Coach Caos AMC12 Playbook

Arithmetic!
In addition to the values memorized for MathCounts, the following facts can also be useful.
n2

n!

1 1

log 1 0

22 484

2 1. 414

log 2 0. 301

23 529

3 1. 732

log 3 0. 477

24 576

24

4 2

log 4 0. 602

25 625

120

5 2. 236

log 5 0. 699

26 676

720

6 2. 449

log 6 0. 778

27 729

5040

7 2. 646

log 7 0. 845

28 784

40320

8 2. 828

log 8 0. 903

29 841

362880

9 3

log 9 0. 954

10 3. 162

log 10 1

10 3628800

.c

this is the only value in these tables that was rounded up when rounded to the nearest thousandth
3. 14159265358979 and e 2. 7182818284590452
Prime factorizations of recent, current, and upcoming years:
- 2002 2 7 11 13
- 2003 is prime
2
- 2004 2 3 167
- 2005 5 401
- 2006 2 17 59
2
- 2007 3 223
3
- 2008 2 251
2
- 2009 7 41
- 2010 2 3 5 67

og

ut
i

log n

21 441

30 900

om

Combinatorics and Probability

ka

1. Binomial Coefficient Identities

n
k

n
k

n
k

n
k

mn

m
k

n!
k!nk!
n
nk

n
k

n1
k1
n1
k1

factorial expansion x y n
k0

symmetry
absorption

n
k

n1
k

recursion

nk
mk

trinomial revision

n
k

n
k

n
k

m0
nk

m0

12k1

a. Generalized Binomial Coefficients: k

k!
therefore well defined for real (or even complex) values of .

m0

n
k

x k y nk binomial theorem

n1m
km

hockey stick

n1m
k1

hockey stick

ns
km

ms

Vandermonde
convolution

is a well defined polynomial in and

2
.............................................................................................................................................................................

b. Generalized Binomial Theorem: 1 x

k0

xk

2. Multinomial Coefficients: k 1 ,k 2 n,,k m is the number of ways of putting n distinct objects into m categories so
that the i th category contains k i objects
a. k 1 ,k 2 n,,k m k 1 !k 2n!!k m ! where k 1 k 2 k m n
b.

n
k 1 ,k 2 ,,k m

nk 1
k2

n
k1

c. x 1 x 2 x m n

nk 1 k 2
k3

k 1 k m n

nk 1 k 2 k m1
km
x k11 x k22 x kmm

n
k 1 ,,k m

(the multinomial theorem)

k
2

ut
i

.c

1
1

om

3. Catalan Numbers: C n is the number of triangulations of a convex n 2-gon having no internal vertices. C n is
also the number of ways to parenthesize x 1 x 2 x n completely into binary products.
a. C n C 0 C n1 C 1 C n2 C n2 C 1 C n1 C 0 for n 1 and C 0 1
1
b. C n n1
2n
n for n 0
c. The first few values are 1, 1, 2, 5, 14, 42, 132, 429, 1430, 4862,
4. Stirling Numbers of the first kind: nk is the number of permutations of a set with n elements having exactly k
distinct cycles.
n
a. n0 0,
n1 n 1!,
n1
n2 ,
nn 1
n
n1
n1
b. k n 1 k k1 for n 1 and 1 k n
c. The first few values of nk :

11

24

50

35

10

120

274

225

85

15

720 1764 1624 735 175 21 1

ka

og

5. Stirling Numbers of the second kind: nk is the number of partitions of a set with n elements into k non-empty
subsets.
n
a. n1 1,
n2 2 n1 1,
n1
n2 ,
nn 1
n
n1
n1
k1 k k
for n 1 and 1 k n
b.
k
n
c. The first few values of k :
k
1

d.

n
k

1
k!

1 i
i0

n
k

15

25

10

31

90

65

15

63

301

350

140

21

1 127 966 1701 1050 266 28 1

1
1

k i n

6. Partition Formula: Let Pn, k the number of partitions of n having largest summand k. Then

3
.............................................................................................................................................................................
Pn, 1 Pn, n 1 and
Pn, k Pn k, k Pn 1, k 1
This recursion produces the Pascal-like triangle:
k
1 2

1 1

1 1

1 2

1 2

1 3

1 3

1 4

1 4

om

S 2 |A i A j |, , S n |A 1 A 2 A n |. Then
ij

.c

7. Pigeonhole Principle: If you have n pigeons in k holes some hole contains at least
contains at most nk pigeons.
8. Inclusion-Exclusion Principle: Given finite sets A 1 , A 2 , , A n and let S 1 |A i |,

n
k

pigeons and some hole

|A 1 A 2 A n | S 1 S 2 S 3 S 4 1 n1 S n

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9. Expected Value: Given a sample space S and a function f : S R the expected value of f on this sample space
is Pxfx where Px is the probability of x.
xS

10. Van der Waerdens Theorem: Let n and k be positive integers. Then there exists a positive integer N such that
if the numbers 1, 2, . . . , N are colored in k colors, one color always contains an arithmetic progression of length n.

Graph Theory

ka

og

1. Euler paths: traverse every edge in a graph exactly once.

a. A connected graph has an Euler path if and only if the number of odd degree vertices is zero or two. If it is
zero then the path is a cycle, and if it is two the path must begin and end at the odd degree vertices.
2. A simple graph has no edges from a node to itself.
3. Hamiltonian paths: traverse every vertex in a graph exactly once.
a. Diracs Theorem: If every vertex in a simple graph with v vertices has degree at least v/2 then the graph has a
Hamiltonian cycle.
b. Ores Theorem: A simple graph with n nodes has an Hamiltonian cycle if whenever two nodes are not
connected by an edge the sum of their degrees is at least n.
4. Ramseys Theorem: Let Na, b be the smallest number such that any group of Na, b people must contain either
a mutual friends or b mutual strangers.
a. Na, b Nb, a
b. Na, 2 a
c. Na, b Na 1, b Na, b 1
5. Turns Theorem: Let G be a graph with n nodes which contains no complete subgraph of k nodes. Let tn, k be
the maximum number of edges of such a graph. Then
2
tn, k k 2 n
k1 2
a. The graph having tn, k edges, n nodes, and no complete k-subgraph is the complete k 1-partite graph
which has the most evenly divided arrangement of nodes, i.e. in which the numbers of nodes each pair of the
k 1 groups differ by at most 1.

Sequences and Series

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.............................................................................................................................................................................
1. Some Sums
a. 1 2 2 2 3 2 . . . n 1 2 n 2
b. 1 3 2 3 3 3 . . . n 1 3 n 3

nn12n1
6
nn1 2
2

c. 1 1! 2 2! 3 3! 4 4! . . . k k! k 1! 1
2. Infinite geometric series:
1 r r 2 r 3 1
for 1 r 1
1r
Many other useful series can be derived from this by substitution, differentiation, etc.
3. Generating Functions: Let a 0 , a 1 , a 2 , . . . be a sequence of numbers. The generating function for this sequence is

n0

n0

fx a n x n . It can be used to solve recurrences explicitly. Variations such as

an
n!

x n are sometimes useful.

a. Properties:
i. Addition and multiplication of generating functions are commutative and associative.
ii. The constant functions 0 and 1 are additive and multiplicative identities, respectively.
iii. Every generating function has an additive inverse.

n0

In this case, Bx is given by the recursion b 0

1
a0

om

iv. A generating function Ax a n x n has a multiplicative inverse Bx b n x n if and only if a 0 0.

and b k

1
a0

n0

a i b ki .
i1

.c

b. Manipulating ordinary generating functions: Let Ax a n x n and Bx b n x n

n0

i. Ax Bx if and only if a n b n for all n.

n0

ak xn
k0

iii. AxBx

a k b nk x n

n0

k0

iv. xA x na n x

n0

a n1
n

v. Ax C

xn

og

ut
i

Ax
1x

ii.

n1

c. Manipulating exponential generating functions: Let Ax

ka

i. AxBx

n0

k0

ii. A x

a n1
n!

n0

n
k

a k b nk
n!

n0

an
n!

x n and Bx

bn
n!

xn

n0

xn

xn

n0

Number Theory
Distribution of Primes
1. The Prime Number Theorem: The approximate number of primes less than or equal to a positive integer x
converges to lnxx as x .
2. Bertrands Postulate: For any n 1, there is always at least one prime between n and 2n.
3. Dirichlets Theorem: For any relatively prime natural numbers a, b, the arithmetic sequence a, a b, a 2b, . . .
contains infinitely many primes.

Continued Fractions
1. Continued Fraction Representation: Every rational number q can be represented uniquely by the sequences
a 0 , a 1 , , a n and a 0 , a 1 , , a n 1, 1 where
1
q a0
1
a 1 a 2

5
.............................................................................................................................................................................
and a 0 q and the a i are positive integers determined by converting the reciprocal of the remainder to a mixed
number iteratively. Irrational numbers have a unique infinite representation of this form.
r
2. Self-similar expressions: Let X s r r . Then X sX
which can be solved for X.
r
s s

Diophantine Equations

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1. Linear Equations: For integers a 1 , . . . , a n , c, the equation a 1 x 1 . . . a n x n c has integer solutions if and only if
gcda 1 , . . . , a n c. (See also: GCDst Theorem in Number Theory - Modular Arithmetic - Other Applications #1b below)
2. Sums of Squares
a. For any integer n, the equation x 2 y 2 n has integer solutions iff any prime factor of n that is congruent to 3
mod 4 occurs to an even power in the prime factorization of n.
b. An odd prime p can be written as the sum of two squares iff p 1 mod 4
c. A positive integer n can be written as the sum of three squares iff n cannot be written in the form 8k 74 m
for any nonnegative integers k, m.
d. All positive integers can be written as the sum of four squares.
3. Pells Equation: For any non-square positive integer D, the equation x 2 Dy 2 1 has infinitely many integer
solutions, each of which is of the form x n , y n given by
xn yn D x1 y1 D

where x 1 , y 1 is the solution with x 1 , y 1 0 and y 1 minimal, and n is a nonnegative integer.

.c

Modular Arithmetic

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following properties:
a. k divides n
b. a i a j if and only if i j

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i

Eulers Function (A.K.A. Eulers totient function)

Let n the number of positive integers less than the positive integer n 1 which are relatively prime to n.
1. p k p k1 p 1
2. ab a b for relatively prime a, b.
3. Eulers Theorem: Let a, n be relatively prime integers with n 1. Then a n 1mod n.
4. Fermats Little Theorem: For any nonzero integer a and positive prime p, a p1 1mod p and a p amod p.
5. Order: If gcda, n 1 then the order of a modulo n is the smallest positive integer k such that a k 1. It has the

ka

6. Primitive roots: If the order of a modulo n is a then a is called a primitive root of n. It has the following
properties:
a. if b is relatively prime to n then b a k for some k
b. n has a primitive root if and only if n 2, 4, p k , or 2p k for some odd prime p and k 0.
Other applications
1. GCD: Let d gcda, b.
a. Euclidean Algorithm: For all a, b, gcda, b gcdb, a mod b. Iterating this formula computes gcda, b
by reducing it to gcdd, 0.
b. GCDst Theorem: For all a, b Z there exists integers s, t such that gcda, b sa tb. One such pair s, t
can be found by the Euclidean algorithm as follows:
sia tib

si ti

a0 a

a1 b

a2

s2 t2

a3

s3 t3

gcda, b s

where a i a i2 mod a i1 , s i s i2 a i2 /a i1 s i1 , and t i t i2 a i2 /a i1 t i1 . The pair S, T is a solution

of Sa Tb d if and only if S, T s bd k, t ad k for some k Z. (A common situation is when

6
.............................................................................................................................................................................
d 1).
xx mod b
2. Base Conversion: To convert a whole number n to a base b let fx
. Then n, fn, ffn. . . taken
b
mod b, are the digits of n in base b in reverse order.
3. Chinese Remainder Theorem: If b 0 , b 1 , , b n are pairwise relatively prime and B b 0 b 1 b n then the system
of congruences:
x a0, x a1 , , x an
b0

b1

bn

has unique solution mod B :

n

aiui

B
bi

i0

where u i
bi

B
bi

4. Wilsons Theorem: For any integer n greater than one, n is prime if and only if n 1! 1.
n

5. Wolstenholmes Theorem: For any prime p 5 and any nonnegative integers a and b, p 3

ap
bp

a
b

n1

if a is a quadratic residue mod p

otherwise

c. Eulers Criterion: ap a p1/2

p

v. 2p

1 p1/2

if p 1 or p 1

og

iii.
iv.

p
a2
1
p
ab
b
a
p p p
1
1
p 1 and p

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i

d. Properties of the Legendre symbol:

i. if a b then ap bp
ii.

.c

b. Legendre Symbol: of a on p is ap

om

.
6. Roots of Unity mod p : Let p be an odd prime, n . Then x 1 mod p iff x 1 mod p
7. Quadratic Reciprocity: In the following let p be an odd prime and gcda, p gcdb, p 1.
a. Quadratic residue: a is a quadratic residue mod p if and only if there is an integer x such that x 2 a

otherwise

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e. Law of Quadratic Reciprocity: If p, q are distinct odd primes then

p1 q1
p
q
2
2
q 1
p
q

p
q

i. Corollary:

p
q

if p 1 or q 1
4

if p q 3
4

Algebra
Basics
1. Absolute value:
a. Geometric interpretation: |x| is the distance x is from the origin.
b. Algebraic interpretation: |x|

if x 0

if x 0

c. x 2 |x|
2. Adding Proportions: Let a, b, x, y, r be real numbers. Then
x a r xa xa r
y
b
yb
yb
3. Useful Factorizations:
a. For any positive integer n, x n y n x yx n1 x n2 y x n2 y 2 xy n2 y n1

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.............................................................................................................................................................................
b. For odd positive integers n, x n y n x y x n1 x n2 y x n2 y 2 1 n1 y n1
c. a 2 b 2 c 2 d 2 ac bd 2 ad bc 2 ac bd 2 ad bc 2
- Thus the product of two sums of squares is a sum of squares.
d. x 4 4y 4 x 2 2xy 2y 2 x 2 2xy 2y 2
- This partially alleviates the problem of not being able to factor sums of squares.
4. Simplifying Nested Radicals: It is sometimes possible to simplify nested radicals with the denesting equation
XY

X X2 Y2

X X2 Y2
2

Number systems
1. Fields: Q, R, C and Z p for a prime p are all examples of fields. These sets with their usual operations of , satisfy
the properties: , are commutative and associative, is distributive over , there is an additive and multiplicative
identity, every element has an additive inverse and every nonzero element has a multiplicative inverse.

Linear Algebra

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1. Vectors: a real vector is finite sequence of real numbers denoted a 1 , a 2 , , a n . The set of all such vectors is
denoted R n .
a. Vector addition: a 1 , a 2 , , a n b 1 , b 2 , , b n a 1 b 1 , a 2 b 2 , , a n b n
b. Scalar multiplication: If r is a real number then ra 1 , a 2 , , a n ra 1 , ra 2 , , ra n
c. Dot Product: a 1 , a 2 , , a n b 1 , b 2 , , b n a 1 b 1 a 2 b 2 a n b n

a1 a2

b1 b2

b2 b3

, f det

a1 a3
b1 b3

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i

and g det

a2 a3

.c

d. Cross Product: a 1 , a 2 , a 3 b 1 , b 2 , b 3 e, f, g where e det

e. (See also: Analytic Geometry below)

2. Matrix: An array M consisting of m rows and n columns of complex numbers is called an m n matrix. The
entry in the i th row and j th column is denoted Mi, j
3. Matrix multiplication: If M is an m n matrix and N is an n p matrix the MN is the m p matrix such that
MN i, j is the dot product of the i th row of M with the j th column of N.
a b

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4. Determinant: det

c d

ad bc and

a b c
d e f

ka

det

a det

g h i

e f
h i

b det

d f
g i

c det

d e
g h

aei bfg cdh afh bdi ceg

5. Identity matrix: is an nxn matrix I n having I n i, j

if i j

otherwise

. For any n n matrix M we have

MI n I n M M.
6. Inverse matrix: Two n n matrices M, N are inverses if and only if MN NM I n . A matrix M has an inverse
if and only if detM 0.
a. Inverse of a 2 2 Matrix: Let A

a b
c d
A 1

7. Systems of linear equations: the system

. Then
1
detA

8
.............................................................................................................................................................................
a1x b 1y c1z d1
a2x b 2y c2z d2
a3x b 3y c3z d3
a1 b1 c1
has a unique solution x, y, z if and only if det

a2 b2 c2

0.

a3 b3 c3
8. Cramers Rule: If the system of linear equations
a1x b 1y c1z d1
a2x b 2y c2z d2
a3x b 3y c3z d3
has solution x, y, z then
det
x

a1 d1 c1
det

d2 b2 c2
d3 b3 c3
D

,y

det

a2 d2 c2
a3 d3 c3
D

a1 b1 c1

a2 b2 d2
a3 b3 d3

,z

. This generalizes to any number of equations and unknowns.

a2 b2 c2

.c

where D det

a1 b1 d1

om

d1 b1 c1

a3 b3 c3

Polynomials

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1. Polynomial: Let F be either a field or Z, and a 0 , a 1 , , a n F. Then px a n x n a n1 x n1 a 0 with

a n 0 is called a polynomial of degree n with coefficients in F. The set of all such polynomials is denoted Fx.
Quotients, Remainders, and Factorization
1. Division algorithm: Let F be a field and fx, gx Fx with gx 0. Then there exist unique polynomials
qx, rx such that
fx qxgx rx and rx 0 or degrx deggx .

ka

og

As with integers qx is called the quotient and rx the remainder when fx is divided by gx.
2. Euclidean algorithm: the Euclidean algorithm and GCDst theorem can be applied to two polynomials with real
coefficients (see Number Theory - Modular Arithmetic - Other Applications - #1 above)
3. Remainder Theorem: Let F be a field, px Fx, and a F. Then there exists qx Fx such that
px x aqx pa
i.e. the remainder when px is divided by x a is pa.
4. Factor Theorem: Let F be a field, px Fx, px 0, and a F. Then x a is a factor of px if and only
if pa 0.
5. Fundamental Theorem of Algebra: Let px a n x n a n1 x n1 . . . a 0 Cx with a n 0. Then px factors
uniquely (up to reordering the factors) as:
px a n x r 1 x r 2 x r n
for some r 1 , r 2 , , r n C.
6. Irreducible Polynomials: Every polynomial with real coefficients factors as a product of irreducible linear and
quadratic polyomials.
7. Gausss Theorem: If px Zx and px can be factored over the rationals, then it can be factored over the
integers.
Synthetic Division and Substitution
1. Synthetic Division/Substitution: To compute the quotient and remainder when px a n x n a n1 x n1 . . . a 0
is divided by x r we can use synthetic substitution:
r

an

a n1

a n2

a0

a n a n r a n1 a n r a n1 r a n2 pr

9
.............................................................................................................................................................................
2. Upper and Lower Bounds Theorem: If the numbers in the second row of the synthetic division all have the same
sign or are zero then r is an upper bound for the roots of p. If the numbers in the second row of the synthetic
division have alternating signs then r is a lower bound for the roots of p.
Symmetric Polyonomials
1. Coefficients vs. Roots: Let px x n a n1 x n1 . . . a 0 Cx and r 1 , r 2 , , r n its (not necessarily distinct)
roots. Then for all 0 i n
ai

1 ni r k 1 r k 2 r k i

1k 1 k i n

s2

s1

s1

2s 2

s1

3s 3

s2

s1

4s 4

s3

.c

N p s 1 , , s p det

om

In particular, a 0 1 n r 1 r 2 r n and a n1 r 1 r 2 r n .
2. Reduction Algorithm for Symmetric Polynomials: Define s p x 1 , , x n 1k k p n x k 1 x k 2 x k p to be the
1
elementary symmetric polynomial in n variables of degree p (and define s p x 1 , , x n 0 if p n). These form a
basis for the algebra of all symmetric polynomials. Define the height of a monomial x e11 x e22 x enn to be
e 1 2e 2 ne n and the height of a polynomial to be the maximum height of any of its monomial terms and
zero for the zero polynomial. If f is a symmetric polynomial whose maximal height term is cx e11 x e22 x enn , then the
2 e 1 e 1
polynomial g f cs e1n e n1 s e2n1 e n2 s en1
s n has strictly lower height than f so that iterating gives an expression
for f as a polynomial in the elementary symmetric polynomials.
3. Newton-Girard Identities: Define

ut
i

ps p s p1 s p2 s p3 s 1
where s i are the elemetary symmetric polynomials in x 1 , x 2 , , x n then expanding N gives
p
p
p
Np x1 x2 xn
The first few values of N p are
N1 s1
N 2 s 21 2s 2

og

N 3 s 31 3s 1 s 2 3s 3

N 4 s 41 4s 21 s 2 2s 22 4s 1 s 3 4s 4

These satisfy the recurrence

ka

N n s 1 N n1 s 2 N n2 s 3 N n3 1 n1 s n N 0

Roots
1. Descartess Rule of Signs: If px Rx then the number of positive roots of px is equal to N 2k for some
k Z, where N is the number of sign changes in the sequence a 0 , a 1 , , a n . The number of negative roots of px
equals the number of positive roots of px.
2. Rational Root Theorem: If px a n x n a n1 x n1 a 0 Zx and rs (in reduced form) is a rational root
of px, then r divides a 0 and s divides a n .
3. Complex Conjugate Roots: If px Rx and a bi is a complex root of p then so is a bi.
4. Irrational Conjugate Roots: If px Qx and a b c is a root of p where a, b, c Q and c R Q,
then a b c is also a root of p.
5. Eisensteins Irreducibility Criterion: If px Zx and if there exists a prime q that divides each of the
coefficients except a n and q 2 does not divide a 0 , then px is irreducible over the rationals.
n
be a set of points. Then the n th -degree polynomial
6. Lagrange Interpolation: Let x i , y i i0
n

px

yi
i0

ji

x x j
x i x j

is the unique polynomial of degree at most n passing through each of the points.
Partial Fractions
1. Equality of Polynomial functions: If px, qx Rx then the functions p and q are equal if and only if the

10
.............................................................................................................................................................................
polynomials px and qx have the same degree and their corresponding coefficients are equal.
2. Partial Fraction Decomposition: If px Rx has degree less than k 2m and l 1 xl k x Rx are
irreducible linear polynomials and q 1 xq m x Rx are irreducible quadratic polynomials then there exist real
numbers A 1 , , A k , B 1 , , B k , C 1 , , C k such that
px
A1 Ak B1x C1 Bmx Cm
l 1 x
l k x
q 1 x
q m x
l 1 xl k xq 1 xq m x

Synthetic Geometry
Terminology and Common Notation

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1. Definitions: The following notation is somewhat standard and will be used in this document.
a. Cevian: Any segment from a vertex of a triangle to a point on the opposite side
b. Median: A cevian which bisects the opposite side
c. Altitude: The perpendicular from a vertex to the opposite side of a triangle
d. Centroid (G): The point of intersection of the medians of a triangle (they are concurrent)
e. Orthocenter (H): The point of intersection of the altitudes of a triangle (they are concurrent)
f. Circumcircle, Circumcenter (O), Circumradius (R): Every triangle can be circumscribed by a unique
circle whose center is the intersection of the perpendicular bisectors of the three sides.
g. Incircle, Incenter (I), Inradius (r): Every triangle circumscribes a unique circle whose center is the
intersection of the angle bisectors.
h. Excircles, Excenters (I A , I B , I C ), Exradii (r A , r B , r C ): Any of the three centers of the excircles (tangent to
one side and the extensions of the other two) of a triangle; also the intersection of the external bisectors.
i. Semiperimeter (s): half of the perimeter
j. Medial Triangle: The triangle whose vertices are the midpoints of the sides of a given triangle. It
subdivides the triangle into four congruent sub-triangles.
k. Orthic Triangle: The triangle whose vertices are the feet of the altitudes of a given triangle. It is the
triangle with minimum perimeter of all triangles whose vertices are on the three sides.

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Triangles

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l. Euler Line: the line containing the orthocenter, centroid, and circumcenter of a triangle (HGO). In any
triangle |HG| 2|GO| and 9OH 2 a 2 b 2 c 2 where a, b, c are the sides of the triangle.
m. Gergonne Point: the point of intersection of the cevians through the points of tangency of the incircle to the
sides of a triangle
n. Nagle Point: the point of intersection of the cevians through the points of tangency of the excircles to the
sides of a triangle
o. Fermat Point: the point F in an acute triangle ABC for which |FA| |FB| |FC| is minimal. In any acute
triangle AFB BFC CFA 120.
In ABC we define a |BC|, b |AC|, c |AB|, and abbreviate the three angles as A, B, and C.
1. Pythagorean triples: A right triangle has relatively prime integer length sides if and only if it has legs 2uv and
u 2 v 2 and hypotenuse u 2 v 2 for some relatively prime, opposite parity, positive integers u, v with u v.
2. Area: Let |ABC| denote the area of ABC. Then
|ABC| rs
r A s a r B s b r C s c
abc
4R
1 ab sin C 1 bc sin A 1 ac sin B
2
2
2

ss as bs c

a. Area from coordinates: Suppose A, B, C are vectors in R 2 . Define u u 1 , u 2 A C and

v v 1 , v 2 B C. Then

11
.............................................................................................................................................................................

u1 v1

|ABC| 1 det
2

u2 v2

1 |u v|
2
i. Shoelace Theorem: If x 1 , y 1 , , x n , y n are the vertices of an n-gon, the area of the n-gon is

Area 1
2

x1

y1

x2

y2

x n1 y n1
xn

yn
n1

x n y 1 x k y k1

1
2

k1

n1

x 1 y n x k1 y k
k1

om

b. (See also: Picks Theorem in Geometry - Polygons - #1 below)

3. Eulers Theorem: Let d be the distance between the incenter I and circumcenter O of triangle ABC
d 2 RR 2r

ut
i

.c

a. Corollary: d 2 R 2 2rR is the power of the point I with respect to the circumcircle (see also Geometry Circles - #2 below)
b. Eulers Inequality: In any triangle R 2r.
Similarity
1. Basic proportionality: A segment connecting points on two sides of a triangle is parallel to the third side if and
only if the segments it cuts off are proportional to the sides. (see also Algebra - Basics - #2 above)
Cevians
1. Angle Bisector Theorem: If D is the point where the angle bisector of A in ABC meets BC then
|CD|
|BD|

|CA|
|BA|

og

ka

2. Cevas Theorem: Three cevians AX, BY, CZ of ABC are concurrent if and only if
|BX| |CY| |AZ|
1
|XC| |YA| |ZB|
C

X
Y

3. Menelaus Theorem: Let D, E, F be three points on, respectively, the lines BC, AC, and AB containing the sides of
ABC. Then D, E, F are collinear if and only if
AF BD CE
1
BF CD AE
where XY is the signed length of the directed segment XY.

12
.............................................................................................................................................................................

4. Stewarts Theorem: Let ABC be a triangle with cevian AX of length p and let m XB and n XC. Then
ap 2 mn b 2 m c 2 n.
A

b
p

om

5. Inradius in terms of altitudes: Let h a , h b , h c be the lengths of the altitudes and r be the inradius of ABC. Then
1 1 1 1
r
ha
hb
hc

R
2

passes

.c

6. Nine Point Circle: The circle whose center is the midpoint of the Euler Line (N) of ABC with radius
through the feet of the altitudes, the midpoints of the sides, and the midpoints of HA, HB, and HC.

ut
i

og

7. Feuerbachs Theorem: The nine point circle of a triangle is tangent to the incircle and to the three excircles.
8. Brocard Points: There is exactly one point P in ABC such that |PAB| |PBC| |PCA| which is the
point where the circle through A tangent to BC at B intersects the circle through C tangent to AB at A. This point
and its isogonal conjugate P (the point making |PBA| |PCB| |PAC|) are called the Brocard
points of the triangle. Since is always equal to , this angle is called the Brocard angle of the triangle. It is
given by the formula:
cot cot A cot B cot C

ka

Trigonometry
1. Triangle solvers: Assume a triangle with angles A, B, and C, that respectively intercept sides a, b, and c, having
circumradius R.
a. Extended Law of Sines:
a
b
c

2R
sinA
sinB
sinC
b. Law of Cosines:
a 2 b 2 c 2 2bc cosA
b 2 a 2 c 2 2ac cosB
c 2 a 2 b 2 2ab cosC
c. Law of Tangents:
ab ab
tan AB
tan AB
2
2
2. Identities:
a. Pythagorean Identity: sin 2 x cos 2 x 1
b. Angle Addition:
i. sinx y sinx cosy cosx siny
ii. cosx y cosx cosy sinx siny

13
.............................................................................................................................................................................
iii. tanx y

tanxtany
1tanx tany

c. Double Angle:
i. sin2x 2 sinx cosx
ii. cos2x cos 2 x sin 2 x
2 tanx
iii. tan2x 1tan 2 x
d. Triple Angle:
i. sin3x 4 sin 3 x 3 sinx
ii. cos3x 4 cos 3 x 3 cosx
e. Half Angle:
1cosx
i. sin 2 2x
2
ii. cos 2 2x
iii. tan 2 2x
iv. tan 2x

1cosx
2
1cosx
1cosx
sinx
1cosx
sinx
1cosx

f. Sum to Product:
i. sinx siny 2 sin

om

iv. tanx tany

.c

ii. cosx cosy

iii. cosx cosy

xy
xy
cos 2
2
xy
xy
2 cos 2 cos 2
xy
xy
2 sin 2 sin 2
sinxy
cosx cosy

g. Product to Sum:
i. sinx cosy

iv.

h. In ABC:
i. tan A2

|ABC|
ssa

ut
i

ii.
iii.

sinxysinxy
2
cosxycosxy
cosx cosy
2
cosxycosxy
sinx siny
2
cosxycosxy
tanx tany cosxycosxy
sbsc
ssa

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og

ii. tanA tanB tanC tanA tanB tanC

iii. c a cosB b cosA
i. Miscellaneous:
i. Difference of two squares for sine: sin 2 x sin 2 y sinx y sinx y
ii. cosx sinx 2 cos 4 x
iii. sin15 14
6 2 and cos15 14
6 2

Quadrilaterals

1. Ptolemys Theorem

A
B

C
D

In any cyclic quadrilateral ABCD, AB CD BC AD AC BD.

i.e. The sum of the products of the opposite sides of a cyclic quadrilateral is equal to the product of the diagonals.
2. Ptolemys inequality: In any quadrilateral ABCD, AB CD BC AD AC BD.
i.e. The sum of the products of the opposite sides of any quadrilateral is greater than or equal to the product of the
diagonals.
3. Inscribed circle: A quadrilateral ABCD has an inscribed circle if and only if AB CD AC BD.

14
.............................................................................................................................................................................
4. Midline of diagonals: In a quadrilateral with side lengths a, b, c, and d and diagonals e and f, let X and Y be the
midpoints of the diagonals. Then
4|XY| 2 a 2 b 2 c 2 d 2 e 2 f 2
a. Corollary: In a parallelogram, the sum of the squares of the sides is equal to the sum of the squares of the
diagonals.
5. Ways to prove a quadrilateral is cyclic:
a. The converse of Ptolemys Theorem is true.
b. If a pair of opposite angles of a quadrilateral are supplementary, the quadrilateral is cyclic.
c. If one side of the quadrilateral subtends equal angles with the other two vertices, the quadrilateral is cyclic.
(see Circles, 1b)

Polygons
1. Picks Theorem: The area of any closed polygon whose vertices have integer coordinates is i b/2 1 where i
is the number of points with integer coordinates in the interior of the figure and b is the number of points on the
boundary of the figure.

Circles

om

1. Angles on a circle
a. Star Trek Lemma: An inscribed angle has one half as many degrees as the intercepted arc (Cor: Any angle
that intercepts a diameter is a right angle).

.c

ut
i

b. Different inscribed angles intercepting the same arcs are equal.

og

ka

c. An angle formed by two chords intersecting within a circle has one-half as many degrees as the sum of the
intercepted arcs.

+
2

d. Any angle formed by two secants, a secant and a tangent, or two tangents is equal to half the difference of
the intercepted arcs.

15
.............................................................................................................................................................................

180-

-
2

e. An angle formed by a chord and a tangent to a circle has one-half as many degrees as the intercepted arc.
12 arc AT ATB

.c

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/2

2. Power of a Point:
a. In both of the following: PA PB PX PY

ut
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b. Assuming PA is a secant and PT is a tangent, PA PB PT PT

ka

A
T

c. Using Eulers Theorem, we find that the power of the incenter I of a triangle with respect to the circumcircle
is 2rR
3. The Radical Axis
a. The Radical Axis of two circles is the locus of points with equal power to both circles.
b. The Radical Axis is a straight line, perpendicular to the line connecting the centers of the circles. If the circles
intersect, it passes through the two points of intersection. If the circles are tangent to each other, the axis is
their common tangent.
c. Given three circles, either the three radical axes between each pair are parallel, or they are concurrent.
4. Other circle facts:

16
.............................................................................................................................................................................
a. The Butterfly: Given a circle and a chord AB of the circle whose midpoint is M, let XY and ZW be two
chords passing through M, and let XW and YZ intersect AB at P and Q, respectively. Then M is also the
midpoint of PQ.
b. The formula for the graph of a circle centered at h, k with radius r is:
x h 2 y k 2 r 2
c. Brahmaguptas Formula: The area of a quadrilateral inscribed in a circle with side lengths a, b, c, d is
s as bs cs d
where s abcd
.
2
d. The coordinates of the center of a circle that is inscribed in a triangle whose legs are on the positive x and y
xyz
axes are a, a where a 2 given that x and y are the lengths of the legs and z is the length of the
hypothenuse.

Transformational Geometry
(See also: Complex Transformations in Complex Numbers)

Inversive

ka

og

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1. Definitions and Notation:

a. Inversive plane: P 2 2 P where P R 2 is called the point at infinity.
b. Figure: in the inversive plane is a set of points F P 2 .
c. Cline: A figure that is either a circle in 2 or a figure l P where l is a line in 2 .
d. Inverse: Given any point A and any circle with center O and radius k, the inverse of A with respect to is
the point B on ray OA satisfying OA OB k 2 . The inverse of A with respect to a line l is the reflection of A
about l.
e. The inverse of a point A is denoted A . Similarly, the inverse image of a figure F is denoted F .
2. Properties of Inversion:
a. O P and P O, where O is the center of the circle of inversion.
b. For any point or figure A, A A.
c. Clines invert to clines
i. , where is the circle of inversion.
ii. For any circle passing through O, is the radical axis of and .
iii. For any circle not passing through O, is a circle.
iv. For any line l passing through O, l l.
v. For any line l not passing through O, l is a circle passing through O.
d. Conformal (angle-preserving): If two clines and intersect at an angle , then and intersect at an
angle .
3. Inversive Distance Formula: Let A, B be two points in the inversive plane. Then
2
A B k AB
OA OB

Projective

1. Definitions:
a. Pencil
i. A pencil of parallel lines is the set of all lines in R 2 parallel to a given line, together with the line itself.
ii. A pencil of concurrent lines is the set of all lines passing through a given point.
b. Projective plane: 2 l where l consists of an infinite set of points, one for each pencil of parallel lines in
2.
c. Perspective from a point: Triangles A 1 A 2 A 3 and B 1 B 2 B 3 are perspective from point C iff the lines A 1 B 1 ,
A 2 B 2 , A 3 B 3 are concurrent at C.
d. Perspective from a line: Triangles A 1 A 2 A 3 and B 1 B 2 B 3 are perspective from line l iff the points
A 1 A 2 B 1 B 2 , A 2 A 3 B 2 B 3 , and A 3 A 1 B 3 B 1 lie on l.
2. Duality of projective theorems: If P is a theorem about the projective plane, then the dual of P is the statement
obtained by interchanging "point" with "line", "collinear" with "concurrent", etc. The dual of P is always a
theorem as well.

17
.............................................................................................................................................................................
3. Desarguess Theorem: If two triangles are perspective from a point, then they are perspective from a line.

B1

A2

B2

A3

.c

A1

om

4. Pappuss Theorem: If A 1 , A 2 , and A 3 are collinear and B 1 , B 2 , and B 3 are collinear, then A 1 B 1 A 3 B 2 ,
A 2 B 1 A 3 B 3 , and A 2 B 2 A 1 B 3 are collinear.

B3

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5. Pascals Theorem (Dual of Brianchon): If a hexagon is inscribed in a conic, the points of intersection of pairs of
opposite sides are collinear.

6. Brianchons Theorem (Dual of Pascal): If a hexagon is circumscribed about a conic, its three diagonals (joining
pairs of opposite vertices) are concurrent.

Analytic Geometry
Basics
1. Distance Formula: If P 1 x 1 , x 2 , , x n and P 2 y 1 , y 2 , , y n then

18
.............................................................................................................................................................................

|P 1 P 2 |

y i x i 2
i1

Lines

om

1. Midpoint Formula: The midpoint of a segment whose endpoints are x 1 , x 2 , , x n and y 1 , y 2 , , y n is given
x y x y
x y
by 1 2 1 , 2 2 2 , , n 2 n .
2. Forms of Lines:
a. Point-Slope: y y 1 mx x 1
b. Slope-Intercept: y mx b
c. General: Ax By C 0, where A 2 B 2 0
y y
3. Slope Formula: m x 22 x 11
4. Perpendicular lines: Two nonvertical lines are perpendicular if and only if the product of their slopes is 1.
5. Distance from a Point to a Line: the distance from point p, q to the line ax by c where a 2 b 2 1 (which
can always be obtained by dividing both sides of the equation by a 2 b 2 if necessary) is
|ap bq c|

Conic Sections

.c

Standard Equations
1. Circle: a circle is the set of all points a fixed distance r from a point a, b called the center.
x a 2 y b 2 r 2

ut
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2. Parabolas: a parabola is the set of points equidistant from a given point (the focus) and a given line (the
directrix). For focus 0, p and directrix y p
x 2 4py

ka

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3. Ellipses: an ellipse is the set of all points such that the sum of the distances to two fixed foci is constant. For foci
c, 0 and c, 0 and semimajor axis a and semiminor axis b with a b
2
x2 y 1
a2
b2
Note that b 2 c 2 a 2 .
a. The area of an ellipse is ab, where a and b are the semimajor and semiminor axes.
4. Hyperbolas: a hyperbola is the set of all points such that the difference of the distances to two fixed foci is
constant. For foci c, 0 and c, 0 and x-intercepts a and a
2
x2 y 1
2
a
b2
2
2
2
where a b c .
General Equations
1. General Equations for conic sections: can be obtained from the standard equations by applying the appropriate
transformations
a. Translation by h, k: x x h and y y k
b. Rotation about the origin by angle : x x cos y sin and y x sin y cos
c. Reflection across the x-Axes: x x and y y
d. (See also: Transformation in Complex Numbers - Complex Transformations - #1a,b,c)
2. Removal of xy-term: The xy-term can be removed from Ax 2 Bxy Cy 2 Dx Ey F 0, B 0 by a rotation
of the axes if is selected so that cot 2 AC
.
B

Other Representations
1. Polar-Rectangular Relations:
x r cos , y r sin
y
r 2 x 2 y 2 , tan x
2. Parametric Equations: The set of equations x ft, y gt are parametric equations of the relation
x, y : x ft and y gt and t is in the intersection of the domains of f and g .

19
.............................................................................................................................................................................

Vector Geometry
In the following if v R 2 then v v 1 , v 2 .
1. Equal Vectors: two vectors are equal if and only if their corresponding coordinates are equal.
2. Vector Addition: a b a 1 b 1 , a 2 b 2
3. Length: v v 21 v 22 (a unit vector has length one)
4. Direction of Vector: the unit vector in the direction of v is
u

v
v

v1 , v2
v
v

cos , sin

where arctan vv 21 is the angle between u and the positive x-axis in standard position
5. Multiplication by Scalar: kv kv 1 , kv 2 for any k R
6. Dot Product: a b a 1 b 1 a 2 b 2 a

b cos where , are the direction angles for a ,b respectively.

a. two vectors are perpendicular if and only if their dot product is zero
b. a b is the length of the projection of a onto the line containing b if b is a unit vector

om

Analysis
Real Analysis

.c

Inequalities
1. The Arithmetic-Geometric-Harmonic Mean Theorem
a. For all nonnegative real numbers x 1 , . . . , x n ,
n
n x 1 x 2 . . . x n x 1 x 2 n. . . x n
1
1
1

.
.
.

x1
x2
xn
x 1 x 2 ...x n
n

is called the Arithmetic Mean, or average, of x 1 , . . . , x n .

x 1 x 2 . . . x n is called the Geometric Mean of x 1 , . . . , x n .
n
is called the Harmonic Mean of x 1 , . . . , x n .
1 1 ... 1

x1

x2

ut
i

xn

b. (Weighted) Power Mean Theorem: For all nonnegative real numbers x 1 , . . . , x n , 1 , . . . , n with

og

1 2 . . . n 1, and all real numbers p 0 define m p

i x pi

1/p

i1

and m 0 lim m p . Then

p0

ka

i. For all real numbers r, s with r s we have m r m s (this is the generalization of the AM-GM-HM
theorem)
ii. An important special case is 1 2 . . . n 1n ; in this case m 0 is the geometric mean, m 1 is the
arithmetic mean, and m 1 is the harmonic mean. In general, m p is called the pth power mean.
iii. m 0 x 1 1 x 2 2 . . . x n n is the weighted geometric mean.
2. Triangle Inequality: For all real or complex numbers x 1 , . . . , x n ,
|x 1 x 2 . . . x n | |x 1 | |x 2 | . . . |x n |
a. Minkowskis Inequality: is the generalization of the triangle inequality to higher dimensions. Given real
numbers a 1 , a 2 , , a n and b 1 , b 2 , , b n
n

a i b i 2
i1

a 2i
i1

b 2i
i1

3. Geometric Mean Machine: If AC is a diameter of a circle through point B, and D is the foot of the
perpendicular through B to AC then BD is the geometric mean of AD and DC.

20
.............................................................................................................................................................................

xy

a. Symmetry-Product Principle: As the distance between two positive numbers decreases their product
increases if their sum remains constant.
4. Cauchy-Schwartz Inequality: For any two sequences of real numbers x 1 , . . . , x n and y 1 , . . . , y n ,
x 1 y 1 x 2 y 2 . . . x n y n 2 x 21 . . . x 2n y 21 . . . y 2n
5. Rearrangement: For any sequences of real numbers a 1 a 2 a n and b 1 b 2 b n and any
permutation of 1, 2, . . . , n,
a 1 b n a 2 b n1 . . . a n b 1 a 1 b 1 a 2 b 2 . . . a n b n a 1 b 1 a 2 b 2 . . . a n b n
1
n

a k b nk1

k1

1
n

ak
k1

1
n

om

6. Chebyshevs Inequality: For any sequences of real numbers a 1 a 2 a n and b 1 b 2 b n ,

bk
k1

1
n

akbk
k1

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7. Jensens Inequality: If f is a continuous real valued function that is concave upwards on the closed interval a. . b
(e.g. fx x 2 ) then for all 1 , 2 , , n in 0. . 1 such that 1 2 n 1 and for all
x 1 , x 2 , , x n a. . b
f 1 x 1 2 x 2 n x n 1 fx 1 2 fx 2 n fx n
If the function is concave downwards the inequality is reversed. An important special case is where each k 1n .
8. Hlders Inequality
a. Let a 11 , . . . , a 1n , a 21 , . . . , a 2n , , a k1 , . . . , a kn be sequences of nonnegative real numbers and 1 , , k
nonnegative reals satisfying 1 k 1. Then
a 111 a 212 a k1k a 121 a 222 a k2k a 1n1 a 2n2 a knk a 11 a 1n 1 a 21 a 2n 2 a k1 a kn k

ka

og

i.e. given a matrix of nonnegative real numbers

a 11 a 1n
a 21 a 2n

a k1 a kn

the arithmetic mean of the (weighted) geometric means of the columns is less than or equal to the (weighted)
geometric mean of the arithmetic means of the rows.
b. (Generalized Minkowskis and Hlders) In the matrix above, for any reals r s, the sth power mean of the
rth power means of the columns is less than or equal to the rth power means of of the sth power means of the
rows.
9. Bernoullis Inequality: For any nonzero real number x 1 and integer n 1
1 nx 1 x n
10. Nesbitts Inequality: For all positive reals a, b, c
3 a b c
ac
2
bc
ab
11. Schurs Inequality: Given positive real numbers a, b, c and any real number r
0 a r a ba c b r b ab c c r c ac b
n

i1

i1

12. Muirheads Inequality: Let 0 s 1 s n and 0 t 1 t n be real numbers such that s i t i

k

i1

i1

and s i t i (k 1, , n 1). Then for any nonnegative numbers x 1 , , x n ,

21
.............................................................................................................................................................................

x t1

x nn

x s1

x nn

where the sums run over all permutations of 1, 2, , n.

13. (See also: Eulers Inequality in Geometry - Triangles - #3b; Ptolemys Inequality in Geometry - Quadrilaterals
- #2)
Logarithms
If b 0, b 1, and x 0 then
1. log b x log b y log b xy for y 0
2. log b x y y log b x for all y
3. log y x

log b x
log b y

for y 0 and y 1

4. For any functions f and g, f lng g lnf

Complex Numbers
Basics

.c

Let C R 2 . For each x, y C we formally write x, y x yi.

Let x yi, a bi C, then:
1. Complex conjugate: x yi x yi
2. Complex norm: |x yi| x 2 y 2

om

Note: ln log e where e n0 n!1 .

Cauchys Functional Equations
1. If f is a continuous function from R to R then
a. If fx y fx fy for every x, y then fx mx for some m.

Properties

og

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3. Argument: Argx yi the angle in 0 2 of x, y in polar form (not defined for x y 0)

4. Real part: Rex yi x
5. Imaginary part: Imx yi y
6. Addition: x yi a bi x a y bi
7. Multiplication: x yia bi xa yb ya xbi
8. Complex exponential: Let R. Then e i cos i sin
9. Standard polar form: of x yi is re i where r |x yi| and Argx yi
10. Distance: between complex numbers z, w is |z w|

ka

1. e i 1 0
2. Let , R
a. e i e i e i
b. |e i | 1
c. e i e i
3. Let z, z 1 , z 2 C. Then:
a. |z 1 z 2 | |z 1 ||z 2 |
b. z 1 z 2 z 1 z 2
c. z 1 z 2 z 1 z 2
d. z z |z| 2
e. |z| | z |
f. If z re i in polar form, then z re i

Complex Transformations
1. Transformation: of a set S is a bijection from S to S. (a.k.a. a permutation of S)
Let w C and , k R.
a. Translation by w: Tz z w
b. Rotation by radians counterclockwise about the origin: Tz e i z

22
.............................................................................................................................................................................
c. Reflection across the x-axis: Tz z
d. Homothety by positive factor k with respect to the origin: Tz kz
e. Inversion * with respect to the unit circle: Tz 1z ( * Inversion is a transformation of the extended
complex plane C C with 10 and 1 0.)

Strategies & Tactics

General

Arithmetic
1. Be careful!

Combinatorics and Probability

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Paul Zietz, in his book The Art and Craft of Problem Solving suggests the following strategies and tactics for
approaching any problem.
1. Get oriented.
2. Consider the penultimate step.
3. Get your hands dirty.
4. Impose or look for symmetry.
5. Use wishful thinking.
6. Consider a simpler case.
7. Use peripheral vision.
8. Consider the extreme cases.
9. Find an invariant.
10. Draw a picture.

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1. Use combinatorial arguments to solve binomial coefficient identities.

2. Make a bijection and count something easier, or count the complement.
3. Try recursion - to solve the recursion explicitly:
a. Conjecture and induct
b. Use generating functions
c. Algebraic manipulation
4. Ways to think of binomial coefficients
a. Coefficients of x y n
b. The number of ways to choose k things from n things
c. The elements of Pascals triangle
5. Use inclusion-exclusion.

Number Theory

Melanie Wood suggested the following ways to approach a number theory problem in her 2005 MOP lectures
and notes.
1. Plug in simple values. (See also Strategies & Tactics - General #3 and #6)
2. Check values modulo m, where m is carefully chosen.
3. Divide the problem into multiple cases.
4. Consider the orders of values modulo some integer.
5. Dont be afraid to use the quadratic formula.
6. Use infinite descent.
7. Build large numbers with the properties you want, for example using the Chinese Remainder Theorem.
8. Keep in mind that
a. Consecutive numbers are relatively prime.
b. If p a and p b, then p a b.
c. a b mod n if and only if n a b.
9. Ways to tell that a number is an integer:
a. It is rational and the root of a monic polynomial with integer coefficients.
b. It is the answer to a counting problem.

23
.............................................................................................................................................................................
c. It is a term in a recursive sequence with integer initial values and a recursion that is closed for integer values.

Algebra
1.
2.
3.
4.

Factor!
Make a substitution.
Find a telescoping sum.
Every polynomial can be thought of
a. as a function.
b. in terms of its coefficients.
c. in terms of its roots.

Geometry

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1. Draw very accurate and large diagrams.

2. Make cyclic quadrilaterals and parallel lines.
3. Melanie Wood suggested in her 2005 MOP notes that a problem solver should consider using inversion when the
problem contains:
a. circles.
b. a busy point (with many circles and lines passing through it).
c. weird angle conditions.
d. products of lengths.
e. reciprocals of lengths.
f. tangencies and orthogonalities.
4. Use trigonometry for both angle-chasing and side-chasing.
5. Find a useful transformation.
6. Consider area.
7. Collinearity and Concurrency:
a. Find the special point of intersection or line of concurrence (e.g. orthocenter, Euler line, etc.)
b. Proof by contradiction.
c. Try to use Menelaus, Ceva, all projective theorems.