Dept of Mineral Processing

VSKU Post-Graduate Centre, Nandihalli-Sandur, Karnataka, India

January 2012
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MODELING & SIMULATION

OF MINERAL PROCESSING SYSTEMS
- R.P.KING
Abridged Notes
Through Questions and Answers
by S.M.Shashidhar

1. Define mathematical modelling.

A model is a simplified representation of a
system at some particular point in time or space
intended to promote understanding of the real
system.
A mathematical model is the description of
a system using mathematical concepts
and
language. The process of developing a
mathematical model is termed mathematical
modeling.
Models describe our beliefs about how the
world functions. In mathematical modeling,
we translate those beliefs into the language of
mathematics.

2. What are the advantages

mathematical modelling?

of

1. Mathematics is a very precise language.

This helps us to formulate ideas and identify
underlying assumptions.
2. Mathematics is a concise language, with
well-defined rules for manipulations.
3. All the results that mathematicians have
proved over hundreds of years are at our
disposal.
4. Computers can be used to perform
numerical calculations.

most effective, is by digital computer. The

digital computer is programmed to mimic the
behavior of the actual plant and can provide a
description of what the plant will do and how it
will perform under a variety of circumstances.
4. What are the reasons for the widespread use of simulation?

Study the behavior of a system

without building it.
Results are accurate in general,
compared to analytical model.
Help to find un-expected
phenomenon, behavior of the system.
Easy to perform ``What-If'' analysis.

5. Give any two advantages of

simulation.
Help the design engineer to find the best
flowsheet.
Ensure that design specifications will be
met under all required
operating conditions.
Optimize the plant operation by achieving
best economic
combinations of grade and recovery.
Identify potential production bottlenecks.
6. What is a flow sheet?

3. Define simulation.
Simulation is any procedure that can be
used to model a process without actually
running it. There are several ways in which a
simulation can be achieved but, by far the

The
flowsheet
is
the
graphical
representation of the location of the unit
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operations in the plant together with the

network of pipes and conveyors that
transmit material between the units.
7. What is dynamic flow sheet?
The
flowsheet
is
the
graphical
representation of the location of the unit
operations in the plant together with the
network of pipes and conveyors that transmit
material between the units. Flowsheet if
drawn on a conventional drawing sheet, that
may be termed as static flow sheet. But,
when it is a drawn on the screen of a
computer using a simulator it can be called as
a dynamic flow sheet. The simulator mimics
the behavior of each of the unit operations
and synthesizes the overall performance of
the plant.

8. Show how a typical simulation

exercise results are plotted?

of that property are distributed among the

particles in the entire population. Perhaps the
best known and most widely used distribution
function is the particle size distribution
function P(dp) defined by P(dp) = mass
fraction of particles in the population with size
less than or equal to dp. The symbol dp
represents the size of a particle.
The function P(dp) has several
important general properties:
a) P(0) = 0
b) P() = 1
c) P(dp) increases monotonically from
0 to 1 as dp increases from 0 to .
Properties a) and b) are obvious because no
particle in the population can have a size less
than or equal to 0 and all the particles have a
size less than infinity. Property c) reflects the
fact that the fraction of the population having
size less than or equal to dp1 must contain at
least all those particles of size dp2 or smaller,
if dp2 _ dp1 .
11. Define Rosin-Rammler distribution
function.
Rosin-Rammler distribution function defined
by:
P(D) = 1 exp[ (D/D63.2 ) ]
D63.2 is the size at which the distribution
function has the value 0.632.
12. Define Gaudin_Meloy distribution
function.

9. What is an Ore Dressing Plant

Simulator?
An ore dressing plant simulator is a set of
computer programs that will give a detailed
numerical description of the operation of an
ore dressing plant. The simulator must be
provided with an accurate description of the
ore that is to be processed, a description of
the flowsheet that defines the process and an
accurate description of the operating behavior
of each unit operation that is included in the
flowsheet. The simulator uses these
ingredients to provide a description of the
operating plant.
10. Define distribution function.
The distribution function for a particular
property defines quantitatively how the values

Gaudin-Meloy distribution is one of the

truncated distributions. In the truncated
distributions, particle population will have
every particle smaller than a definite top size.
Populations of this kind occur for example
when a parent particle of size D is broken.
Clearly no progeny particle can have a size
larger than the parent so that the size
distribution of the progeny particle population
is truncated at the parent size D
Gaudin-Meloy distribution is defined by:
P(D) = 1 (1 D/D )n for DD
13. What is work index?
Work index is the comminution parameter
which expresses the resistance of the
material to the crushing and grinding.
. A reference condition of the reduction of 1
tonne of material from a very large size to a
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representative size of 100 microns is

considered. This reference energy is called
the work index of the material WI. The use of
the work index is to assess the energy
requirements
in
mineral
processing
operations.

d50 is clearly an indicator of the size at which

the classifier cuts the particle population.

14. What is the unit of work index?

KWhr/tonne is the unit of work index

The
classification
action
of
the
hydrocyclone is determined by the net effect
of the two competing forces that act on every
particle the outward centrifugal force and
the inward drag force.

15. What is importance of work index?

Work index is a term used to represent the
energy requirements of a mineral processing
operation. KWhr/tonne is the unit of work
index. It is desirable to have a low energy
consumption per tonnage of processing.
16. What is
method?

the

population

balance

Population balance method is the

methodology preferred in simulation of
mineral processing systems. This is capable
of accounting accurately for variations in
particle
size
and
mineral
liberation
characteristics together with other critical
properties such as density, mineralogical
texture, elemental composition, magnetic
susceptibility, energy content, etc.
17. Define a sharpness index in a
hydrocyclone.
The sharpness index of a hydrocyclone
defined by
SI = d25/d75
with e(d25) = 0.25 and e(d75) = 0.75.
SI has a value between 0 and 1 with
low values indicating poor and inefficient
separation while a value of 1.0 indicates
perfect classification at the cut size d50c

19. Which are the two competing

forces that act on the particle in a
hydrocyclone?

20. State the principle on which Karra

model is based.
Karra model is based is based on the
capacity of the screen to transmit undersize
material proportional to the screen area. The
basic capacity is modified by a number of
factors that allow for variations of the feed
material and the screen from the standard
test conditions.
21. Define deck position factor
screen model.

for a

The deck position factor K5 :Screens that

are lower down in the deck receive undersize
from the screen above and can handle less
material than a screen that takes fresh feed.
The capacity decreases with position
according to capacity factor K5.
K5 = 1.1 0.1S
where S represents the deck position; 1 for
top deck, 2 for 2nd deck and so on.
22. Define throw of a crusher.
The throw of the crusher is the distance
that moving jaw moves in going from OSS to
CSS.
Throw = OSS CSS.

18. Define d50 for a hydrocyclone.

The
important
parameter
that
characterizes the operation of the classifier is
the size at which e(dp) is 0.5. This size is
usually called the corrected d50c (corrected)
d50c and d50 are defined by the equations
e(d50c) = 0.5
and
c(d50) = 0.5

23. Define breakage function.

The breakage function is an important
descriptor of the comminution process and is
critically important for modeling purposes. It is
material specific and varies according to the
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precise nature of the comminution process. It

is a strong function of the impact energy that
is delivered during any impact.
24. What is aperture shape factor in a
screen model?
The aperture shape factor K8: The
standard screen has square openings and
other shapes influence the capacity as shown
below

25. State the value of aperture shape

factor for round and square
apertures.
Round : 0.8
Square: 1.0
26. Define near size capacity factor for
a vibrating screen.
The capacity of the screen is also affected
by the presence of near-size material in the
feed. The near-size material in the feed is in
the size range from 0.75hT to 1.25hT.
Considerable quantities of near-size material
will inhibit the passage of undersize material
through the screen.
Th = A.B.C.D.E.F.Gc X screen area
27. What is fly out?
Flyout is a graphical box used on a
flowsheet to display the important stream
properties. They standout on a flowsheet, to
draw the attention of the user.

29. What is over size factor in a screen

model?
The oversize factor K3 : A screen can
handle a greater tonnage of feed material that
contains large quantities of oversize material
because this material passes directly over the
screen and need not be transmitted through
the mesh. This is accounted for by the
oversize factor K3, which has a value of unity
for a standard feed containing 25% oversize
material. This factor increases very quickly as
the fraction of oversize increases and is given
by
K3 = 0.914 exp exp (4.22PF (h) 3.50)
30. What is half size factor in a screen
model?
The half-size factor K2 : Feed that
contains a large proportion of material that is
considerably smaller than the screen mesh
size will be handled more easily by a screen.
The standard condition is defined as feed
material having 40% smaller than one half of
the mesh size. If the feed has more than 40%
smaller than one half of the screen mesh
size, the half-size factor will exceed unity and
vice versa.
K2 = 2PF(0.5h) + 0.2
31. State any two physical properties
that influence the behaviour of
particles in OD equipment.
The two most important fundamental
properties are the size of the particle and its
mineralogical composition. Other properties
such as shape, specific gravity, fracture
energy, surface area, contact angle and so on
are also important and, in some ore dressing
operations, can be of overriding significance.

28. What information is displayed in a

fly out?

32. What is the use of particle size

distribution plot?

38. Draw the model icon of ball mill.

Particle size distribution plot is a visual

representation of the distribution of a
population of particles.
33. Give the chemical composition of
Pyrite.

39. Draw the model icon of Knelson

Concentrator.

Chemical composition of Pyrite is given by

FeS2
34. Give the sp. gr. Of Gold and Silver.
sp. gr. Of Gold 15.619.3
sp. gr. Of Silver 10.5
35. State the meaning of cut point in a
hydrocyclone.
This is the size of the particle that has a
50% chance of leaving in either the underflow
or overflow. The cut point is normally
represented by the symbol d50 and for
spherical particles
36. Draw the
crusher.

model

icon

of

jaw

40. What is the function of mixing unit?

The purpose of solid-liquid mixing is to
improve the mass transfer between solid and
liquid
phases.
This
objective is accomplished
by making the surface area
of all the solids available
for mass transfer. In a
typical
mineral extraction process
where minerals in ore
leach into a fluid medium,
such
as
in
uranium
processing, mineral value is extracted from
high solid concentration slurries.
41. Which are the model parameters
required for knelson concentrator?

37. Draw the model icon of stockpile.

PARAMETERS:
1... Maximum recovery of free gold as a
function of grain size (RM)
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2... Recovery of locked gold in the finest

size(RL)
3... Water content of the concentrate in kg
solid/liter of water
4... Number of concentrators in parallel
42. Which are the model parameters
required for a cone crusher?
PARAMETERS:
1...Closed side setting for cone crushers,
open side setting for gyratory or jaw crushers
2...Proportion of fines produced during
breakage events
3...Impact work index of the material
4...Factor for classification parameter k1
5...Factor for classification parameter k2

46. State the difference between feed

stream, internal stream and product
stream.
Feed stream is that which feeds the
material to the processing equipment. Internal
stream is that which is inside a flowsheet and
does not terminate at the ends. Product
stream is the outgoing stream of the
flowsheet..

43. State the meaning of P (D) = 1.0

In the truncated distributions, particle
population will have every particle smaller
than a definite top size. Populations of this
kind occur for example when a parent particle
of size D is broken. Clearly no progeny
particle can have a size larger than the parent
so that the size distribution of the progeny
particle population is truncated at the parent
size D
P (D) = 1.0

47. State the difference between

underflow
and
overflow
in
connection with a hydrocyclone.

44. What is the pulp phase in flotation?

The pulp phase is aerated so that bubbles
are formed continuously and rise through the
pulp as an upward moving cloud. The solid
particles are suspended throughout the pulp
by the circulation that is induced by the
agitator. At any point in the pulp the bubbles
are moving upward relative to the pulp at their
local rise velocity and the particles are
moving downward at their local settling
velocity.
45. What details are available in stream
properties?
Typical stream properties:
Solid flowrate, Water flowrate, Slurry flowrate,
Slurry volumetric flowrate, Percent solids by
mass, Percent solids by volume, Yield of
solids, Recovery of mineral gang , Grade of
mineral gang, Recovery of mineral Niqu,
Grade of mineral Niqu,
Recovery of Ni,
Grade of Ni , Simulated size distribution etc.

A hydrocyclone has two exits on the axis:

the smaller on the bottom (underflow or reject)
and a larger at the top (overflow or accept).
The underflow is generally the denser or
coarser fraction, while the overflow is the
lighter or finer fraction.
48. What is a progeny particle?
In the truncated distributions, particle
population will have every particle smaller
than a definite top size. Populations of this
kind occur for example when a parent particle
of size D is broken. The offsprings of the
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breakage of a parent particle results in

progeny particles.

49. What is the difference between

over-design and under-design in
plant flow sheet development?
To design in a manner that is excessively
complex or that exceeds usual standards.
Some physical system in general not
adequately in such a way as to support
proper and safe functioning of said item or
product thus making it insufficient, dangerous
to use.
50. State the function of coal washing
plant.
Coal washing plant serves several
purposes. One important purpose is to
increase the heating value of the coal by
mechanical removal of impurities. Run-ofmine coal from a modern mine may
incorporate as much as 60 percent reject
materials. Air pollution control often requires
partial removal of pyrites with the ash to
reduce the sulfur content of the coal.
51. Define terminal
hydrocyclone.

velocity

in

If a particle falls under gravity through a

viscous fluid it will accelerate for a short while
but as the particle moves faster the drag force
exerted by the fluid increases until the drag
force is just equal to the net gravitational
force less the buoyancy that arises from the
immersion of the particle in the fluid. The
terminal velocity vT can be evaluated by
balancing the drag and buoyancy forces.

52. State any two advantages of using

computer for simulation and
modelling.
The computer is an essential component of
simulation for two reasons: in most systems
of interest to the mineral processing engineer,
the individual unit operations are so complex
that they can only be usefully described in
mathematical terms if these can be translated
into computer code; in addition the systems of
interest reveal complex interactions and
interconnections among the individual units.
In many cases these complex interactions
cannot be described adequately by purely
mathematical methods and the ability of the
computer to transfer information from one
program model to another is exploited
effectively to simulate the transfer of actual
material, information or energy in a real
system. Purely mathematical formulations of
complex systems are really effective only
when the systems are linear in the
mathematical sense. Then the full power of
linear and matrix algebra can be brought to
bear on the problem. Regrettably most
systems of real interest are strongly nonlinear and it is necessary to use the heuristic
capabilities of the computer to take the place
of purely mathematical descriptions.
53. Define particle size in the context of
mineral processing.
In mineral processing technology an
indirect measure of size is used. The size of a
particle is defined as the smallest hole
opening in a square-mesh screen through
which the particle will fall. Sometimes for
particles that are too small to measure size
conveniently appropriate indirect measures
are used such as the terminal falling velocity
in a fluid of specified viscosity and density.
54. Why do the mesh sizes in the
standard sieve series vary in
geometric progression?
The mesh sizes in the standard sieve
series vary in geometric progression because
experience has shown that such a
classification will leave approximately equal
amounts of solids on each of the test sieves
in a screen analysis. Thus each mesh size is
a constant factor larger than the previous
one. The constant factor is usually 21/4 or 2.
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The mesh sizes in such a series will plot as

equidistant points on a logarithmic scale.
55. What do you mean by particle
classes?
The concept of the particle classes
effectively allows us to formulate models for
mineral processing systems by describing the
behavior of classes of particles rather than
the behavior of individual particles. A
representative size is associated with each
particle size class and it is assumed that all
particles in the class will behave in the
processing systems as if it had a size equal to
the representative size.
56. Why
the
ambiguous?

particle

size

is

The concept of particle size is

ambiguous. Particles that are of interest in
mineral processing do not have regular
definable shapes such as spheres and cubes.
The size of a spherical particle can be
unambiguously defined as the diameter.
Likewise the size of a cube can be defined
unambiguously as the length of a side but
another dimension could be equally well used
such as the longest diagonal. Particle size
clearly does not have a unique meaning even
for particles with regular shapes.
57. Show how a typical particle size
distribution of a population of
particles is presented.
The value of P can be measured
experimentally at a number of fixed sizes that
correspond to the mesh sizes of the set of
sieves that are available in the laboratory.
This data is usually presented in tabular form
showing mesh size against the fraction
smaller than that mesh.

58. Show the arrangement of class

sizes, representative sizes and
mesh sizes along the particle size
axis

59. What is the need

distribution function?

for

Joint

It often happens that more than one

property of the particle is significant in
influencing its performance in an ore dressing
operation. In that case it is essential to use a
description of the particle population that
takes all relevant properties into account. The
appropriate description is provided by the
joint distribution function.
60. What is screen capacity?
The traditional method of evaluation of
screen performance is the use of a capacity
measure. This represents the ability of the
screen to accept and handle the feed tonnage
of material. The most important assumption in
this approach is that the capacity of a screen
is directly proportional to its surface area so
that the basic capacity is specified at tons of
feed per hour per square meter of screen.
61. What is
efficiency?

Screen

transmission

Ideally the screen should be able to

transmit all of the undersize material in the
feed. In practice, however, not all of the
undersize material passes through the screen
and the fraction of the feed undersize that
does pass through is referred to as the
screen efficiency.
62. Illustrate
the
typical
particle
trajectories in a hydrocyclone

63. Explain the difference

modelling and simulation.

between

A model is a product (physical or digital) that

represents a system of interest. A model is
similar to but simpler than the system it
represents, while approximating most of the
same salient features of the real system as
close as possible. A good model is a judicious
trade-off between realism and simplicity. A
key feature of a model is manipulability.
-Modeling is the act of building a model.

-A simulation is the process of using a model

to study the behavior and performance of an
actual or theoretical system. In a simulation,
models can be used to study existing or
proposed characteristics of a system. The
purpose of a simulation is to study the
characteristics of a real-life or fictional system
by manipulating variables that cannot be
controlled in a real system. Simulations allow
evaluating a model to optimize system
performance or to make predictions about a
real system. Simulations are useful to study
properties of a model of a real-life system that
would otherwise be too complex, too
large/small, too fast/slow, not accessible, too
dangerous or unacceptable to engage. While
a model aims to be true to the system it
represents, a simulation can use a model to
explore states that would not be possible in
the
original
system.
-Simulating is the act of using a model for a
simulation.

8th Jan 2012

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