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Natural fiber-reinforced polymer composites

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Proc. Pakistan Acad. Sci. 44(2):129-144.2007

Saira Taj et al.

129
Review

NATURAL FIBER-REINFORCED POLYMER COMPOSITES

Saira Taj1, Munawar Ali Munawar2, and Shafiullah Khan3
1,3

Applied Chemistry Research Centre, PCSIR Labs Complex, Lahore-54600, Pakistan, and 2Institute of Chemistry,
University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan
Received April 2006, accepted March 2007
Communicated by Dr. Shafiq A. Khan
Summary: Natural fibers have been used to reinforce materials for over 3,000 years. More recently
they have been employed in combination with plastics. Many types of natural fibers have been investigated for use in plastics including Flax, hemp, jute, straw, wood fiber, rice husks, wheat, barley, oats,
rye, cane (sugar and bamboo), grass reeds, kenaf, ramie, oil palm empty fruit bunch, sisal, coir, water
hyacinth, pennywort, kapok, paper-mulberry, raphia, banana fiber, pineapple leaf fiber and papyrus.
Natural fibers have the advantage that they are renewable resources and have marketing appeal. The
Asian markets have been using natural fibers for many years e.g., jute is a common reinforcement in
India. Natural fibers are increasingly used in automotive and packaging materials. Pakistan is an agricultural country and it is the main stay of Pakistans economy. Thousands of tons of different crops are
produced but most of their wastes do not have any useful utilization. Agricultural wastes include wheat
husk, rice husk, and their straw, hemp fiber and shells of various dry fruits. These agricultural wastes
can be used to prepare fiber reinforced polymer composites for commercial use. This report examines
the different types of fibers available and the current status of research. Many references to the latest
work on properties, processing and application have been cited in this review.

Introduction
Composites are materials that comprise
strong load carrying material (known as reinforcement) imbedded in weaker material
(known as matrix). Reinforcement provides
strength and rigidity, helping to support structural load. The matrix, or binder (organic or inorganic) maintains the position and orientation
of the reinforcement. Significantly, constituents
of the composites retain their individual, physical and chemical properties; yet together they
produce a combination of qualities which individual constituents would be incapable of producing alone [1].
Wood [2] is natural three-dimensional
polymeric composite and consists primarily of
cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. In addition,
wood
is an original and natural composite. The
__________________________
E-mail: [email protected]
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biological world offers other examples of composites in bone and teeth, which are essentially
composed of hard inorganic crystals in a matrix
of tough organic collagen.
Historical examples of composites [3] are
abundant in literature. Significant examples
include the use of reinforcing mud walls in
houses with bamboo shoots, glued laminated
wood by Egyptians (1500 BC) and laminated
metals in the forging of swords (1800 AD). In
the 20th century, modern composites were used
in 1930s, where glass fibers reinforced resins.
Boats and aircrafts were built out of these glass
composites, commonly called fiberglass. Since
the 1970s, the application of composites has
widely increased due to development of new
fibers such as carbon, boron and aramids, and
new composite systems with matrices made of
metal and ceramics.

130

Natural fiber-reinforced composites

Types of Composites
For the sake of simplicity, however, composites can be grouped [4] into categories based
on the nature of the matrix each type possesses.
Methods of fabrication also vary according to
physical and chemical properties of the matrices and reinforcing fibers.
Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs)
The most common advanced composites
are polymer matrix composites. These composites consist of a polymer thermoplastic or thermosetting reinforced by fiber (natural carbon or
boron). These materials can be fashioned into a
variety of shapes and sizes. They provide great
strength and stiffness along with resistance to
corrosion. The reason for these being most common is their low cost, high strength and simple
manufacturing principles.
Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs)
Metal matrix composites, as the name implies, have a metal matrix. Examples of matrices in such composites include aluminum, magnesium and titanium. The typical fiber includes
carbon and silicon carbide. Metals are mainly
reinforced to suit the needs of design. For example, the elastic stiffness and strength of metals can be increased, while large co-efficient of
thermal expansion, and thermal and electrical
conductivities of metals can be reduced by the
addition of fibers such as silicon carbide.
Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs)
Ceramic matrix composites have ceramic
matrix such as alumina, calcium, aluminosilicate reinforced by silicon carbide. The advantages of CMC include high strength, hardness,
high service temperature limits for ceramics,
chemical inertness and low density.

Naturally resistant to high temperature,

ceramic materials have a tendency to become
brittle and to fracture. Composites successfully
made with ceramic matrices are reinforced with
silicon carbide fibers. These composites offer
the same high temperature tolerance of super alloys but without such a high density. The brittle
nature of ceramics makes composite fabrication difficult. Usually most CMC production
procedures involve starting materials in powder
form.
There are four classes of ceramics matrices:
glass (easy to fabricate because of low softening temperatures, include borosilicate and alumino silicates), conventional ceramics (silicon
carbide, silicon nitride, aluminum oxide and
zirconium oxide are fully crystalline), cement
and concreted carbon components.
Carbon-carbon composites (CCMs)
CCMs use carbon fibers in a carbon matrix. Carbon-carbon composites are used in very
high temperature environments of up to 6000
oF, and are twenty times stronger and thirty
times lighter than graphite fibers.
Constituents of composites
1.
2.

Matrices
Reinforcing Fibers

Matrices
The role of matrix in a fiber-reinforced
composite is to transfer stress between the fibers, to provide a barrier against an adverse
environment and to protect the surface of the
fibers from mechanical abrasion. The matrix
plays a major role in the tensile load carrying
capacity of a composite structure. The binding
agent or matrix in the composite is of critical
importance. Four major types of matrices have

131
been reported: Polymeric, Metallic, Ceramic
and Carbon. Most of the composites used in the
industry today are based on polymer matrices.
Polymer resins have been divided broadly into
two categories: Thermosetting and Thermoplastics.
Thermosetting
Thermoset [5] is a hard and stiff crosslinked material that does not soften or become
moldable when heated. Thermosets are stiff and
do not stretch the way that elastomers and thermoplastics do. Several types of polymers have
been used as matrices for natural fiber composites. Most commonly used thermoset polymers
are epoxy resins and other resins (Unsaturated
polyester resins (as in fiberglass) Vinyl Ester,
Phenolic Epoxy, Novolac and Polyamide) [13].
Unsaturated polyesters [6] are extremely
versatile in properties and applications and have
been a popular thermoset used as the polymer
matrix in composites. They are widely produced industrially as they possess many advantages compared to other thermosetting resins
including room temperature cure capability,
good mechanical properties and transparency.
The reinforcement of polyesters with cellulosic
fibers has been widely reported. Polyester-jute
[7,8], Polyester-sisal [9], polyester-coir [10]
polyester-banana-cotton [11], polyester-straw
[12], polyester-pineapple leaf [13], and polyester-cotton-kapok [14], are some of the promising systems.
Thermoplastics
Thermoplastics [5] are polymers that require heat to make them processable. After
cooling, such materials retain their shape. In
addition, these polymers may be reheated and
reformed, often without significant changes in
their properties. The thermoplastics which have

Saira Taj et al.

been used as matrix for natural fiber reinforced

composites are as follows:
High density polyethene (HDPE)
Low density polyethene (LDPE)
Chlorinated polyethylene (CPE)
Polypropylene (PP)
Normal polystyrene (PS)
Poly (Vinyl chloride) PVC)
Mixtures of polymers
Recycled Thermoplastics

[15, 16]
[17, 18]
[19]
[16, 20, 21]
[22, 23]
[24, 25]
[26]
[27, 28]

Only those thermoplastics are useable for

natural fiber reinforced composites, whose processing temperature (temperature at which fiber
is incorporated into polymer matrix) does not
exceed 230C. These are, most of all, polyolefines, like polyethylene and polypropylene.
Technical thermoplastics, like polyamides, polyesters and polycarbonates require processing
temperatures > 250C and are therefore not useable for such composite processing without fiber degradation.
Reinforcing fibers
The three most common types of reinforcing fibers include fiberglass, carbon and Aramid.
Carbon fibers
Carbon fibers [29] are used for reinforcing
certain matrix materials to form composites.
Carbon fibers are unidirectional reinforcements
and can be arranged in such a way in the composite that it is stronger in the direction, which
must bear loads. The physical properties of carbon fiber reinforced composite materials depend considerably on the nature of the matrix,
the fiber alignment, the volume fraction of the
fiber and matrix, and on the molding conditions.
Several types of matrix materials such as glass
and ceramics, metal and plastics have been used
as matrices for reinforcement by carbon fiber.

Natural fiber-reinforced composites

Carbon fiber composites, particularly

those with polymer matrices, have become the
dominant advanced composite materials for
aerospace, automobile, sporting goods and other applications due to their high strength, high
modulus, low density, and reasonable cost for
application requiring high temperature resistance as in the case of spacecrafts.
Glass fibers
Glass fibers are the most common of all
reinforcing fibers for polymeric (plastic) matrix
composites (PMCs). The principal advantages
of glass fiber are low cost, high tensile strength,
high chemical resistance and excellent insulating properties. The two types of glass fibers
commonly used in the fiber reinforced plastics
industries are E-glass and S-glass. Another type
known as C-glass is used in chemical applications requiring greater corrosion resistance to
acids than is provided by E-glass.
Kevlar fibers
Kevlar belongs to a group of highly crystalline aramid (aromatic amide) fibers that have
the lowest specific gravity and the highest tensile strength to weight ratio among the current
reinforcing fibers. They are being used as reinforcement in many marine and aerospace applications.
Boron fiber
The most prominent feature of boron fiber
is their extremely high tensile modulus. Boron
fibers offer excellent resistance to buckling,
which in turn contributes to high compressive
strength for boron fiber reinforced composites.
Natural Fibers
The use of natural fiber for the reinforcement of the composites has received increasing
attention both by the academic sector and the in-

132
dustry. Natural fibers have many significant advantages over synthetic fibers. Currently, many
types of natural fibers [30] have been investigated for use in plastics including flax, hemp,
jute straw, wood, rice husk, wheat, barley, oats,
rye, cane (sugar and bamboo), grass, reeds, kenaf, ramie, oil palm empty fruit bunch, sisal,
coir, water, hyacinth, pennywort, kapok, paper
mulberry, raphia, banana fiber, pineapple leaf
fiber and papyrus. Thermoplastics reinforced
with special wood [2] fillers are enjoying rapid
growth due to their many advantages; lightweight reasonable strength and stiffness. Some
plant proteins are interesting renewable materials, because of their thermoplastic properties.
Wheat gluten [31] is unique among cereal and
other plant proteins in its ability to form a cohesive blend with viscoelastic properties once
plasticized. For these reasons, wheat gluten has
been utilized to process edible or biodegradable
films or packing materials. Hemp [32] is a bast
lingocellulosic fiber, comes from the plant Cannabis sativa and has been used as reinforcement
in biodegradable composites.
Composites based on biologically degradable polyester amide and plant fiber (flax and
cottons) [33] with good mechanical properties,
such as sufficient water resistance and biodegradability, have also been investigated.
Kenaf, Hibiscus cannabinus L, a member
of hibiscus family is also a biodegradable and
environmentally friendly crop. It has been found
to be an important source of fiber for composites
and other industrial applications. Aziz et al. [6]
studied the mechanical properties of composites
manufactured from polyester resin with Kenaf
fiber that blows to a height of at least 10 meter. Traditionally, hemp has been used to make
ropes but these days its fiber is used to make
items such as clothing, toys and shoes. The fiber
is fully biodegradable, is non-toxic and may be
recycled.

133

Saira Taj et al.

Flax fibers [34] are potentially outstanding

reinforcing fillers in thermoplastic biocomposites. These biocomposites could have a great
potential in lowering the usage of petroleumbased plastics. Automotive, building and appliance industries are increasing the utilization of
flax fibers day by day due to cost saving, nonabrasiveness and the green movement. Biocomposites containing thermoplastics and modified
flax fiber have mechanical properties comparable with those of glass fiber-based thermoplastic (LLDPE/ HDPE) composites. Bos et al. (35)
have investigated the mechanical properties of
flax/polypropylene composites, manufactured
both with batch kneading and an extrusion process, and compared with the properties of natural fiber mat thermoplastic composites.

America and has been used to develop bamboo reinforced thermosetting plastic (epoxy
and polyester) [43,44]. Thwe et al. [45] have
investigated the effect of environmental aging
on the mechanical properties of bamboo-glass
fiber reinforced polymer matrix hybrid composite. Okubo et al. [46] have fabricated bamboo
fiber eco-composites for ecological purposes
with the conventional hot press method. They
studied their static strength and internal state
after their fabrication, and concluded that high
weight content of bamboo fiber enabled the
bamboo composites to increase their strength in
the most effective way, when the bamboo fiber
was modified into the cotton shape.

Yang et al. (36-37) have studied the effect of compatibilizing agents on the mechanical properties and morphology of thermoplastic
polymer composites filled with rice husk flour.
As the filler loading increases, the composites
made without any compatibilizing agent show
decreased tensile strength and more brittleness,
but greatly improved mechanical properties by
incorporation of the compatibilizing agent. The
poor interfacial binding between the filler and
the polymer matrix causes the composites to
have decreased tensile strength, but the tensile
strength and modulus improve with the addition of compatibilizing agent. Wheat straw has
been used for making composites, panel boards
and anion exchangers where the straw is used
in powder form rather than in the fibrous form.
A limited number of studies have reported the
use of wheat straw fibers for production of
composites (38-39). Panthapulakkal et al. [40]
has processed and characterized wheat straw
fibers to evaluate their potential as reinforcing
material for thermoplastic composites. Jute is
also one of the most common agro fibers used
as a reinforcing component for thermoplastics
and thermosetting matrices [41,42]. Bamboo is
an abundant natural source in Asia and South

Natural fibers [4] are generally lignocellulosic in nature, consisting of helically wound
cellulose microfibrils in a matrix of lignin and
hemicellulose. According to a Food and Agricultural Organization survey, Tanzania and
Brazil produce the largest amount of sisal. Henequen is grown in Mexico. Abaca and hemp are
grown in the Philippines. The largest producers
of jute are India, China, and Bangladesh. Presently, the annual production of natural fibers
in India is about 6 million tons as compared to
worldwide production of about 25 million tons.

Natural fibers and countries of origin

Table 1. Fibers and countries of origin.

Flax
Hemp
Sun Hemp
Ramie
Jute

:
:
:
:
:

Kenaf

Roselle

Sisal

Abaca
Coir

:
:

Borneo
Yugoslavia, China
Nigeria, Guyana, Siera Leone, India
Hondurus, Mauritius
India, Egypt, Guyana, Jamaica, Ghana,
Malawi, Sudan, Tanzania
Iraq, Tanzania, Jamaica, South Africa,
Cuba, Togo
Borneo, Guyana, Malaysia, Sri Lanka,
Togo, Indonesia, Tanzania
East Africa, Bahamas, Antiqua, Kenya,
Tanzania, India
Malaysia, Uganda, Philippines, Bolivia
India, Sri Lanka, Philippines, Malaysia

134

Natural fiber-reinforced composites

Table 2. Annual production of natural fibers and sources.

Fiber Source

World
Production
103 Tons

Origin

Fiber Source

World
Production
103 tons

Origin

Abaca

70

Leaf

Nettles

Abundant

Stem

Bamboo

10,000

Stem

Oil Palm Fruit

Abundant

Fruit

Banana

200

Stem

Palm rah

Abundant

Stem

Broom

Abundant

Stem

Ramie

100

Stem

Coir

100

Fruit

Roselle

250

Stem

Cotton Lint

18,500

Stem

Rice Husk

Abundant

Fruit/grain

Elephant Grass

Abundant

Stem

Rice Straw

Abundant

Stem

Flax

810

Stem

Sisal

380

Stem

Hemp

215

Stem

Sun Hemp

70

Stem

Jute

2,500

Stem

Wheat Straw

Abundant

Stem

Kenaf

770

Stem

Wood

1,750,000

Stem

Linseed

Abundant

Fruit

Chemical composition of natural fiber

The chemical composition of natural fibers
varies depending upon the type of fibers. The
chemical composition (Table 3) as well as the
structure of the plant fibers is fairly complicated
[4]. Plant fibers are a composite material designed by nature. The fibers are basically a rigid, crystalline cellulose microfibril-reinforced
amorphous lignin and/or with hemicellulosic
matrix. Most plant fibers, except for cotton, are
composed of cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin,
waxes, and some water-soluble compounds,
where cellulose, hemicelluloses, and lignin are
the major constituents [30]. The properties of

the constituents contribute to the overall properties of the fiber. Hemicellulose is responsible
for the biodegradation, microabsorption and
thermal degradation of the fiber as it shows
least resistance, whereas lignin is thermally stable but prone to UV degradation. The percentage composition of each of these components
varies for different fibers. Generally, the fiber
contains 60-80 % cellulose, 5-20 % lignin and
up to 20 % moisture. The cell wall of the fibers
undergoes pyrolysis with increasing processing
temperature and contributes to char formation.
These charred layers help to insulate the lignocellulose from further thermal degradation.

135

Saira Taj et al.

Mechanical properties of natural fibers

lower when compared to those of the most

widely used competing reinforcing glass fibers
(Table 4). However, because of their low density, the specific properties (property-to-density
ratio), strength, and stiffness of plant fibers are
comparable to the values of glass fibers [47].

The mechanical properties and physical

properties of natural fibers vary considerably
depending on the chemical and structural composition, fiber type and growth conditions. Mechanical properties [4] of plant fibers are much

Table 3. Chemical composition, moisture content, and microfibrillar angle of vegetable fibers.

Flax

71

18.6-20.6

2.2

2.3

Moisture
Content
(Wt %
8-12

Hemp

70-74

17.9-22.4

3.7-5.7

0.9

6.2-12

0.8

2.6.2

Jute

611-71.5

13.6-20.4

12-13

0.2

12.5-13.7

0.5

Kenaf

45-57

21.5

8-13

3-5

Ramie

68.6-76.2

13.1-16.7

0.6-0.7

1.9

7.5-17

0.3

7.5

Nettle

86

Sisal

66-78

10-14

10-14

10-22

Henequen

77.6

4-8

13.1

PALF

70-82

Banana

63-64

Abaca

56-63

Fiber

Cellulose
(Wt %)

Hemicelluloses
(Wt %)

Lignin
(Wt %)

Pectin
(Wt %)

Waxes

Microfibrillar
Angle (Deg)

1.7

5-10

11-17
10

5-12.7
10

Oil palm EFB

65
Oil palm Mesocarp 60

11.8

5
12-13

10-22

14

10-12
1

5-10

19
11

Cotton

85-90

5.7

Coir

32-43

0.15-0.25

Cereal Straw

38-45

15-31

42
46
0-1

7.85-8.5

40-45

3-4

12-20

0.6

-30-49

Natural fiber-reinforced composites

Advantages of natural fiber

Natural fibers, as reinforcement, have recently attracted the attention of researchers because of their advantages over other established
materials. They are environmentally friendly,
fully biodegradable, abundantly available, renewable and cheap and have low density. Plant
fibers are light compared to glass, carbon and
aramid fibers. The biodegradability of plant fibers can contribute to a healthy ecosystem while
their low cost and high performance fulfils the
economic interest of industry.
When natural fiber-reinforced plastics are
subjected, at the end of their life cycle, to combustion process or landfill, the released amount
of CO2 of the fibers is neutral with respect to the
assimilated amount during their growth [47].
The abrasive nature of fiber is much lower which
leads to advantages in regard to technical process
and recycling process of the composite materi-

136

als in general. Natural fiber-reinforced plastics,

by using biodegradable polymers as matrices,
are the most environmental friendly materials,
which can be composed at the end of their life
cycle. Natural fiber composites are used in place
of glass mostly in non-structural applications. A
number of automotive components previously
made with glass fiber composites are now being
manufactured using environmentally friendly
composites [48]. Although natural fibers and
their composites are environmental friendly and
renewable (unlike traditional sources of energy,
i.e., coal, oil and gas), these have several bottlenecks. These have: poor wetability, incompatibility with some polymeric matrices and high
moisture absorption [49]. Composite materials
made with the use of unmodified plant fibers
frequently exhibit unsatisfactory mechanical
properties. To overcome this, in many cases,
a surface treatment or compatibilizing agents
need to be used prior to composite fabrication.
The properties can be improved both by physi-

137
cal treatments (cold plasma treatment, corona
treatment) and chemical treatments (maleic
anhydride organosilanes, isocyanates, sodium
hydroxide permanganate and peroxide) [50].
Mechanical properties [51] of natural fibers
are much lower than those of glass fibers but
their specific properties, especially stiffness, are
comparable to the glass fibers.
Chemical modification of natural fibers
One of the major problems associated with
the use of natural fibers in composites is their
high moisture sensitivity leading to severe reduction of mechanical properties and delamination. The reduction in mechanical properties
may be due to poor interfacial bonding between
resin matrices and fibers. It is therefore necessary to modify the fiber surface to render it more
hydrophobic and also more compatible with
resin matrices. An effective method of chemical modification of natural fibers is graft copolymerisation. The resulting co-polymer displays
the characteristic properties of both fibrous cellulose and grafted polymer [52,53]. One of the
most explored chemical modifications is the
acetylation-esterification of cellulose-OH, by
reaction with acetic anhydride. This reaction reduces hydrophilicity and swelling of lignocellulosics and their composites [54].
The effect of chemical treatment of natural fibres with sodium alginate and sodium hydroxide has also been reported for coir, banana
and sisal fibres by Mani et al. [55]. This modification results in an increase in adhesive bonding and thus improves ultimate tensile strength
up to 30%. Mitra et al. [56] have reported that
treatment of jute with polycondensates such as
phenol-formaldehyde, melamine-formaldehyde
and cashew nut shell with liquid-formaldehyde
improves the wetability of jute fibres and reduces water regain properties. Samal and Ray
[57] have studied the chemical modification
of pineapple leaf fibers using alkali treatment,

Saira Taj et al.

diazo coupling with aniline and cross-linking

with formaldehyde. These chemical treatments
result in significant improvements in mechanical properties, chemical resistance and reduced
moisture regain. Finally, Joseph et al. [58] have
investigated the influence of chemical treatment
with sodium hydroxide, isocyanate and peroxide on the properties of sisal/polyethylene composites. The observed enhancement in properties of the composites and attributed this to the
strong bonding between sisal and polyethylene
matrix.
In an effort to improve the mechanical
properties of recycled HDPE/wood fiber composites, Selke et al. [59] investigated the use
of several additives with possible effect on the
fibre/matrix adhesion or fibre dispersion into
the matrix. They found that maleic anhydridemodified polypropylene appears especially
promising, since its use at a concentration of
5% in composites with 30% wood fibre results
in an increase in tensile strength and elongation
at break. Similar results have been obtained
by Dalvag et al. [60], who have reported that
the composites elastic modulus remains unchanged. Zadorecki and Flodin [61] have found
that some coupling agents, namely trichloro-striazine and di-methylol melamine can produce
covalent bonds between cellulosic materials
and polymer matrices, leading to modified performance and reduced sensitivity to water. This
approach has been further explored by Maldas
and Kokta [62], who used phthalic anhydride
as coupling agent for wood fiber/polystyrene
composites. In addition to the chemical affinity
of the benzene rings of phthalic anhydride with
those of polystyrene, the anhydride group can
directly attack the OH group of cellulose. Furthermore, Razi et al. [63] found that the treatment of wood with sodium hydroxide followed
by drying with vinyltrimethoxysilance is superior, for obtaining maximum bonding strength
at the wood/polymer interface that yields improved mechanical properties.

Natural fiber-reinforced composites

Physical surface treatment methods

The use of different kinds of physical surface treatment methods (i.e. corona discharge,
cold plasma) leads to changes in the surface
structure of the fibres, as well as to changes in
the surface energy. The treatment of rayon fibers with oxygen plasma results in increasing
the total and polar part of the free surface energy with increasing treatment time, because of
the increased O/C ratio. Similar results were observed by Belgacem et al. [64] for an increasing
corona current level with cellulose fibres. Also,
Sakata et al. [65] found improved wettablitiy of
wood with increasing level of corona treatment.
In the case of wood, surface activation increases
the amount of aldehyde groups according to the
report of Wang et al. [66].
Surface modification through coupling agents
Many other coupling agents have also
been investigated, namely anhydrides, maleated
polymer [67,68], isocyanates [69], and alkoxysilances [70-72]. Among these different reagents,
maleated polypropylene (MaPP) or polyethylene (MaPE) gives significant enhancement in
tensile and flexural strength, ranging from 40 up
to 80%, when they are blended with cellulose
fibres before mixing with matrix [67,68].
Silane coupling
Silane chemical coupling presents three
main advantages: (i) they are commercially
available in large scale, (ii) at one end, they
bear alkoxysilane groups capable of reacting
with OH-rich surface, and (iii) at the second
end, they have a large number of functional
groups which can be tailored as a function of
the matrix to be used. The last feature ensures,
at least, a good compatibility between the reinforcing element and the polymer matrix or even
covalent bonds between them. The reaction of
silane coupling agents with ligno-cellulose fi-

138
bers (mainly: cellulose and lignin) has been
found to be quite different in comparison with
that observed between them and glass surface,
in the sense that with cellulose macromolecules,
only prehydrolyzed silanes undergo the reaction
with cellulose surface [73]. Besides the chemical bonding theory, other theories such as the
interpenetrating networks theory have also been
proposed. This theory states that the matrix diffuses inside the silane interphase to form an entangled network [74-76].
A number of attempts have been carried
out to understand the silane-cellulose system
[77-79]. Thus, the interaction of silane coupling
agents with cellulosic fibers and the effect of
some parameters, such as pH, the initial amount
of silane with respect to cellulose and the adsorption contact time, on their anchoring capability
onto the fiber surface have been ascertained.
Different spectroscopic techniques have been
used to show the presence of silane and to quantify its amounts on the substrate and to elucidate
the structure of the anchored siloxane network
on the fibers surface [78]. Then, using epoxy
and unsaturated polyester resins Abdelmouleh
et al. [79] have shown that the fiber treatment
with silane coupling agents, bearing functional
group able to react with the matrix, enhances
significantly the mechanical strength of the final composite [28]. Recently, Abdelmouleh et
al. [80] have studied three silane agents (different by the functionality of the radical moiety
appended to silicon atoms) to treat delignified
cellulose fibers in order to improve their adhesion low density polyethylene and nitrile rubber matrix. The effect of these treatments on the
mechanical properties of the ensuing composites and on their water uptake ability has been
investigated accordingly. Poor adhesion [47]
at the interface means that the full compatibilities of the composite cannot be exploited and
which leaves it vulnerable to environmental attacks that may weaken it, thus reducing its life

139
span. Insufficient adhesion between hydrophobic polymers and hydrophilic fibers results in
poor mechanical properties of natural fiber reinforced polymer composites. Gassan et al. [81]
have improved the tensile, flexural strength and
stiffness of jute-epoxy composites by treating
the fibers with silane. Tripathy et al. [82] have
found that delignification by bleaching produces better interfacial bond between the jute fiber
and the polyester matrix, and hence results in
better mechanical properties of the composites.
The absorption of steam by sisal, hemp and banana fiber/novalac resin composites has been
found to reduce after esterification of the OH
groups with the maleic anhydride [83]. The tensile strength of maleic anhydride treated fiber
composites is higher than that of the untreated
fiber composites. Luo et al. [38] found an increase in the mechanical properties of green
composites prepared from the pineapple leaf fibers and polyhydroxy butyrate-co-valerate resin (a biodegradable polymer) [84] with the fiber
in longitudinal direction. However, a negative
effect of the fibers on properties in transverse
direction has been observed observed. Gauthier
et al. [85] reported that adhesion may be improved by using coupling agents like maleic
anhydride to incorporate hydroxyl groups on
the matrix through hydrophilization and consequently enhancing the wetting effect of the
resin on the fibers. Mwaikambo and Ansell [86]
treated hemp, jute, sisal and kapok fibers with
various concentrations of NaOH and found 6%
to be the optimized concentration in terms of
cleaning the fiber bundle surfaces, yet retaining
a high index of crystallinity.
Sharifah et al. [87] studied the effect of
the chemically modified polyester resin on the
mechanical properties of the natural fiber composites and its compatibility with natural fibers.
Natural fiber properties are highly variable and
depend on conditions of growth. It is therefore
very difficult to get the same mechanical properties after repeated testing.

Saira Taj et al.

Special types of composites based on natural

fibers
In general, the mechanical and physical
properties of natural fiber reinforced plastics
only conditionally reach the characteristic values of glass-fiber reinforced systems. By using
hybrid composites, made of natural fibers and
carbon fibers or natural fibers and glass fibers,
the properties of natural fiber reinforced composites can be improved further for compression strength [30].
Natural fiber composites have been evaluated with regard to their anti-ballistic characteristics. Flax, hemp and jute reinforced polypropylene composites, with or without mild
steel backing or facing, have been studied under ballistic impact test conditions [87]. Many
researchers have investigated the response of
composite materials to ballistic impact. Recently, DAlmeida et al. [88] investigated ballistic
impact damage of glass fiber reinforced epoxy
composites, while Hasur et al. [90] reported on
the response of carbon/epoxy composites under
high velocity impact. Lee et al. [90] studied ballistic impact on armour grade spectra and aramid reinforced composites, wheras Chou et al.
[91] worked on damage of S2 glass reinforced
plastic structural armour. Hine et al. [92] studied the energy absorption of woven nylon and
aramid composites and UHMWPE (ultra high
molecular weight polyethylene). Cantwel and
Villanueva [93] investigated the failure of fibermetal laminate (FML) reinforced aluminium
foam sandwich structures at high velocity impact.
Research on ballistic impact has been focused only on the high performance fibers, metal and ceramics and now attempts have been
made to study the behavior of national fiber
composite under ballistic impact. Wambua et
al. [87] bridged the gap and investigated the response of flax, hemp, and jute fabric reinforced

140

Natural fiber-reinforced composites

polypropylene composites to ballistic impact by

fragment simulating projectiles.
Technical applications of natural fiber reinforced composites
Natural fibers are replacing synthetic fibers as reinforcement in various matrices. The
composites so prepared can effectively be used
as substitute for wood and also in various other
technical fields, e.g. automotive parts.
Seventy years ago, nearly all resources
for the production of commodities and many
technical products were materials derived from
natural textiles. Textiles, ropes, canvas and also
paper, were made of local natural fibers, such
as flax and hemp. Some of these are still used
today. As early as 1908, the first composite materials were applied for the fabrication of large
quantities of sheets, tubes and pipes for electronic purposes (paper or cotton to reinforce
sheets, made of phenol or melamine-formaldehyde resins). For example in 1996, aeroplane
seats and fuel tanks were made of natural fibers
with small content of polymeric binders. The
last decade has seen a multiplicity of applications of natural fiber composites due to their impressive properties such as biodegradability and
high specific properties. Currently, a revolution
in the use of natural fibers, as reinforcements in
technical application, is taking place mainly in
the automobile and packaging industries (e.g.,
egg boxes). In the automotive industry, textile
waste has been used for years to reinforce plastics used in cars, especially in the Trabant.
The use of natural fibers within composite applications is being pursued extensively
throughout the world. Consequently, natural fiber composite materials are being used for making many components in the automotive sector.
These materials are based largely on polypropylene or polyester matrices, incorporating fibers such as flax, hemp, and jute. Thus in the

future cars may be moulded from cashew nut oil

and hemp. Even golf clubs may be built around
jute fibers, and tennis racket may be stiffened
with coconut hair. Bicycle frames may derive
their strength from any one of the 2000 other
suitable plants. The high-tech revolution in use
of natural fibers could end in replacement of
synthetic materials.
The diverse range of products now being
produced, utilizing natural fibers and biobased
resins derived from soybeans, is giving life to
a new generation of biobased composites for
a number of applications. These include not
only automotive vehicles (including trucking)
but also hurricane-resistant housing and structures, especially in the United States [94]. The
construction sector and the leisure industry are
some of the other areas where these novel materials are finding a market. In Germany, car manufactures are aiming to make every component
of their vehicles either recyclable or biodegradable [95].
Future Outlook
In order to be environment friendly, automotive engineers have now developed a concept car, the Eco Car. It is expected to be the
sustainable vehicle for the future, running on
biofuels. It uses natural fiber composite panels

141

Saira Taj et al.

where biodegradable resins have been incorporated as the matrix material [96]
It has been recently predicted that the most
important technologies of the future that incorporate natural fiber composite materials will be
natural fibers for injection moulded products
(32%) followed by natural fibers with a bioplastic matrix (19%) and modified fibers for use in
advanced applications (19%)( Fig.1 [97]).

[9]

[10]
[11]

Concluding remarks
Natural fibers, when used as reinforcement, compete with such technical fibers as
glass fiber. The advantages of technical fibers
are good mechanical properties; which vary
only little, while their disadvantage is difficulty
in recycling. Several natural fiber composites
reach the mechanical properties of glass fiber
composites, and they are already applied, e.g.,
in automobile and furniture industries. Till date,
the most important natural fibers are Jute, flax
and coir. Natural Fibers are renewable raw materials and they are recyclable.
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