Baroque - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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Baroque
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Baroque (pronounced /brok/, b-ROHK) is an artistic style

prevalent from the late 16th century to the early 18th century.[1] It is
most often defined as "the dominant style of art in Europe between
the Mannerist and Rococo eras, a style characterized by dynamic
movement, overt emotion and self-confident rhetoric".[2]
The popularity and success of the Baroque style was encouraged by
the Roman Catholic Church, which had decided at the time of the
Council of Trent, in response to the Protestant Reformation, that the
arts should communicate religious themes in direct and emotional
involvement.[3] The aristocracy also saw the dramatic style of
Baroque architecture and art as a means of impressing visitors and
expressing triumphant power and control. Baroque palaces are built
around an entrance of courts, grand staircases and reception rooms of
sequentially increasing opulence.

Adoration, by Peter Paul

Rubens.

Contents
1 Evolution of the Baroque
2 Baroque painting
3 Baroque sculpture
3.1 Bernini's Cornaro chapel: the complete work of
art

4 Baroque architecture
5 Baroque theatre
6 Baroque literature and philosophy
7 Baroque music
7.1 Baroque composers and examples

8 Etymology
9 Modern usage
10 See also
11 References
12 Bibliography
13 Further reading
14 External links

The Church of Sant'Andrea

al Quirinale, designed by
Gian Lorenzo Bernini.

Evolution of the Baroque

Beginning around the year 1600, the demands for new art resulted in what is now known as the
Baroque. The canon promulgated at the Council of Trent (154563) with which the Roman Catholic
Church addressed the representational arts, rooted in the Protestant Reformation,[citation needed] by
demanding that paintings and sculptures in church contexts should speak to the illiterate rather than

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to the well-informed, is customarily offered as an inspiration of the Baroque, which appeared,

however, a generation later.
The appeal of Baroque style turned consciously from the
witty, intellectual qualities of 16th century Mannerist art to a
visceral appeal aimed at the senses. It employed an
iconography that was direct, simple, obvious, and dramatic.
Baroque art drew on certain broad and heroic tendencies in
Annibale Carracci and his circle, and found inspiration in
other artists such as Caravaggio, and Federico Barocci
nowadays sometimes termed 'proto-Baroque'.
Seminal ideas of the Baroque can also be found in the work
of Michelangelo and Correggio.

Aeneas flees burning Troy, Federico

Barocci, 1598.

Some general parallels in music make the expression

"Baroque music" useful. Contrasting phrase lengths, harmony and counterpoint ousted polyphony,
and orchestral color made a stronger appearance. (See Baroque music.) Similar fascination with
simple, strong, dramatic expression in poetry, where clear, broad syncopated rhythms replaced the
enknotted elaborated metaphysical similes employed by Mannerists such as John Donne and imagery
that was strongly influenced by visual developments in painting, can be sensed in John Milton's
Paradise Lost, a Baroque epic.[citation needed]
Though Baroque was superseded in many centers by the Rococo style, beginning in France in the
late 1720s, especially for interiors, paintings and the decorative arts, Baroque architecture remained a
viable style until the advent of Neoclassicism in the later 18th century.
In paintings, Baroque gestures are broader than Mannerist gestures: less ambiguous, less arcane and
mysterious, more like the stage gestures of opera, a major Baroque artform. Baroque poses depend
on contrapposto ("counterpoise"), the tension within the figures that moves the planes of shoulders
and hips in counterdirections. It made the sculptures almost seem like they were about to move.
The drier, chastened, less dramatic and coloristic, later stages of 18th century Baroque architectural
style are often seen as a separate Late Baroque manifestation. (See Claude Perrault.) Academic
characteristics in the neo-Palladian architectural style, epitomized by William Kent, are a parallel
development in Britain and the British colonies: within interiors, Kent's furniture designs are vividly
influenced by the Baroque furniture of Rome and Genoa, hierarchical tectonic sculptural elements,
meant never to be moved from their positions, completed the wall decoratio. Baroque is a style of
unity imposed upon rich, heavy detail.
Art historians, often Protestant ones, have traditionally emphasized that the Baroque style evolved
during a time in which the Roman Catholic Church had to react against the many revolutionary
cultural movements that produced a new science and new forms of religionthe Reformation. It has
been said that the monumental Baroque is a style that could give the papacy, like secular absolute
monarchies, a formal, imposing way of expression that could restore its prestige, at the point of
becoming somehow symbolic of the Catholic Reformation. Whether this is the case or not, it was
successfully developed in Rome, where Baroque architecture widely renewed the central areas with
perhaps the most important urbanistic revision during this period of time.[citation needed]

Baroque painting
Main article: Baroque painting

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A defining statement of what Baroque signifies in painting is

provided by the series of paintings executed by Peter Paul
Rubens for Marie de Medici at the Luxembourg Palace in
Paris (now at the Louvre),[4] in which a Catholic painter
satisfied a Catholic patron: Baroque-era conceptions of
monarchy, iconography, handling of paint, and compositions
as well as the depiction of space and movement.
Still-life, by Portuguese painter Josefa

There were highly diverse strands of Italian baroque painting,

de bidos, c.1679, Santarm,
from Caravaggio to Cortona; both approaching emotive
Portugal, Municipal Library
dynamism with different styles. Another frequently cited
work of Baroque art is Bernini's Saint Theresa in Ecstasy for
the Cornaro chapel in Saint Maria della Vittoria, which brings together architecture, sculpture, and
theatre into one grand conceit.[5]
The later Baroque style gradually gave way to a more decorative Rococo, which, through contrast,
further defines Baroque.
The intensity and immediacy of baroque art and its individualism and detailobserved in such
things as the convincing rendering of cloth and skin texturesmake it one of the most compelling
periods of Western art.

A rather different art developed out of northern realist traditions in 17th century Dutch Golden Age
painting, which had very little religious art, and little history painting, instead playing a crucial part
in developing secular genres such as still life, genre paintings of everyday scenes, and landscape
painting. While the Baroque nature of Rembrandt's art is clear, the label is less often used for
Vermeer and many other Dutch artists. Flemish Baroque painting shared a part in this trend, while
also continuing to produce the traditional categories.

Baroque sculpture
Main article: Baroque sculpture
In Baroque sculpture, groups of figures assumed new importance, and there was a dynamic
movement and energy of human forms they spiraled around an empty central vortex, or reached
outwards into the surrounding space. For the first time, Baroque sculpture often had multiple ideal
viewing angles. The characteristic Baroque sculpture added extra-sculptural elements, for example,
concealed lighting, or water fountains. Aleijadinho in Brazil was also one of the great names of
baroque sculpture, and his master work is the set of statues of the Santurio de Bom Jesus de
Matosinhos in Congonhas. The soapstone sculptures of old testament prophets around the terrace are
considered amongst his finest work.
The architecture, sculpture and fountains of Bernini (15981680) give highly charged characteristics
of Baroque style. Bernini was undoubtedly the most important sculptor of the Baroque period. He
approached Michelangelo in his omnicompetence: Bernini sculpted, worked as an architect, painted,
wrote plays, and staged spectacles. In the late 20th century Bernini was most valued for his
sculpture, both for his virtuosity in carving marble and his ability to create figures that combine the
physical and the spiritual. He was also a fine sculptor of bust portraits in high demand among the
powerful.

Bernini's Cornaro chapel: the complete work of art

A good example of Bernini's work that helps us understand the Baroque is his St. Theresa in Ecstasy
(164552), created for the Cornaro Chapel of the church of Santa Maria della Vittoria, Rome.

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Bernini designed the entire chapel, a subsidiary space along the side of the church, for the Cornaro
family.
Saint Theresa, the focal point of the chapel, is a soft white marble
statue surrounded by a polychromatic marble architectural framing.
This structure works to conceal a window which lights the statue from
above. In shallow relief, sculpted figure-groups of the Cornaro family
inhabit in opera boxes along the two side walls of the chapel. The
setting places the viewer as a spectator in front of the statue with the
Cornaro family leaning out of their box seats and craning forward to
see the mystical ecstasy of the saint. St. Theresa is highly idealized and
in an imaginary setting. St. Theresa of Avila, a popular saint of the
Catholic Reformation, wrote of her mystical experiences aimed at the
nuns of her Carmelite Order; these writings had become popular
reading among lay people interested in pursuing spirituality. In her
writings, she described the love of God as piercing her heart like a
burning arrow. Bernini literalizes this image by placing St. Theresa on
a cloud while a Cupid figure holds a golden arrow (the arrow is made
Bernini's Ecstasy of St.
of metal) and smiles down at her. The angelic figure is not preparing to
Teresa.
plunge the arrow into her heart rather, he has withdrawn it. St.
Theresa's face reflects not the anticipation of ecstasy, but her current
fulfillment, which has been described as orgasmic.
This is widely considered the genius of Baroque although this mix of religious and erotic imagery
was extremely offensive in the context of neoclassical restraint. However, Bernini was a devout
Catholic and was not attempting to satirize the experience of a chaste nun. Rather, he aimed to
portray religious experience as an intensely physical one. Theresa described her bodily reaction to
spiritual enlightenment in a language of ecstasy used by many mystics, and Bernini's depiction is
earnest.
The Cornaro family promotes itself discreetly in this chapel; they are represented visually, but are
placed on the sides of the chapel, witnessing the event from balconies. As in an opera house, the
Cornaro have a privileged position in respect to the viewer, in their private reserve, closer to the
saint; the viewer, however, has a better view from the front. They attach their name to the chapel, but
St. Theresa is the focus. It is a private chapel in the sense that no one could say mass on the altar
beneath the statue (in 17th century and probably through the 19th) without permission from the
family, but the only thing that divides the viewer from the image is the altar rail. The spectacle
functions both as a demonstration of mysticism and as a piece of family pride.

Baroque architecture
Main article: Baroque architecture
The Baroque style is noted as first being developed by
Seljuk Turks, according to a number of academics like
Hoag, John D (1975). Islamic architecture. London:
Faber. ISBN 0571148689. In Baroque architecture, new
emphasis was placed on bold massing, colonnades,
domes, light-and-shade (chiaroscuro), 'painterly' color
effects, and the bold play of volume and void. In
interiors, Baroque movement around and through a void
Palace of Trier (Germany)
informed monumental staircases that had no parallel in
previous architecture. The other Baroque innovation in
worldly interiors was the state apartment, a processional sequence of increasingly rich interiors that

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culminated in a presence chamber or throne room or a state

bedroom. The sequence of monumental stairs followed by a
state apartment was copied in smaller scale everywhere in
aristocratic dwellings of any pretensions.
Baroque architecture was taken up with enthusiasm in central
Germany (see e.g. Ludwigsburg Palace and Zwinger
Dresden), Austria and Russia (see e.g. Peterhof). In England
the culmination of Baroque architecture was embodied in
work by Sir Christopher Wren, Sir John Vanbrugh and
Nicholas Hawksmoor, from ca. 1660 to ca. 1725. Many
examples of Baroque architecture and town planning are
found in other European towns, and in Latin America. Town
planning of this period featured radiating avenues
intersecting in squares, which took cues from Baroque garden
plans.In Sicily, Baroque developed new shapes and themes as
in Noto, Ragusa and Acireale "Basilica di San Sebastiano"

Ludwigsburg Palace near Stuttgart,

Germany's largest Baroque Palace

Another example of baroque architecture is the Cathedral of

Morelia Michoacan in Mexico. Built in the 17th century by
Vincenzo Barrochio it is one of the many baroque cathedrals
in Mexico.
Baroque Architecture is "A style of architecture originating in
Italy in the early 17th century and variously prevalent in
Europe and the New World for a century and a half,
characterized by free and sculptural use of the classical
orders and ornament, dynamic opposition and
interpenetration of spaces, and the dramatic combined effects
of architecture, sculpture, painting, and the decorative arts."
p. 133 A Visual Dictionary of Architecture by Francis D.K.
Ching

The main Florentine's Baroque

Church

Baroque theatre
In theatre, the elaborate conceits, multiplicity of plot turns,
and variety of situations characteristic of Mannerism
(Shakespeare's tragedies, for instance) were superseded by
opera, which drew together all the arts into a unified whole.

Melk Abbey, in Austria in the

Wachau valley (architect Jakob
Prandtauer)

Theatre evolved in the Baroque era and became a multimedia

experience, starting with the actual architectural space. In
fact, much of the technology used in current Broadway or commercial plays was invented and
developed during this era. The stage could change from a romantic garden to the interior of a palace
in a matter of seconds. The entire space became a framed selected area that only allows the users to
see a specific action, hiding all the machinery and technology - mostly ropes and pulleys.
This technology affected the content of the narrated or performed pieces, practicing at its best the
Deus ex Machina solution. Gods were finally able to come down - literally - from the heavens and
rescue the hero in the most extreme and dangerous, even absurd situations.
The term Theatrum Mundi - the world is a stage - was also created. The social and political realm in
the real world is manipulated in exactly the same way the actor and the machines are
presenting/limiting what is being presented on stage, hiding selectively all the machinery that makes
the actions happen.

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The films Vatel, Farinelli, and the staging of Monteverdi's Orpheus at the Gran Teatre del Liceu in
Barcelona, give a good idea of the style of productions of the Baroque period. The American
musician William Christie and Les Arts Florissants have performed extensive research on all the
French Baroque Opera, performing pieces from Charpentier and Lully, among others that are
extremely faithful to the original 17th century creations.

Baroque literature and philosophy

Further information: 17th century in literature, 17th century philosophy, and Early Modern
literature
Baroque actually expressed new values, which often are summarized in the use of metaphor and
allegory, widely found in Baroque literature, and in the research for the "maraviglia" (wonder,
astonishment as in Marinism), the use of artifices. The psychological pain of Man -- a theme
disbanded after the Copernican and the Lutheran revolutions in search of solid anchors, a proof of an
"ultimate human power" -- was to be found in both the art and architecture of the Baroque period.
Virtuosity was researched by artists (and the virtuoso became a common figure in any art) together
with realism and care for details (some talk of a typical "intricacy").[citation needed]
The privilege given to external forms had to compensate and balance the lack of content that has
been observed in many Baroque works: Marino's "Maraviglia", for example, is practically made of
the pure, mere form. Fantasy and imagination should be evoked in the spectator, in the reader, in the
listener. All was focused around the individual Man, as a straight relationship between the artist, or
directly the art and its user, its client. Art is then less distant from user, more directly approaching
him, solving the cultural gap that used to keep art and user reciprocally far, by Maraviglia.
[citation needed]
But the increased attention to the individual, also created in these schemes some
important genres like the Romanzo (novel) and allowed popular or local forms of art, especially
dialectal literature, to be put into evidence. In Italy this movement toward the single individual (that
some define a "cultural descent", while others indicate it as a possible cause for the classical
opposition to Baroque) caused Latin to be definitely replaced by Italian.[citation needed]
In Spain, the baroque writers are framed in the Siglo de Oro. Naturalism and sharply critical points
of view on Spanish society are common among such conceptista writers as Quevedo, while
culterano authors emphasize the importance of form with complicated images and the use of
hyperbaton. In Catalonia the baroque took hold as well in Catalan language, with representatives
including poets and dramaturgs such as Francesc Fontanella and Francesc Vicen Garcia as well as
the unique emblem book Atheneo de Grandesa by Josep Romaguera. In Colonial Spanish America
some of the best-known baroque writers were Sor Juana and Bernardo de Balbuena, in Mexico, and
Juan de Espinosa Medrano and Juan del Valle y Caviedes, in Peru.[citation needed]
In the Portuguese Empire the most famous baroque writer of the time was Father Antnio Vieira, a
Jesuit who lived in Brazil during the 18th century. Secondary writers are Gregrio de Matos and
Francisco Rodrigues Lobo.[citation needed]
In English literature, the metaphysical poets represent a closely related movement; their poetry
likewise sought unusual metaphors, which they then examined in often extensive detail. Their verse
also manifests a taste for paradox, and deliberately inventive and unusual turns of phrase.[citation needed]
For German Baroque literature, see German literature of the Baroque period.

Baroque music
Main article: Baroque music

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The term Baroque is also used to designate the style of music

composed during a period that overlaps with that of Baroque art,
but usually encompasses a slightly later period. Antonio Vivaldi,
J.S. Bach and G.F. Handel are often considered its culminating
figures.
It is a still-debated question as to what extent Baroque music shares
aesthetic principles with the visual and literary arts of the Baroque
period. A fairly clear, shared element is a love of ornamentation,
and it is perhaps significant that the role of ornament was greatly
diminished in both music and architecture as the Baroque gave way
to the Classical period.
It should be noted that the application of the term "Baroque" to
music is a relatively recent development. The first use of the word
"Baroque" in music was only in 1919, by Curt Sachs, and it was not
until 1940 that it was first used in English (in an article published
by Manfred Bukofzer). Even as late as 1960 there was still
considerable dispute in academic circles over whether music as
diverse as that by Jacopo Peri, Franois Couperin and J.S. Bach
could be meaningfully bundled together under a single stylistic
term.
Many musical forms were born in that era, like the concerto and
sinfonia. Forms such as the sonata, cantata and oratorio flourished.
Also, opera was born out of the experimentation of the Florentine
Camerata, the creators of monody, who attempted to recreate the
theatrical arts of the Ancient Greeks. Indeed, it is exactly that
development which is often used to denote the beginning of the
musical Baroque, around 1600. An important technique used in
baroque music was the use of ground bass, a repeated bass line.
Dido's Lament by Henry Purcell is a famous example of this
technique.

George Frideric Handel, 1733

Johann Sebastian Bach, 1748

Baroque composers and examples

Claudio Monteverdi (15671643) L'Orfeo, favola in musica (1610)

Heinrich Schtz (15851672), Symphoniae Sacrae (1629, 1647, 1650)
Jean-Baptiste Lully (16321687) Armide (1686)
Johann Pachelbel (16531706), Canon in D (1680)
Arcangelo Corelli (16531713), 12 concerti grossi
Henry Purcell (16591695) Dido and Aeneas (1687)
Tomaso Albinoni (16711751), Sonata a sei con tromba
Antonio Vivaldi (16781741), The Four Seasons
Johann David Heinichen (16831729)
Jean-Philippe Rameau (16831764) Dardanus (1739)
George Frideric Handel (16851759), Water Music Suite (1717)
Domenico Scarlatti (16851757), Sonatas for Cembalo or Harpsichord
Johann Sebastian Bach (16851750), Brandenburg concertos (1721)
Georg Philipp Telemann (16811767), Der Tag des Gerichts (1762)
Giovanni Battista Pergolesi (17101736), Stabat Mater (1736)

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Etymology
According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the word baroque is derived from the Portuguese word
"barroco", Spanish "barroco", or French "baroque", all of which refer to a "rough or imperfect pearl",
though whether it entered those languages via Latin, Arabic, or some other source is uncertain.[6] In
informal usage, the word baroque can simply mean that something is "elaborate", with many details,
without reference to the Baroque styles of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
The word "Baroque", like most periodic or stylistic designations, was invented by later critics rather
than practitioners of the arts in the 17th and early 18th centuries. It is a French transliteration of the
Portuguese phrase "prola barroca", which means "irregular pearl", and natural pearls that deviate
from the usual, regular forms so they do not have an axis of rotation are known as "baroque pearls".
Others derive it from the mnemonic term "Baroco" denoting, in logical Scholastica, a supposedly
laboured form of syllogism.[7]
The term "Baroque" was initially used with a derogatory meaning, to underline the excesses of its
emphasis. In particular, the term was used to describe its eccentric redundancy and noisy abundance
of details, which sharply contrasted the clear and sober rationality of the Renaissance. It was first
rehabilitated by the Swiss-born art historian, Heinrich Wlfflin (18641945) in his Renaissance und
Barock (1888); Wlfflin identified the Baroque as "movement imported into mass," an art antithetic
to Renaissance art. He did not make the distinctions between Mannerism and Baroque that modern
writers do, and he ignored the later phase, the academic Baroque that lasted into the 18th century.
Writers in French and English did not begin to treat Baroque as a respectable study until Wlfflin's
influence had made German scholarship pre-eminent.

Modern usage
In modern usage, the term "Baroque" may still be used, usually pejoratively, describing works of art,
craft, or design that are thought to have excessive ornamentation or complexity of line, or, as a
synonym for "Byzantine", to describe literature, computer software, contracts, or laws that are
thought to be excessively complex, indirect, or obscure in language, to the extent of concealing or
confusing their meaning. A "Baroque fear" is deeply felt, but utterly beyond daily reality.

See also

Gilded woodcarving
Neo-baroque
Dutch Baroque architecture
English Baroque
French Baroque
Italian Baroque
Naryshkin Baroque
Petrine Baroque
Polish Baroque
Baroque in Portugal
Sicilian Baroque
Spanish Baroque architecture
Ukrainian Baroque

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References
1. ^ Fargis, Paul (1998). The New York Public Library Desk Reference - 3rd Edition. Macmillan General
Reference. pp. 262. ISBN 0-02-862169-7.
2. ^ Piper 1984, p. 44-45, cited in Wakefield(2004) p.3-4
3. ^ Helen Gardner, Fred S. Kleiner, and Christin J. Mamiya, Gardner's Art Through the Ages (Belmont,
CA: Thomson/Wadsworth, 2005), p. 516.
4. ^ Peter Paul Rubens The Life of Marie de' Medici
(http://www.students.sbc.edu/vandergriff04/mariedemedici.html) .
5. ^ "Cornaro Chapel" at Bogelwood.com (http://www.boglewood.com/cornaro/xteresa.html) .
6. ^ OED Online. Accessed 6 June 2008.
7. ^ Panofsky, Erwin (1995), "What is Baroque?", Three Essays on Style, The MIT Press, pp. 19.

Wakefield, Steve (2004), Capentier's Baroque Fiction: Returning Medusa's gaze, Great
Britain: The Cromwell Press, ISBN 1855661071

Bibliography
Andersen, Liselotte. 1969. "Baroque and Rococo Art", New York: H. N. Abrams.
Buci-Glucksmann, Christine. 1994. Baroque Reason: The Aesthetics of Modernity. Sage.
Gardner, Helen, Fred S. Kleiner, and Christin J. Mamiya. 2005. Gardner's Art through the
Ages, 12th edition. Belmont, CA: Thomson/Wadsworth. ISBN 9780155050907 (hardcover)
ISBN 9780534640958 (v. 1, pbk.) 0534640915 ISBN 9780534640910 (v. 2, pbk.) ISBN
9780534640811 (CD-ROM) ISBN 9780534641009 (Resource Guide) ISBN 9780534641085
(set) 0534641075 ISBN 9780534641078 (v. 1, international student ed., pbk.) ISBN
9780534633318 (cd-rom)

Further reading
Bazin, Germain, 1964. Baroque and Rococo. Praeger World of Art Series. New York: Praeger.
(Originally published in French, as Classique, baroque et rococo. Paris: Larousse. English
edition reprinted as Baroque and Rococo Art, New York: Praeger, 1974)
Kitson, Michael. 1966. The Age of Baroque. Landmarks of the World's Art. London: Hamlyn;
New York: McGraw-Hill.
Lambert, Gregg, 2004. Return of the Baroque in Modern Culture. Continuum. ISBN
9780826466488.
Martin, John Rupert. 1977. Baroque. Icon Editions. New York: Harper and Rowe. ISBN
006435332X (cloth); ISBN 0064300773 (pbk.)
Wlfflin, Heinrich. 1964. Renaissance and Baroque (Reprinted 1984; originally published in
German, 1888) The classic study. ISBN 0-8014-9046-4

External links
The baroque and rococo culture (http://www.baroquelife.org)
"Dictionary of the History of Ideas": (http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/DicHist/dict.html) Baroque
in literature
The greatest works of Baroque literature (http://www.hernandofla.com/liteliz.htm)
Webmuseum Paris (http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/glo/baroque/)
barocke in Val di Noto - Sizilien (http://www.sentieridelbarocco.it/)
Baroque in the "History of Art" (http://www.allart.org/history252_contents_Baroque_Rococo.html)
Essays on Baroque art (http://www.haberarts.com/mytime.htm#baroque) by John Haber
On Baroque Symbolism (http://www.oriole-artists.com/Reviews_Baroque_Symbolism)

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The Baroque style and Luis XIV influence (http://www.antiquestopic.com/the-baroque-style1620-1700/)

"Baroque Style
Guide" (http://www.vam.ac.uk/vastatic/microsites/british_galleries/bg_styles/Style03b/index.html)
British Galleries. Victoria and Albert Museum.
http://www.vam.ac.uk/vastatic/microsites/british_galleries/bg_styles/Style03b/index.html.
Retrieved 2007-07-16.
Melvyn Bragg's BBC4 radio program In Our Time: The Baroque
(http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/inourtime/inourtime.shtml)
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baroque"
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