M.

E CAD 2015
ADVANCED VIBRATION ENGINEERING SPR5106
UNIT 3: CONTINUOUS SYSTEMS
Introduction - Transverse Vibration of a String or Cable and their Equations of Motion -Initial
and Boundary Conditions - Free Vibration of a Uniform String-Free Vibration of a String with
Both Ends Fixed Longitudinal Vibration of a Bar or Rod -Equation of Motion and Solution Orthogonality of Normal Functions.
VIBRATION OF STRING
Taut String
Introduction A string is a one dimensional flexible continuous structure and has no
compressive stiffness. Its transverse load carrying capacity comes from the tension it is
subjected to. Thus it is different from a beam, which does not need a tension to sustain a
transverse load. Being a continuous system it must have infinite number of
frequencies and mode shapes.

Taut String
Uniformly taut horizontal string:
Constant Tension = S, N

(1.1)

Vertical deflection = w(x,t).

(1.2)

For small motion sin & tan sin

Therefore
Left slope = tan

(1.3)

Right slope = + d

(1.4)

tan = w/x.

(1.5)

d = ( /x)dx
= ((w/x)/ x) dx = 2w/x2 dx

(1.6)

Vertical component of the tension:

Left end: The vertical component is downward.
SvL = - S sin - S tan - S

(1.7)

Right end: The vertical component is upward, similarly.

SvR = S ( + d)

(1.8)

Net vertical force from x- direction tension

Sv = S d = S 2w/x2 dx

(1.9)

Mass of the element:

The mass density of the string material =
The volume of element = area x length = A dx
The mass of the element = (A dx )

(1.10)

A = mass per unit length = l

(1.11)

Note,

Accelerating force in vertical direction:

The accelerating force on the element, dx = mass of element x acceleration
= (l dx) 2w/t2
(1.12)
By Newtons law, wave equation
2w/t2 = c2 (2w/x2 )

(1.13)

where,
c2 = (S/ l) or also [= (S / A) = (S g / A)]

(1.14)

c = velocity of propagation of sound in the taut string media.

Eq (1.16) contains both space and time as independent variables.
The solution is, therefore, assumed as
w(x,t) = X(x).T(t)

(1.15)

where,
X(x) = function only of x (space)
T(t) = function only of t (time)
(2T/t2 )/T = c2 (2X/x2 )/X

(1.16)

LHS = RHS could be possible only if they are equal to a constant.

Therefore let the constant be (-p2).
(2T/t2 )/T = c2 (2X/x2 )/X =

(-p2)

(1.21A)

Then we have the following two equations:

T(t) = A sin pt + B cos pt

(1.17)

X(x) = C sin (p/c)x + D cos (p/c)x

(1.18)

The total solution from is

w(x,t) = X(x)T(t)
= [C sin (p/c)x + D cos (p/c)x][ A sin pt + B cos pt]

(1.28)

For our present purpose

w(x,t) = [C sin (p/c)x + D cos (p/c)x][T]

(1.19)

Or
w(x,t) = [X][ A sin pt + B cos pt]

(1.20)

Boundary Conditions
At the ends, x = 0 & x = L, the deflections of string are w = 0.
At x = 0, for all time t, in (1.29)
X(0) = 0 + D = 0
It requires D = 0. Therefore (1.27) reduces to
X(x) = C sin (p/c)x

(1.21)

At x = L, for all time t, (1.29) requires

C sin(p/c)L = 0
Or
sin(p/c)L = 0

(1.22)

This is the most important equation known as frequency equation, which provides the
expected infinite number of frequencies.
(p/c)L = n , n = 1,2,3 .

(1.23)

( pn /c) = n /L

(1.24)

Or

Frequency (in radians per second)

pn = nc/L, n = 1,2,3 .
= (n/L)(S/ l )

(1.34A)
(1.34B)

w(x,t) =

Cn sin (n x/L)[ An sin pn t + Bn cos pn t]

(1.25)

n 1

Arbitrary constant Cn loses its significance when multiplied by the two other arbitrary
constants An and Bn, resulting in only two arbitrary constants and hence Cn is omitted.

w(x,t) =

sin (n x/L)[ An sin pn t + Bn cos pn t]

(1.26)

n 1

Normal mode function is :sin (n x/L): Sine wave with one loop, 2 loops, 3 loops ..
loops

First 3 normal mode functions (shapes)

Response to Initial Conditions (ICs)
To determine An & Bn: Seto (Schaum series book) pp 185 190, for more examples.
Example 1(See Seto Chapter 9),
A string of length L and high initial tension T is statically displaced h units
from the center and released from rest. Find the subsequent motion of the string.
Solution
The general equation is (1.36)

w(x, t) =

n 1

sin (n x/L)[ An sin pn t + Bn cos pn t]

(1.36)

The initial conditions are:

1) For all x (the entire string) velocity = 0, at t = 0.

w(x,t)/t =

sin (n x/L)[ pn An cos pn t - pn Bn sin pn t ] = 0

n 1

Therefore

w(x,0)/t =

sin (n x/L)[ pn An ] = 0

n 1

An 0. Hence An sin pn t = 0 and (1.36) reduces to,

w(x, t) =

sin (n x/L)[ Bn cos pn t]

(1.36A)

n 1

2) The general equation for displacement w(x, 0) from

(1.36A)

w(x,0) =

sin (n x/L)[ Bn ] = given initial displacement.

(1.36B)

n 1

If the initial displacement given is h at middle, it cannot happen without displacements

from x =0 to L. Different expressions for displacements for left half and right half of the
string:
Left half: w(x, 0) = hx/(L/2) x, 0 x L/2
Right half: w(x, 0) = h(L x)/(L/2), L/2 x L
Now (1.36B) becomes

w(x,0) =

Bn sin (n x/L) = hx/(L/2), 0 x L/2

n 1

= h(L x)/(L/2), L/2 x L

(1.37)

The solution for Bn needs to treat (1.37) in two parts one for Left half and another for Right
half of RHS..
Displacement cannot happen without slope. It is easier to solve using slope. On LHS
and RHS we can use the initially given slope due to displacement h.
Differentiate (1.37)
LHS = Bn sin (n x/L), (d/dx)(LHS) = Bn (n/L) cos (n x/L)
RHS
Left half =(h/L/2)x, (d/dx)(Left) = (h/L/2)
Right half = (h/L/2)(L x), (d/dx)(Right) = - (h/L/2)

Now multiply both sides by cos (n x/L) dx and integrate.

Bn (n/L) cos2 (n x/L)dx, 0 to L = h/(L/2) cos(n x/L)dx, 0 to L/2
- h/(L/2) cos(n x/L)dx, L/2 to L

Bn (n/L)(L/2) = (2h/L){ (L/ n ) [sin(n x/L)]| 0 to L/2

- (L/ n ) [sin(n x/L)]| L/2 to L }

Bn (n/2) = (2h/n ) [sin(n /2) + sin(n /2]

Bn = (8h/ 2n2) (sin(n /2) =(8h/ 2n2) (-1)(n -1)/2
w(x, t) = (8h/2){[ (-1)(n -1)/2/n2] sin (nx/L) cos (nc/L)t}
n = 1, 3, 5, .
Exercise: If the displacement of h is given at a distance a from Left end, find the
subsequent motion. Use for simplicity slope
LONGITUDINAL VIBRATION OF ROD
Like string, rod also is a simple structure.

Length of rod = L
Cross sectional area = A
Mass density = kg/unit volume
Elastic modulus = E
At left end x = 0; at right end x = L
At any x,
Longitudinal displacement = u

(2.1)

Elastic force = P
P = stress x area = E x strain x area
Strain = u / x

(2.2)
(2.3)

P = EA u / x
At x + dx,
Axial displacement = u + du
Elastic force = P + dP

(2.4)
(2.5)

Net force in x-direction = dP

dP = (P/x)dx

(2.6)

From (1.3)

P
(u / x)dx
2u
dx EA
EA 2 dx
x
x
x
Accelerating force

(2.7)

in the element

= d(vol) u = (A dx) u
=A

2u
dx
t 2

(2.8)

where (A dx) = mass

Equating (1.7) and (1.8),
A

2u
2u
dx

EA
dx
t 2
x 2

2u
2u

(
E
/

)
t 2
x 2
2
2u
2 u

c
t 2
x 2

(2.9)

(2.10)

(2.11)

where, equation (1.11) is wave equation and

c2 ( E / )

(2.12)

and c = velocity of propagation of sound in the media of the rod in longitudinal wave.
Solution:
u(x,t) = X(x).T(t)

(2.13)

u(x,t) = [Cn sin(pn/c)x + Dn cos(pn/c)x] [An sin pnt + Bn cos pnt] (1.15)
n = 0, 1, 2, .

Since a continuous system has infinite frequencies and modes, the general solution
should contain all modes:
Here p is the circular frequency in radians per second, when c is in m/sec.
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
There are 3 possible boundary conditions:
1) Free-free;
2) Fixed-fixed;
3) Fixed-free* (and Free-fixed)*.
(*For uniform rod these two will be same; but not so if cross section is variable).
Since the frequencies depend on the end conditions, each case will have different
expressions for frequency.
1(a) Fixed: Displacement, u = 0 for all t.
(b) Free: Force = 0 for all t.
(at x = 0 or L or at both ends, as the case may be)
Force = Area x stress = A (E x strain} = AE u / x
Therefore, force = 0 means, u / x = 0, at x = 0 or x = L or at both ends as
the case may be.
2 There are other applied force type boundary conditions, like at ends
(a) a mass or
(b) a spring attached or
(c) an independent time varying force
Study more from class discussions and printed portions of notes taken from William
Seto and also Grover.
Rod of Uniform Cross Section
Three possible boundary conditions - Free-free; Fixed-fixed; Fixed-free
Read Worked Example 2, pp130-131 Seto.
1(c) Fixed Fixed Ends

i)
u (0,t) = 0
ii)
u (L,t) = 0
Applying BCs (i) & (ii) in (2), we get D = 0 and
sin (p/c)L = 0

(26)

(p/c)L = , 2, 3, 4,.. n
Or
pn = nc/L radians/sec

(27)

pn/c = n/L

(28)

and

u(x,t)= [ sin(nx/L][An sin (nxc/L)t + Bn cos (nxc/L)t] (29)

An and Bn need to be found from initial conditions.
Exercise 3: Sketch 3 mode shapes.

First, second & third mode shapes

(b) Fixed Free Ends
i)
ii)

u (0,t) = 0
Force = 0. This means stress = 0 and strain = 0. Or
u / x = 0, x = L

The general equation is

u(x,t)= [Cn sin(pn/c)x + Dn cos(pn/c)x] [T(t)]

(2)

Applying BC (i) in (2), D = 0 and (2) reduces to

u(x,t)= [sin(pn/c)x ] [T(t)]
absorbing C in T(t).

(20)

Differentiating (20), we get

u(x,t)= [(pn/c) cos(pn/c)x ] [T(t)]

(21)

Applying BC (ii) in (21), we get

cos(pn/c)L = 0
Or

(22)

(pn/c)L = ( /2), 3( /2), 5( /2),

n( /2)

(pn/c)L =n ( /2)

(23)

where n is odd numbers 1, 3, 5, .

There is no zero since there is no RBM.
The frequency from (23)
pn = n ( /2)c/L radians/sec

(24)

The resulting motion is

u(x,t)= [sin n( /2)/L)x ] [An sin (nxc/L)t + Bn cos (nxc/L) t]
where, n = 1,3,5,

An and Bn need to be found from initial conditions.

Second & third Modes

(First mode picture is not shown)
1(a) Free-Free Ends:
i) u / x = 0, x = 0
ii) u / x = 0, x = L

(25)

The general equation is (1.14) - (same as (1.28) of string) derive the same general
equation yourself , NOW ITSELF u(x,t)= [A sin pt + B cos pt][C sin(p/c)x + D cos(p/c)x]

(1)

u(x,t)= [C sin(p/c)x + D cos(p/c)x] [T(t)]

(2)

or

Differentiating w.r.t x,

u / x (x,t) = [C cos(p/c)x D sin (p/c)x] (p/c) [T(t)]

(3)

Applying BC (i) in (3), C = 0 and absorbing - D into A and B in T, (3) reduces to

u / x (x,t ) = [sin (p/c)x] (p/c) [T(t)]

(4)

Applying BC (ii) in (4), we get the frequency equation

sin (p/c)L = 0

(5)

This means
(p/c)L = 0, , 2, 3, 4,.. n
Or
pn = nc/L radians/sec

(6)

and
pn/c = n/L , n = 0, 1,2,3 .

(7)

when L and c have consistent units ie if L in m, c in m/sec or if L in mm,

c in mm/sec.
Here, n = 0 means no vibration. But the rod being free, even without vibration, it can move.
This motion is called Rigid Body Motion.
Now it is clear that this continuous system further has infinite modes of vibration and the
corresponding infinite frequencies for n = 1 to . Therefore the general solution should
contain all modes as below.
u(x,t) = [Cn sin(pn/c)x + Dn cos(pn/c)x] [An sin pnt + Bn cos pnt]

(8)

or
u(x,t)= [Cn sin(pn/c)x + Dn cos(pn/c)x] [T(t)] n = 1 2, . (9)
In this present case, (1) becomes, with C = 0, and absorbing D in T(t) and substituting the
value of pn/c = n/L, from (7)
u(x,t)= [ cos (nx/L][An sin((n c/L)t) + Bn cos ((n c/L)t)](10)

A free-free rod in axial mode has one rigid body motion, where the frequency is zero.
The following sketches show first RBM in the horizontal direction, then for n =1, 2, 3 & 4 the
displacements that happen in horizontal direction but shown in vertical ordinate

and Bn to be found from initial conditions.

Rigid Body Motion(RMB):
A free-free rod in axial mode has one rigid body motion, where the frequency is zero.
Mode shape not shown. REMIND ME IN CLASS
Consider the similar basic wave equations from string problem or the one you have
derived from u(x,t) = X(x) T(t) (!!):
(2T/t2 )/T = c2 (2X/x2 )/X = (-p2)

(11)

Then we have the following two equations:

(2T/t2 )/T = (-p2)

(12)

c2 (2X/x2 )/X = (-p2)

(13)

For RMB, frequency p = 0 and then (12) becomes

(2T/t2 ) = 0

(14)

Integrating twice
T(t) = At + B

(15)

It is a rigid body (linear) motion (with no oscillation).

For frequency p = 0, (13) becomes
2X/x2 = 0

(16)

Integrating twice
X(x) = C x + D
Now apply BCs: X/x(0 & L) = 0 C = 0. Therefore

(17)

X(x) = D = constant

(18)

The total solution for the RBM is

u(x,t) =D[At + B] = At + B

(19)

This is the RBM, a translation - not vibration u(x,t) = At + B

A and B need to be found from initial conditions, u(x,t) uo+ vo t.
Exercise 1: Sketch 4 mode shapes including one RBM for free-free rod.
RESPONSE TO INITIAL CONDITIONS
Initial Conditions
Different types of initial conditions are applied as worked Examples:
Seto:
Free-free rod compressed at free ends and released (Example 5); excited by sinusoidal
displacement (Example 14);

Fixed-free rod pulled at free end by a force (Example 6)/ stretched (Example 12) and
released; excited by sinusoidal force (Example 13 );

Fixed-fixed:
Seto: rod stopped when moving in constant velocity (Example 7)
Timoshenko: pulled at middle and released (Example 7).Among other examples, Seto has
given this as Problem 41.

Example 1
Here a Fixed-fixed rod example is considered to study as to how initial conditions could be
applied, since it a bit involved.
Consider a fixed-fixed rod of length L. Let a longitudinal force P is applied at a point L1 from
the left end. The force will be shared by left and right portions of the rod. If L1 is L/2, then
they share equally the force = P/2.
therwise, L1 portion bears P1 = PL2/L and L2 portion P2 = PL1/L (something like reaction is
high near the shorter wing of a beam). This, the student should verify by considering the
displacements for both portions at the point of loading to be common equal, uo = P1L1/AE =
P2L2/AE and that P = P1+ P2.
Initial conditions are:
(1) velocity v(x,0) = (x, 0) = 0 for all x and
(2) displacement u(L1,0) = uo (at the point of loading).
Very important point to note is that condition stated in (2) has a bigger meaning. That is, uo at
L1, also means the whole rod is strained from 0 to L: (i) (0 to L1) in tension and (L1/2 to L) in
compression.
Let us first apply IC (1) velocity on (5).
(x, 0) = 0 = Xn(x) [An - 0] leading to An = 0 and then (8) becomes

u(x,t) = [sin(pn/c)x] [Bn cos pnt]

(9)

The strain is
u(x,t) = [(pn/c) cos(pn/c)x] [Bn cos pnt]

(9A)

Let us apply IC (2) now. This could be either applied using uo or the corresponding strain .
IF IT IS THE DISPLACEMENT IT TAKES MORE TIME & EFFORT READ BUT OMIT
For x = 0 to L1
u(x,0) = (uo / L1) x

(10)

For x = L1 to L, u(x,0) = uo - uo (x - L1 ) / L2 or
= uo (L2 - x + L1 ) / L2
Since L1+ L2 = L
u(x,0) = (uo /L2) [L - x]

(11)

Applying IC (2) in (9) and equating to (10) & (11):

(uo / L1) x, (0 to L1) (Left side)

u(x,0) = sin(pn/c)x] [Bn] =

(12)
(uo /L2) (L - x), (L1 to L)(Right side)

since u(x,0) has two different values (functions) for the left (0 to L1) side and right (L1 to L)
side of the point of load.
IF IT IS THE STRAIN, IT IS EASIER.
The displacement causes strain too. So here it is constant strain.
For x =(0 to L1)
1(x,0) = (PL2/L)/AE (constant over 0 to L1)

(10A)

For x = (L1 to L), the strain is compressive and hence a minus sign should be assigned,
when applying in equations.
2 (x,0) = - ( PL1/L)/AE (negative constant over L1 to L)

(11A)

Applying IC (2) in (9A) and equating to (10A) & (11A):

u(x,0) = (pn/c) cos(pn/c)x] [Bn]

(12A)

1 (x,0), (0 to L1) (constant)

= (pn/c) cos(pn/c)x [Bn] =

(13)

- 2 (x,0), (L1 to L)(constant)

since u(x,0) has two different values (functions) for the left side (0 to L1) and right (L1 to L)
side of the point of load.
At the very first sight, strains seem simpler, being constants and hence are used.
(Timoshenko used displacement).
AS was done in string, multiply both sides of (13) by f(x) dx, here cos(pn/c)x dx, and then
integrate from 0 to L. Here for RHS, from 0 to L1 and L1 to L.
(pn/c) [Bn] cos2(pn/c)x dx = 1 cos(pn/c)x dx [0 to L1]
- 2 cos(pn/c)x dx [L1 to L] (14)
will be dropped as irrelevant here considering only one corresponding to n.
(pn/c) [Bn] (L/2) = 1 cos(pn/c)x dx [0 to L1]
- 2 cos(pn/c)x dx

[L1 to L]

= 1 [(c/ pn)][ sin(pn/c)L1 - 0]

- 2 [(c/ pn)][ sin(pn/c)L - sin(pn/c)L1] (16)
Recall for fixed-fixed rod

(15)

pn/c = n/L, n = 1, 2, 3
pnL/c = n, n = 1, 2, 3 . Therefore
sin(pn/c)L = sin n = 0
(pn/c) [Bn] (L/2) = 1 [(L/ n)][ sin(n L1/L) - 0]
- 2 [L/ n ()][0 - sin(n L1/L)]
= (1 + 2)(L/ n) sin(n L1/L))

(16A)
(16B)

Special case: To study the principle take a simple case: L1 = L2 = L/2

Then the magnitude of strains 1 and 2 are equal to . and then (16A) becomes
(pn/c) [Bn] (L/2) = 2 [((L/ n))][ sin n/2]

(17)

[Bn] = 4/L[((L/n))2][ sin n/2] = 4 L/2 [1/ n2][ sin n/2]

(18)

The last term [sin n/2 ] = 0 for n = 2,4, even numbers (does not enter)
[Bn] = 1 for n = 1, 5, 9, 13
= -1 for n = 3, 7, 11
= (-1)(n-1)/2 , n = 1, 3, 5 .
Now the solution from (9) & (19) can be written as
u(x,t) = 4 L/ 2 (-1)(n-1)/2 [1/ n2].[sin(nx/L)] [Bn cos(nc/L)t]

(19)

(20)

n = 1, 3, 5 .
Important to note that (as was used in string)
(1) the selection of f(x) same as one associated with Bn and / or An may be sine or cos
as the case may be
(2) the recognition that cos 2 = 1 + 2cos2 = 1 - 2sin2
and hence
cos2 = ( 1 + cos 2 )/2 and sin2 = ( 1 - cos 2 )/2 and therefore
cos2a.d = /2 + sin 2a /4a and sin2a.d = /2 - sin 2a /4a and in the limit 0 to L, for
both cases, the 2nd term becomes zero and the 1st term becomes L/2 .
Seto Example 5: Free-free rod: At both ends it is compressed by forces F and released
suddenly. Study the resulting motion.
Initial conditions are:
(1) velocity v(x,0) = (x, 0) = 0 for all x and

(2) displacement
u(x,0) = (FL/AE)[L/2 x)
The general equation of motion:
u(x,t)= [cos(pn/c)x] [An sin pnt + Bn cos pnt]

(6)

u(x,t) =[sin (pn/c)x] (pn/c) [An sin pnt + Bn cos pnt]

(4)

Differentiating w.r.t time t, we get velocity

(x,t)= [sin (pn/c)x] pn [An cos pnt - Bn sin pnt]

(5)

Applying first initial condition, An = 0, resulting in

u(x,t)= [cos(pn/c)x] Bn cos pnt

(7)

Displacement
u(x,0) = (FL/AE)[L/2 x), as 0 referred at mid-span.
Strain
However it is clear, there is a constant compressive strain, (FL/AE) = -
u(x,0) =[sin (pn/c)x] (pn/c)] Bn = -

(8)

Multiply both sides by [sin (pn/c)x]dx and integrate with 0 to L.

[sin2(pn/c)x] (pn/c) Bn dx = - [sin (pn/c)x]dx
Noting pn/c = n/L
(pn/c)] BnL/2 = [/(pn/c)][cos(n/L)x] 0 to L =[-/(pn/c)][cos(n/L)x] 0 to L
Bn = 2[-L/ n22)][1 - cos(n] = 4[-L/ n22)], n = 1,3, 5,
u(x,t)= -4[L/ 2) [cos(nx/L)](1/ n2) cos (nc/L)t, n = 1, 3, 5,
Seto Example 6: Fixed-free rod: At free end it is pulled by a force F and released
suddenly. Study the resulting motion.
This is same as Example 5 except strain is in tenson.