ZINC OXIDE PASTE

Activity 11
QUESTIONS:
1. How are pastes different from ointments?
Paste is a substance that behaves as a solid until a sufficiently large load or
stress is applied, at which point it flows like a fluid, paste typically consists of
a suspension of small particles in a background fluid, the small particles are
jammed together like grains of sand on a beach, forming a disordered, glassy
or amorphous structure, and giving pastes their solid-like character, in
pharmacology, paste is basic pharmaceutical form, it consists of fatty base
(e.g. Petroleum jelly) and at least 25% solid substance (e.g. Zinc oxide).
Ointments is an ointment is a viscous semisolid preparation used topically
on a variety of body surfaces. These include the skin and the mucus
membranes of the eye (an eye ointment), vagina, glans and nose, an
ointment may or may not be medicated.
2. What is the method of administering paste?
Levigation- In this process a paste is first formed by the addition of a suitable
nonsolvent to the solid material. Particle size reduction then is accomplished
by rubbing the paste in a mortar with a pestle or on an ointment sab using a
spatula. Levigation generally is used by the pharmacist to incorporate solids
into dermatological and ophthalmic ointments and suspensions.
3. What is the official paste in the market?
An official paste is the conventional Zinc Oxide Paste; another is
Triamcinolone Acetonide Dental Paste, for the specialized use the name
implies.

WHITE OINTMENT
Activity 12
QUESTIONS:
1. What are ointments? Give another terminology for ointment.
Ointments are semisolid preparations intended for external application to the
skin or mucous membranes; usually, but not always, they contain medicinal
substances. The types of ointment bases used as vehicles for drugs are
selected or designed for optimum delivery of the drugs and also to contribute
emolliency or other quasi-medicinal qualities. Ointment properties vary, since
they are designed for specific uses, ease of application or extent of
application.
The official definition of ointment in its present form was introduced in the
USP XV in 1955. The definition is broad and encompasses petrolatum, i.e.,
oleaginous bases, emulsion bases- either water in oil (W/O) or oil in water
(O/W) and the so called water-soluble bases.
In unofficial terms, oleaginous bases are described as ointments, but
emulsion bases may be termed creams or lotions. Either of these containing
large amounts of solids is termed a paste. All of these subclasses are defined
officially as ointments.
2. What are the different types of ointments? Describe each
1. Petrolatum, USP, is a purified mixture of semisolid hydrocarbons
obtained from petroleum. It is an unctuous mass, varying in color from
yellowish to light amber. It melts at 38C to 60C and may be used alone
or in combination with other agents as an ointment base. Petrolatum is
also known as yellow petrolatum and petroleum jelly. A commercial
product is Vaseline.
2. White Petrolatum, USP, is a purified mixture of semisolid hydrocarbons
from petroleum that has been wholly or nearly decolorized. It is used for
the same purpose as petrolatum, but because of its lighter color, it is
considered more esthetically pleasing by some pharmacists and patients.
White petrolatum is also known as white petroleum jelly. A commercial
product is White Vaseline.
3. Yellow Ointment, USP. Is the purified wax obtained from the
honeycomb of the bee Apis mellifera. The ointment is prepared by melting
the yellow wax on a water bath, adding the petrolatum until the mixture is
uniform, then cooling and stirring until congealed. Also called simple
ointment, it has a slightly greater viscosity than plain petrolatum.
4. White Ointment, USP. This ointment differs from yellow ointment by
substitution of white wax (bleached and purified yellow wax) and white
petrolatum in the formula.
5. Hydrophilic Petrolatum, USP, It is prepared by melting the stearyl
alcohol and white wax on a steam bath, adding the cholesterol with

stirring until dissolved, adding the white petrolatum, and allowing the
mixture to cool while stirring until congealed.
6. Lanolin, USP, (anhydrous lanolin) obtained from the wool of sheep (Ovis
aries), is a purified wax like substance that has been cleaned, deodorized,
and decolorized. It contains not more than 0.25% water. Additional water
may be incorporated into lanolin by mixing.
7. Modified Lanolin, USP, is lanolin processed to reduce the contents of
free lanolin alcohols and any detergent and pesticide residues.
8. Polyethylene Glycol Ointment, NF, PEG is a polymer of ethylene oxide
and water represented by the formula H(OCH2CH2)nOH, in which n
represents the average number of oxyethylene groups. The numeric
designations associated with PEGs refer to the average molecular weight
of the polymer. PEGs having average molecular weight below 600 are
clear, colorless liquids; those with molecular weight above 1,000 are
waxlike white materials; and those with molecular weight in between are
semisolids. The greater the molecular weight, the greater the viscosity.
The NF lists the viscosity of PEGs ranging from average molecular weight
of 200 to 8,000.

3. What are the different ointment bases? Describe each. Give examples.
HYDROCARBON BASES (OLEAGINOUS)
Example: White Petrolatum, White Ointment
1. Emollient
2. Occlusive
3. Non-water washable
4. Hydrophobic
5. Greasy
ABSORPTION BASES (ANHYDROUS)
Examples: Hydrophilic Petrolatum; Anhydrous Lanolin
1. Emollient
2. Occlusive
3. Absorb water
4. Anhydrous
5. Greasy
ABSORPTION BASES (W/O TYPE)
EXAMPLES: Lanolin, Cold Cream
1. Emollient
2. Occlusive
3. Contain water
4. Some absorb additional water
5. Greasy
WATER-REMOVABLE BASES (O/W TYPE)
Example: Hydrophilic Ointment

1.
2.
3.
4.

Water-washable
Nongreasy
Can be diluted with water
Nonocclusive

WATER-SOLUBLE BASES
Example: Polyethylene Glycol Ointment
1. Usually anhydrous
2. Water-soluble and washable
3. Nongreasy
4. Nonocclusive
5. Lipid-free

COLD CREAM
Activity 13
QUESTIONS:
1. Differentiate ointments and creams
Cream: a semisolid dosage form containing one or more drug
substances dissolved or dispersed in a suitable base. An emulsion
dosage form often containing more than 20% water and volatiles
and/or containing < 50% hydrocarbons, waxes, or polyols, as the
vehicle for the API. Creams are generally intended for external
application to the skin or mucous membranes.
Ointment: a semisolid preparation intended for external application to
the skin or mucous membrane. A semisolid dosage form, usually
containing < 20% water and volatiles and more than 50%
hydrocarbons, waxes, or polyols as the vehicle. This dosage form
generally is for external application to the skin or mucous membranes
2. Why are creams preferred to ointments?
Pharmaceutical creams are classified as water-removable bases and
are described under Ointments. In addition to ointment bases, creams
include a variety of cosmetic-type preparations.
3. What is the distinguishing characteristics of cold cream?
An emollient and ointment base. It is a W/O emulsion

ASPIRIN DIVIDED POWDERS

Activity 14
QUESTIONS:
1. What are the advantages of powders?
Powders possess advantages and thus still represent a portion of the
solid dosage forms currently being employed. These advantages are
flexibility in compounding, relatively good chemical stability and rapid
dispersion of ingredients because of the small particle
2. What are the disadvantages of preparing powders?
The chief disadvantages of powders as a dosage form are they are
time-consuming to prepare and they are not well suited for dispensing
the many unpleasant-tasting, hygroscopic, or deliquescent drugs. Bulk
powders have another serious disadvantage when compared with
divided and individually weighed powders: inaccuracy of dose. The
dose is influenced by many factors, including size of measuring spoon,
density of powder, humidity, degree of settling, fluffiness due to
agitation and personal judgment. Not only do patients measure varying
amounts of powder when using the same spoon but they often select
one differing in size form that specified by their physician.
3. What is the other term for divided powders?
Chartula / Chartulae or Paper tablets

TABLET TRITURATES
Activity 15
QUESTIONS:
1. Why are tablets popular as dosage forms?
Because of the advantages afforded both to the manufacturer
E.g.
a. Precision and low content variability of the unit dose
b. Low manufacturing cost
c. Easy to package and ship
d. Simple to identify
e. Easy to swallow
f. Appropriate for special release form
g. Best suited to large scale production
h. Most stable of all oral dosage forms
i. Essentially tamperproof
2. What are additives and components of tablets? Describe each.
a. Diluents or fillers, which add the necessary bulk to a formulation to
prepare tablets of the desired size
b. Binders or adhesives, which promote adhesion of the particles of
the formulation, allowing a granulation to be prepared and
maintaining the integrity of the final tablet
c. Disintegrants or disintegrating agents, which promote breakup of
the tablets after administration to smaller particles for ready drug
availability
d. Antiadherents, glidants, lubricants, or lubricating agents, which
enhance the flow of the material into the tablet dies, minimize wear
of the punches and dies, prevent fill material from sticking to the
punches and dies, and produce tablets with a sheen
e. Opaquants and colorants to make the appearance of the coated
tablets handsome and distinctive. Examples: opaquant,
titaniumdioxide; colorant, FD&C or D&C dyes
f. Sweeteners, flavors, and aromas to enhance the acceptability of the
tablet by the patient. Examples: sweeteners, saccharin; flavors and
aromas, vanillin
3. What are the general classes of tablets/ define each

GLYCERIN SUPPOSITORIES
Activity 16
QUESTIONS:
1. What are the different kinds of suppositories? Briefly describe each
2. What are the vehicles used in suppositories?
3. How do you administer suppositories?

COD LIVER OIL CAPSULE

Activity 17
QUESTIONS:
1. What are the types of gelatine used for the manufacture of capsules?
Describe each
2. Which has the faster dissolution rate, tablet or capsule, why?
3. What are the different methods of filling the capsule?