Fundamental Programming Concepts

Programming Techniques

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Course Approach
Learn by Doing
Hands-on programming
Activity-based Learning
Activities are designed to be difficult but doable
Activities have time limits to encourage wise use of
your time
Activities will force you to research on the required
knowledge
Resource-rich Environment
Use available resources (i.e., online/offline materials,
human resources, etc)
Encourage research and learning on your own
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Course Approach Contd

Teaching Method
This is not a lecture course!
Lessons serve only as guideposts and reminders, and are
not expected to be complete classes on these topics
Instructors serve mainly as facilitators and knowledge
coaches
Performance Evaluation
Each participant will be evaluated
Participate
Dont just listen to discussions, interact!
If in doubt, ask questions to clarify.
Spot problems and suggest alternatives or workarounds.
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Course Approach Contd..

Teamwork
Cooperate, coordinate, collaborate!
Work together to complete the deliverables for the
course.
Be resourceful
Dont ask for answers or solutions, find them!
The course environment provides all the necessary
tools and materials to learn, utilize them well.

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Contents
Algorithm
Benefits

of Algorithm
Approaches to Algorithm
Efficiency of Algorithm
Structure of Algorithm
Flowchart
Benefits of Flowchart
Concept of Testing
Unit Testing
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Objective
At the end of this section, you should be able to:
Describe and understand the need of
algorithms
Measure the efficiency of Algorithms
Understand the advantages & disadvantages
of Flowcharts
Work with Flowcharts
Describe the concepts of testing
Implement Unit Testing
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What is an Algorithm
is detailed sequence of actions to
perform or accomplish some task
An Algorithm is a solution to a problem that is
independent of any programming language.
Algorithm

An algorithm is:

A finite sequence of steps

Each step shall be explicit and unambiguous

For each input, it shall terminate in finite time with output

A program is an algorithm expressed in a programming

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language.

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Benefits of Algorithm
An

algorithm is a definite procedure for

performing certain task
It is written using simple English sentences
Facilitates

easy development of programs

Iterative refinement
Easy to convert it to a program
It helps resolving complex problems
Review is easier

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Analyzing An
Algorithm
There

are different approaches of

algorithm in analyzing a problem.
Empirical (a posteriori) approach
It is a method consisting of programming the
competing techniques and trying them on
different instances

Theoretical (a priori) approach

It determines mathematically the quantity of
resources needed by each algorithm as a
function of the size of the instances

Hybrid approach
Combination of Empirical and theoretical
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approach

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Algorithm
Complexities
Complexities

are the parameters to capture

the challenges or complications

Few

of the algorithm complexities are

captured based on :
Time Complexities
Is the amount of computer time it needs to run to
completion

Space Complexities
Is the amount of memory it needs to run to completion
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Structure of an
Algorithm
Algorithm

is Defined in a standard structure

Most of the time it has the following contents

Begin
Step
Control
Comments
Variables
Input / Output
Exit

Algorithm Always Begins with Begin or Start

Algorithm Ends with End or Exit or Stop
Rest of the structure contents are used depending on the
need
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Structure of an Algorithm - Example 1

Example of an algorithm to find the sum of two numbers
Algorithm Starting
point

num1, num2 are the

variables declared
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Begin
Input num1,num2
Sum=num1+num2
Print Sum is= ,Sum
End

End of Algorithm
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Input is used to
perform read values to
num1 & num2
print is used to
print the output
(result)
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Algorithm concepts
There

are three types of algorithm concepts

Sequential
Modules are executed in some sequence/ in a linear
fashion

Selection (Single & Multiple)

Single Alternative
Having a single condition criteria to qualify any test
If( condition is true) then statement is executed

Multi Alternative
Having a multiple conditions to qualify any test

Iterational
Looping statements
Repeat step m thru n ,N times

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Sequential Algorithm Example 2

Example of an algorithm to read marks of three subjects and to find the
average scored by the student

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Begin
Print Enter Marks of 3 subjects
Input Marks1, Marks2, Marks3
AVG = (Marks1+Marks2+Marks3) / 3
Output Average Marks =, AVG
End

Implementation of
Sequential
Algorithm Method
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Output:

Enter Marks of 3 subjects

60
70
80
Average Marks = 70
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Single Alternative Algorithm

Example 3
Example of an algorithm to read marks of three subjects. Find the average
scored by the student, and print pass if the score is more than 50
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Begin
Print Enter Marks of 3 subjects
Input Marks1, Marks2, Marks3
Avg = (marks1+marks2+marks3)/3
If (Avg >= 50) Then Print Passed
End

Implementation of
single Alternative
algorithm
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Output:

Enter Marks of 3 subjects

60
70
80
Passed
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Multiple Alternative algorithm

Example 4
Example of an algorithm to read marks of three subjects. Find the average
scored by the student, and print Pass if the score is more than 50
otherwise print Fail

Example:

1.
2.
3.
4.

5.

Begin
Print Enter Marks of 3 subjects
Input marks1, marks2,marks3
Avg=marks1+marks2+marks3)/3
If (Avg >= 50) Then
Print Passed
Else
Print Failed
End

Implementation of
Multiple
Alternative
algorithm
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Output:

Enter Marks of 3 subjects

40
30
30
Failed
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Algorithm Iteration Example 5

Example of an algorithm to read marks of three subjects. Find the average scored
by the student, and print Pass if the score is more than 50 otherwise print Fail for
N number of Students
Begin
1. Print Enter number of students
2. Input N
3. Repeat step 4 thru step 7, N TIMES
4. Print Enter Marks of 3 subjects
5. Input marks1, marks2, marks3
6. Avg = (marks1+marks2+marks3)/3
7. If (Avg >= 50) Then
Print Passed
Else
Print Failed
End-if
8. End
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Implementation
of Iteration
Algorithm

Enter number of Students 2

Enter Marks of 3 subjects
30 40 50
Failed
Enter Marks of 3 subjects
60 60 70
Passed
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Flowcharts
is a graphic representation of the logic
or steps in a program or system
The flowchart can be defined as a diagram of the
problem solving steps in a process
A flowchart is a schematic representation of a
Flowchart

process.

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Flowchart depictions
Each symbol depicts a
Start End points
process
The start point, end points, Processing Logic
inputs, outputs, etc are
represented by a graphical Input/Output
image
Any flow chart should
Decisions
have
Start in the beginning
Connectors
End to the end of the
flow chart
Flow Line
Depending on the
Loops
requirement, rest of the
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are used
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Flowchart Example 1
Example of Flow chart to read marks of three subjects. Find the average scored
by the student, and print Pass if the score is more than 50 otherwise print Fail
for N number of Students
Start
Enter m1,m2,m3
Avg=m1+m2+m3/3

Avg>50
Fail

pass

end
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Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantage

Disadvantage

Communication

Complex logic

Effective analysis

Alterations and Modifications

will be difficult

Proper documentation

The essentials of what is done

can easily be lost in the
technical details of how it is
done

Efficient Coding
Proper Debugging
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Testing
is a process used to help identify the
correctness, completeness and quality of
developed computer software.
Testing is the process of running a system with
the intention of finding errors
It enhances the integrity of a system by detecting
deviations in design and errors in the system.
It aims at detecting error-prone areas, which helps
in the prevention of errors in a system.
Testing also adds value to the product by
conforming to the user requirements.
It is Oriented to 'detection'
Testing

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Unit Testing
A

unit test is a method of testing the

correctness of a particular module of source code
testing is also known as Component/
Module/ Program Testing

Unit
It

is the most 'micro' scale of testing

The

goal of unit testing is to isolate each part of

the program and show that the individual parts
are correct

Most

thorough look at detail

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Unit Testing
Entry criteria:
After completion of each class/method, unit
testing should be done.
Exit criteria:
Functionality is achieved
All requirements tested & verified
Result:
No Incorrect data, or data recorded in the wrong
field, account or database
No side-effects or bugs remain vis--vis
functionality
No errors in calculations, formulas or rounding
No
data
corruption errors
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Test Cases
case is a set of test inputs, execution
conditions, and expected results developed for a
particular objective, such as to exercise a particular
program path or to verify compliance with a specific
requirement

Test

Test

cases are written for each unit in the main

program

program will execute all the test cases and record

the results .it can be called as a test file.

Test

cases will have Description,

inputs, expected25
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Test Case - Example

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

9.

Begin
Print Enter number of students
Input N
Repeat step 4 thru step 8, N TIMES
Print Enter Marks of 3 subjects
Input marks1, marks2, marks3
Avg = (marks1+marks2+marks3)/3
If (Avg >= 50) Then
Enter number of Students 2
Print Passed
Enter Marks of 3 subjects
Else
30 40 50
Print Failed
Failed
End-if
Enter Marks of 3 subjects
End

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60 60 70
Passed

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Example-test cases
Step
Number

Action /
Description

Input Data

Expected Result

1.001

Enter character

Character : X

Invalid input

1.002

Enter negative
number

Number : X

Negative input

1.003

Enter a special
character

Special character : Invalid input

X

1.004

Enter number

Number : X

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Correct Input,
should continue the
next stage
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Key Points
is detailed sequence of actions to
perform to accomplish some task
Algorithms facilitates easy development of
programs
Algorithm

Flowchart is a graphic representation of the logic or steps in

a program or system

Testing

is the process of running a system with

the intention of finding errors.

Unit testing is used to isolate each part of the program and

show that the individual parts are correct.

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Programming Life cycle

Programming Techniques

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Contents
Programming
Programming

Life Cycle
Types of Programming Design

Top-Down Approach
Bottom-Up Approach
Linear Programming
Structured Programming

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Objectives
At the end of this section, you should be able
to:
Understand what is programming
Work with program life cycle
Understand Different Types of Programming
Design

Top-Down Approach
Bottom-Up Approach
Linear Programming
Structured Programming

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Programming
A

program is an algorithm expressed in a

programming language

The

act of creating software or some other set

of instructions for a computer

Computer

programming is the craft of

implementing one or more interrelated
algorithms using a particular programming
language to produce a concrete computer
program

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Program Development Life cycle.

WHAT
Requirement
s
Gathering,
Problem
definition

HOW
Analysis
& Design

DO IT
Build

TEST
Testing

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Deploy
&
Maintai
n
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USE

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Program Design Approaches

Different

Types of Programming
Design Approach are

Top- down programming

Bottom-up programming
Linear programming
Structured programming

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Top down Design

Based on the fact that large problem become more manageable if

they are divided into a number of smaller and simpler tasks which
can be tackled separately.
Top down design approach is performed in a special way.
The main program is written first. It is tested before sub-programs
are written.
To do this, actual sub programs are replaced with stubs.
The stubs tests to see if the data is passed correctly. After the
main program is written and checked, each module is written and
tested in turn.
If the modules run properly, then it is tested with the main
program. If the module and the main run properly then the next
module is written and checked and so

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Bottom Up Design

Write the most basic subroutines in the hierarchy first and

then use them to make more sophisticated subroutines

The pure bottom-up approach is generally not recommended

because it is difficult to anticipate which low subroutines will
be needed for any particular program

In this approach it is usually assumed that the basic routines

created will be general enough to be used more than once

This approach is designed to generate reusable code

This is more like a basic instruction in the programming

language than a large scale program component.

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Linear Programming

Straightforward programming in sequential manner

is Linear Programming
This does not involve any decision making.
General model of the linear program is :
Read a data value.
Compute an intermediate result.
Use the intermediate result to compute the
desired answer.
Print the answer.
Stop

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Structured Programming
The

technique for writing a program using

decisions, branching points, loops, etc. is
called structured programming.

It

in turn result in more complex programs.

There

are procedures that can be used for

writing those complex programs that makes
them much less error prone and much easier
in debug.

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Program Life Cycle

Req.
Req.
Gathering
Gathering
Algorithm
Algorithm
Test
Test Plan
Plan
Coding
Coding

Pseudo code

Source Code +
Test Script

Compilation
Compilation

Object code
Linking
Linking

Libraries

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Debugging
Debugging //
Testing
Testing

Executable
File

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Program Life cycle

Requirement

Gathering

Gathering all the required information to understand

the problem in hand
Algorithm

An simple English, language independent pseudo

code is generated.
Test

Plan

Gives a plan to test the solution. It involves test

cases, test scripts and test data

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Program Life cycle

Coding

Enter the source code using some standard editor,

care must be taken for proper formatting, indenting
and using comment entries.
Compilation

The compiler program scans the source code for

SYNTAX errors, and if it does not find any errors, it
converts the source code to OBJECT code.
Link

The object files are combined with other library files

to create the EXECUTABLE file.

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Program Life Cycle

Library

It is a catalogue of previously developed objects.

They contain procedures for input, output, math, etc.
A user can create their own libraries
Testing

Synthesize test data such that it will evaluate the

different criteria. The testing should be NEGATIVE
testing.
Debugger

It is a very useful tool to test the program as the

intermediate results, new values of the variables, etc
are visible

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Key Points
A

program is an algorithm expressed in a

programming language
Programming is the craft of implementing one
or more interrelated algorithms using a
particular programming language
Large problem become more manageable if
they are divided into a number of smaller and
simpler tasks which can be tackled separately.
Straightforward programming in sequential
manner is Linear Programming

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43

Questions and
Comments

?
?
?

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