the superposition of Sinusoidal Waves :A sinusoidal wave is an analog signal while a square or rectangular
wave is a digital signal. A rectangular wave can be generated by the
superposition of sinusoidal waves of frequencies fo, 2fo, 3fo, 4fo nfo where
n is an integer extending to infinity. This implies an infinite bandwidth.
Practically, the contributions of higher harmonics are negligible which limits the
bandwidth. Consequently the received wave is the distorted version of
transmitted wave.

Modulation
It is a process by which some characteristics usually amplitude or frequency or phase of a high
frequency carrier wave (voltage) is varied in accordance with the instantaneous value of low frequency modulating
wave (audio signal or voltage). The carrier frequency is the frequency of the carrier voltage being modulated.
Need of Modulation in Communication System :Audio signals have a bandwidth of 20 kHz. Such a low frequency signal cannot be transmitted directly
to long distances because of these reasons:1) Impractical length of antenna :To transmit signal, the height of antenna should be comparable to wavelength. For audio signal of 20
kHz the length of antenna would be
c / v 3 108 / 20 103 15km . Such an antenna cannot be constructed. But
if we use carrier wave of 1MHz the size of antenna would be

3 108 /106 300 m

2) Effective power radiated by an antenna: For signal of wavelength and the length of antenna l the power radiated is P

P is large for high frequency carrier wave


P is less for low frequency audio signal
3) Mixing up of signals from different transmitters:When audio signals are transmitted from many transmitters, they get mixed up & we cannot separate
them. This problem is over come by using high frequency signal.
4) Attenuation: - For audio signal range is less due to the loss of strength of wave.
Carrier Wave: A high frequency signal which is actually transmitted & carries information is called carrier wave.
Types: - (i) Sinusoidal wave (ii) Pulse shaped wave.
c(t) = Ac sin ( c t + o)
where o is initial phase angle, c(t) is instantaneous value of a carrier wave of voltage / current , Ac is amplitude ,
angular frequency .
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There are three parameters Ac ,

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H e m a n t P a ti d a r
c

Three types of Modulation

and

which can be varied according to modulating signals.

:-

1) Amplitude modulation:It is a process in which


amplitude of carrier wave change in
accordance with instantaneous value of
modulating signal. The phase & the
frequency of carrier voltage remain
unchanged after amplitude modulation.
2) Frequency Modulation:
It is a process in which frequency
of carrier wave changes in accordance
with
instantaneous
values
of
modulating signal (voltage).
3) Phase Modulation:- It is a
process in which phase of carrier wave
change
in
accordance
with
instantaneous values of modulating
signal (voltage).
Advantages of Amplitude Modulation:1) It is easier method for transmitting & receiving voice signals.
2) It requires simple & cheaper transmitters and receivers.
3) Its transmission requires low carrier frequencies (0.5 - 20 MHz).
4) Area in which AM transmission can be received is much larger than that in case of FM transmission.
Disadvantages of Amplitude Modulation:1) AM suffers from noise.
2) Quality of signal is poor.
3) Efficiency of AM transmission is low
Advantages of Frequency Modulation:1) Noise can be minimized.
2) The operating range is quite large.
3) FM transmission is highly efficient because all the transmitted power is used.
4) FM transmission can be used for stereo sound transmission because it has large number of side bands.
Disadvantages of Frequency Modulation:1) Wider frequency channel is required.
2) The area of reception of FM is much smaller than AM.
3) FM receivers & transmitter are very complex and costly.
FREQUENCY MODULATION:The original frequency of the carrier signal is called resting frequency or centre frequency (f c).
The amount by which frequency of the carrier wave changes or shifts above or below the resting frequency is called
Frequency Deviation :-( f )

m(t )

Carrier Swing: - The total variation in frequency of FM wave from the lowest to the highest is called carrier swing.

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Amplitude Modulation

Modulation Index :It is the ratio of change in amplitude of the carrier wave to the amplitude of the original carrier wave. It
= Am / Ac
is also known as modulation Index.
It is also known as Modulation Factor, Depth of Modulation or Degree of modulation
Modulation in terms of Am & Amin :Am = (Amax Amin ) / 2
Ac = (Amax + Amin ) / 2
After substituting the values
= (Amax Amin)/ (Amax + Amin)
Value of lies between 0 and 1.
Value of shows strength and quality of transmitted signal.
If is small transmitted audio signal are weak
If is large transmitted audio signal are strong
If
1 than due to over modulation distortion will occur
during reception.
Expression for Amplitude Modulated Wave:Modulating signal m(t) = Am sin mt
Carrier signal
c(t) = Ac sin ct
Amplitude of modulated wave
A = Ac + m(t) = Ac + Am sin mt
A = Ac + Ac sin mt
A = Ac (1 + sin mt)
Instantaneous Voltage of AM
cm(t) = A sin ct
cm(t) = Ac (1 + sin mt) sin ct
Ac
2 sin ct sin mt
cm(t) = Ac sin ct +
2
Ac
Ac
cm(t) = Ac sin ct +
cos ( c m)t cos ( c + m)t
2
2
Important features of AM wave:1) Amplitude of the carrier wave changes according to the modulating signal.
2) Amplitude of the carrier wave changes at the frequency fm of the modulating signal.
3) Frequency of AM wave is equal to the unmodulated carrier frequency fc
Sideband Frequencies and Bandwidth of AM Wave :Bandwidth of AM wave is twice of frequency of modulating wave.

Bandwidth = 2 fm

Principle of Production of Amplitude Modulation Wave


Amplitude modulation can be produced by a variety of methods. A conceptually simple method is
shown in the block diagram.
Here the modulating signal Am sin mt is added to the carrier signal Ac sin ct to produce the signal x(t).
This signal x(t) = Am sin mt + Ac sin ct is passed through a square law device which is non-linear device which produce
an output
y(t) = B x(t) + Cx2(t) where B and C are constants, thus
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y(t) = B[Am sin


y(t) = B[Am sin

mt

+ Ac sin
m t + Ac sin

+ C [Am sin mt + Ac sin ct]2


2
2
2
2
ct] + C [A m sin
mt + A c sin wct + 2 A m Ac sin
ct]

1
y(t) = B Amsin mt + B Ac sin ct + C A2m (1- cos 2
2

cos (

m)t

- C Am Ac cos (

m)t

1
CAc2 (1- cos 2
mt) +
2

1
1
y(t) = B Amsin mt + B Ac sin ct + C [A2m + Ac2 ] { C A2m cos 2
2
2

cos ( c m)t - C Am Ac cos ( c +


This equation has DC terms & sinusoidal
terms of different frequencies. When this signal is passed
through a band pass filtered centered at
c the filter
rejects DC and some frequency. The output of band pass
filter is amplitude modulated wave.
y(t) = B Ac sin ct + C Am Ac cos ( c
)t
C
A
A
cos
( c + m)t
m
m c

mt

m)t

Block Diagram of a Transmitter of AM Wave

mt

Ac sin

ct

c t)

+ C Am Ac

1
CAc2 cos 2
2

ct

} + C AmAc

:-

Block Diagram of Receiver for AM wave (Detection of AM Wave) :The transmitted message
gets attenuated in propagating through the channel.
The receiving antenna is therefore to be followed by
an amplifier and a detector. In addition to facilitate
further processing, the carrier frequency is usually
changed to a lower frequency called intermediate
frequency (IF) stage preceding the detection. The
detected signal may not be strong enough to be
made use of and hence is required to be amplified.
Detection is the process of recovering the
modulating signal from the modulated carrier wave.

Demodulation (Detection)
The process of recovery of audio signal from the modulated wave is known as demodulation or
detection and the device is called demodulator. At the broadcasting station modulation is done to transmit audio signal
over large distances to the receiver. The receiver picks modulated wave and the audio signal has to be recovered from
it. In order that a modulated wave is audible it is necessary to change its nature by a circuit called detector.

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A detector circuit performs two functions(i) Rectification


(ii) Separation of signal from carrier waves
The modulated signal received by detector is
rectified i.e. negative half of modulated wave is eliminated by
passing it through a rectifier. The rectified modulated wave
contains audio signal and carrier signal. The audio signal is
recovered using a filter circuit which removes carrier
frequency and allows audio signal to reach the speaker.

Communication Channel
Transmission Medium or Communication Channel: It is a link through which information or message signal may propagate from the source to the
destination, without any noise or distortion. The characteristics & quality of transmission medium depend upon (i)
nature of transmission medium (ii) nature of signal.
Types of Transmission Medium:(i) Guided Transmission Medium: - It is that medium which is used in point to point communication
between a single transmitter & a receiver. It is used in LINE communication.
Examples: - Parallel wire lines, Twisted pair and Co-axial cable, Optical Fibres
(ii) Unguided Transmission Medium: - It is that medium which is used, where there are large number of
receivers & a single transmitter. It is used in SPACE communication & SATELLITE communication such as in radio
& television. In this media the frequency band of the signal produced by the transmitting antenna is more
important than the medium in determining the quality of transmission.
Examples: - Free space
Modes of Communication:(i) Point to Point Communication:- Communication occurs between single transmitter & receiver.
Example: - Telephone
(ii) Broadcast Mode Communication:- Communication occurs between single transmitter & many
receivers
Examples :- TV, Radio.
Propagation of Electromagnetic Waves

:-

Electromagnetic waves which are used in radio, television & other communication systems are radio
waves & micro waves. Various frequency ranges of radio waves & micro waves are used for transmitting the
information. The various ways or modes by which these electromagnetic waves(i.e. radio & micro waves) propagate
from transmitting to the receiving antenna through space are :(i) Ground wave propagation
(ii) Sky wave propagation
(iii) Space wave propagation
(iv) Satellite communication
Ground Wave Propagation
:A radio wave that travel directly from one point to another following the surface of the Earth is called a
ground wave. It is useful only for transmitting the radio waves up to small distances.
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It is possible only when the transmitting & receiving


antenna are close to the surface of the Earth. As the ground wave glides
over the Earths surface it induces current in the ground over which it passes
and it is attenuated. The ground wave propagation is limited to a frequency
below 2 MHz. Energy loss increases with increase in frequency. Hence this
propagation is possible at low frequencies (500 kHz to 1500 kHz). This region
of the AM band is called Medium Wave Band. Size of antenna should be
comparable to the wavelength ( /4) of the transmitted signal.
The maximum range of this propagation depends upon two factors:
(i) Frequency of transmitted wave (ii) Power of transmitter.
Advantages: (i) It can be used to communicate between any two locations on the Earth.
(ii) It is unaffected by the changing atmospheric condition.
Disadvantages: (i) Requires high transmission power.
(ii) Requires large antennas.
Sky Wave Propagation

Transmitting
Antenna

Receiving
Antenna

Ground Wave Communication

:-

When radio wave propagates from one place of


Earth to other after reflection by ionosphere ( a layer of
atmosphere having charged particles, ions & electrons & extends
above 80 km from the Earths surface) is called sky wave or
ionospherric propagation. In this way radio waves can travel
very large distances & can even travel around the Earth. Radio
waves transmitted by a transmitting antenna are directed
towards the ionosphere. Radio wave of frequency between 2
MHz to 20 MHz cannot be reflected by the ionosphere. This
region of the AM band is called Short Wave Band. The radio
waves having frequency range 20 MHz to 30 MHz or more are
used.
Critical frequency: - It is that highest frequency of radio wave which when sent straight (normally) towards the
given layer of ionosphere gets reflected from ionosphere & returns to the Earth. Above this frequency the radio wave
will penetrates the ionosphere & is not reflected back to Earth. Critical frequency: f c 9( N max )1/2 where N max is
maximum electron density in the ionosphere & frequency below f c are reflected back to Earth.
Fading: - It is the variation in the strength of a signal at a receiver due to an interference of waves. It is more at high
frequencies. It causes an error in data transmission & retrieval.
Space Wave Propagation

:-

If a radio wave transmitted from an antenna, traveling in a straight line, directly reaches the receiving
antenna, it is called a space wave. It is also known as Troposphere or Line of Sight Propagation (LOS).
The range of space wave propagation is limited by
(i) The Line of Sight distance (the distance at which the transmitting & receiving antenna can see each other).
(ii) The Curvature of the Earth.
A space wave travels in a straight line from
transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna. If a signal is to
be received beyond the horizon then height of receiving
antenna must be large enough so as to intercept line of sight
waves directly. The power transmitted from a transmitter
decreases as inverse square of the distance. So the signal
becomes weaker with the increasing distance. Range of
antenna d
2hR where h= height of antenna above sea level & R = Radius of the earth.
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The space wave propagation is utilized in very high frequencies (VHF) bands, ultra high
frequency (UHF) bands & microwaves. The Line of Sight Distance is the distance between transmitting antenna &
receiving antenna at which they can see each other, which is also called Range of Communication.
d M dT d R
2h T R
2 hR R , where hT & hR are heights of transmitting and receiving antenna. In this type of
propagation repeaters are used.
The range of TV transmission can increase by
(i) Increasing the height of the transmitting & receiving antennas.
(ii) Using repeater transmitting station.
Height of Transmitting Antenna :Suppose PQ is a TV transmitting antenna of height h located at P on the surface of Earth. The signal
transmitted can be received within a circle of radius QS or QT on the surface of Earth. The distance is limited due to the
curvature of the surface of the Earth. Let R = radius of the Earth QT = Q = d, PQ = h, OQ = OP + PQ = R + h (R >>d so that
TQ is almost tangent to the surface of Earth at T)
From Right Angle Triangle OTQ
OQ2 = OT2 + QT2
(R + h)2 = R 2 + d 2
R 2 1+

h
R

= R2 + d 2

Using Pythagorous Theorem (1+ x)n = 1+ n x if x << 1


R 2 1+

2h
= R2 + d 2
R

i.e

R 2 + 2hR= R 2 + d 2

d 2 2hR or
d
2hR
For TV signal area covered = d2 = 2hR
Population covered = Population density Area covered

Satellite Communication

:Satellite

In this mode of communication radio waves are transmitted


between transmitting antenna to receiving antenna through satellite. A
communication satellite is a space craft placed in geostationary orbit around the
Downlink
Uplink
Earth provided with microwave transmitting & receiving equipment called as
Radio transponder.
In this communication, a beam of modulated microwave from
Earth
Earth
Earth station transmitter is sent directly towards the satellite. It is called uplink.
Transmitting
Receiving
The satellite which receives the coming signal amplifies & returns it to Earth
Antenna
Antenna
station receiver. It is called downlink. The downlink is at a different frequency to
Satellite Communication
avoid interference between the uplink & downlink. The range of frequency used
for uplink is 5.9 GHz to 6.4 GHZ & for downlink is 3.7 GHZ to 4.2 GHz. Both are in
UHF or Microwave regions.
Advantages :(i) It has wide coverage range.
(ii) Used effectively in mobile communication.
(iii) Most cost effective in remote & hilly areas such as Ladakh etc.
(iv) Permits transmission of data at high rate.
Disadvantages :(i) If a system on the satellite goes out of order due to environmental stresses, it is almost impossible to repair it.
(ii) There is a time delay between transmission & reception due to large communication path length.
Remote Sensing: - It is a technique of obtaining information about an object or area from a distance without being
in physical contact with it.
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:It is global network of computers linked by high speed data lines & wireless systems. It allows
communication & sharing of information of between any two or more computers.
Email (Electronic Mail):- It is a message sent and received through a computer network. It allows exchange of
text/graphic material with any number of people through Internet Service Provider (ISP) who works like dispatching &
receiving post offices.
WWW (World Wide Web):- It is a set of protocols that allows us to access any document on the internet. It is
based upon Client & Server. A web browser is a WWW client that navigates through the WWW & displays the web
pages. A web server is a WWW server that responds to the request made by the web browsers. The internet structure
of WWW is built on a set of rules called Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP). The HTTP uses internet addresses in a
special format called Uniform Resources Locator (URL). Several search engines like Google, Yahoo etc help us in finding
relevant information from the various websites.
E-Commerce: - It deals with the use of internet to promote business by electronic means. It is the collection of tools
& practices involving internet technologies that allow a company to create, maintains & optimizes business relations
with consumers & other business. It permits online banking, shopping, reservation & purchase of rail tickets etc.
Internet

Mobile Telephony

:-

It is the provision of services to phones, which may be moved around freely, rather than staying fixed
in one location. Mobile phones send & receive radio signals to any number of cell site base stations, which are fitted
with microwaves antenna (this is mounted on tower, pole or building). Instead of a single highpower transmitter for
an entire service area, numerous lower power transmission (base station) are setup, each covering a fraction of that
service are, called cell. As a mobile receiver moves from one cell to another, the mobile user is handed over to the new
cells bases station through a switching office called mobile telephone switching office (MTSO). It is used by Civilian &
Government agencies.
Global Positioning System(GPS) :The Global Positioning System is a satellite based system that can be used to locate positions
anywhere on the Earth. It is operated by US Department of Defense, these devices are used for Cell Phone Locations,
agriculture, surveying, weather forecasting, aircraft navigation etc.
Components of GPS :- It consists of three segments :
(i) Space Segment: - Satellite orbiting the Earth. The space segment of 29 satellites that are continuously
orbiting the Earth at altitude of about 19000 km. The high altitude allows the signals to cover a greater area.
The satellites are arranged in six different orbital planes so that a GPS receiver on the Earth can receive singles
from at least four satellites at any given time. These satellites are equipped with atomic clocks & transmit low
radio signals with a unique code on different frequencies. The GPS receiver identifies these signals & calculates
the time of travels of the signal from each satellite.
(ii) Control Segment: - The control & monitoring stations. The control segment consists of five unmanned
monitor stations & one Master Control Station. The five unmanned stations monitor GPS satellite signals &
then send that information to the Master Control Station where anomalies are corrected & sent back to the GPS
satellite through ground antennas.
(iii) User Segment: - The GPS receiver owned by civilians & military. The user segment consists of the users &
their GPS receiver. The number of simultaneous user is limitless.
How GPS Works: - A part of information sent by a satellite vehicle is a time stamp. When a GPS unit receives the
transmission, it compares the time stamp from the satellite to the time it reached the receiver. The difference between
the two, multiplied by the speed of the transmission signal provides the distance that the signal travelled. The receiver
determines the position by Trilateration process that uses distance from at least three known locations.
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