1. The document discusses ionic and covalent bonding, including how ionic bonds form between metals and non-metals with large electronegativity differences, while covalent bonds form between non-metals with small electronegativity differences.
2. Lewis structures are introduced as a way to represent electron pairing between atoms to achieve stable octets. Factors like formal charges are discussed to determine which of multiple resonance structures best represents a molecule.
3. The properties of ionic compounds like their high melting points and ability to conduct electricity when molten or dissolved are contrasted with covalent compounds. Bond lengths, energies, and multiple bonds are also examined.
1. The document discusses ionic and covalent bonding, including how ionic bonds form between metals and non-metals with large electronegativity differences, while covalent bonds form between non-metals with small electronegativity differences.
2. Lewis structures are introduced as a way to represent electron pairing between atoms to achieve stable octets. Factors like formal charges are discussed to determine which of multiple resonance structures best represents a molecule.
3. The properties of ionic compounds like their high melting points and ability to conduct electricity when molten or dissolved are contrasted with covalent compounds. Bond lengths, energies, and multiple bonds are also examined.
1. The document discusses ionic and covalent bonding, including how ionic bonds form between metals and non-metals with large electronegativity differences, while covalent bonds form between non-metals with small electronegativity differences.
2. Lewis structures are introduced as a way to represent electron pairing between atoms to achieve stable octets. Factors like formal charges are discussed to determine which of multiple resonance structures best represents a molecule.
3. The properties of ionic compounds like their high melting points and ability to conduct electricity when molten or dissolved are contrasted with covalent compounds. Bond lengths, energies, and multiple bonds are also examined.
1. The document discusses ionic and covalent bonding, including how ionic bonds form between metals and non-metals with large electronegativity differences, while covalent bonds form between non-metals with small electronegativity differences.
2. Lewis structures are introduced as a way to represent electron pairing between atoms to achieve stable octets. Factors like formal charges are discussed to determine which of multiple resonance structures best represents a molecule.
3. The properties of ionic compounds like their high melting points and ability to conduct electricity when molten or dissolved are contrasted with covalent compounds. Bond lengths, energies, and multiple bonds are also examined.
Predict which type of bond might occur between atoms Understand the nature of single and double bonds
Lewis Structures Learning Objectives
(Silberberg; 10.1)
Draw Lewis structures of neutral complexes
Draw Lewis structures of charged complexes Draw resonance structures
Covalent Bonding When two non-metals form a
compound, the bonding is very different. Consider the formation of H2. Initially each H-atom sees the electron of the other atom. Each atom wants the electron so an attraction occurs As the distance between the atoms decreases, each atom finds it cannot totally remove the other electron and electron-electron repulsion and nuclear-nuclear repulsion become important Therefore, there is a specific distance at which the energy is minimized. This distance is called the bond length of a covalent bond.
Chemical Compounds and Bonds
What dictates whether two atoms will form an ionic or a covalent bond?
Metals tend to lose electrons to form
cations and non-metals gain electrons to form anions: each trying to gain a closed shell. Ionic bonding occurs between these cations and anions; the overall energy involved in the process is composed of three phenomena: the electron transfer, the electrostatic interaction and the lattice energy. The electron transfer is usually endothermic: (requiring the input of energy) E = +192 kJ mol1 Li(g) + F(g) Li+(g) + F(g); Once formed, the electrostatic attraction between the cations and anions (Coulombs Law) yields energy (exothermic). Li(g) + F(g) Li+(g) + F(g) this is 755 kJ mol1
If there is a large difference in the electronegativities of
the atoms, (eg sodium chloride) an ionic bond will form. If there is a small difference in the electronegativities of the atoms (eg methane), a covalent bond will form.
Ionic solids: are hard, crystalline, brittle and have a high melting point; do not conduct electricity as a solid (the electrons are held too tightly); and do conduct electricity as a molten liquid, or in solution, when ions are released to carry the current. The structure of an ionic compound is a three-dimensional lattice (e.g., cubic, tetrahedral, octahedral). The actual structure depends on the radii of the ions and the stoichiometry.
The coalescing of gaseous ions into a solid is defined by the lattice energy; its magnitude (exothermic) dictates the strength of the ionic attraction and properties (e.g., melting point, hardness, solubility). Li(g) + F(g) LiF(s) lattice energy = 1050 kJ mol1
Trends in Covalent Bonding
Covalent Bond Lengths
In a covalent bond, an electron from each atom is shared,
that is, covalent bonds involve electron pairs. In this way, both atoms think they have a filled shell. Some atoms can share more than one pair of electrons at a time. Such sharing results in a double bond (for sharing two electron pairs) or a triple bond (for sharing three pairs) Pairs of electrons in the valence shell of an atom, but which do not take part in bonding (i.e. are not shared) are called a lone pair or non-bonding pair of electrons. If a bond is formed between two different atoms, the electron pair of the bond will be attracted towards the atom with the higher electronegativity (EN). This results in the atom with the higher EN having a partial negative charge and the bond is termed polar.
Chemical Compounds and Bonds
If there is a large difference in the electronegativities of the atoms, (eg sodium chloride) an ionic bond will form. C Cl
DIFFERENCES IN ELECTRONEGATIVITY
Lecture Slides (26/03/03)
Characteristics of Ionic Compounds
2.55 3.16
Na H
0.93 2.20
The electronegativity of chlorine pulls the single valence electron
from sodium to form a Cl ion and a Na+ ion.
There is a broad inverse correlation between the strength
of a bond and its length Bond
Energy (kJ/mol)
Length (pm)
HH CH ClCl BrBr
432 413 239 193
74 109 199 228
CO C=O CO
358 745 1070
187 123 113
CC
347
154
C=C CC
614 839
134 121
CN
305
147
C=N CN
615 891
127 115
Formation of a Covalent Bond
If there is a small difference in the electronegativities of the atoms (eg methane), a covalent bond will form. A covalent bond is classified as either a non-polar covalent bond or a polar covalent bond
where E 0 to 0.5 where E 0.5 to 2.0
Formation of an ionic bond
Properties of ionic and covalent compounds
Where the difference between the electronegativity of two atoms is
large an ionic bond is formed.
Boiling points. Boiling points of ionic compounds are much
higher than those of covalent compounds
ionic bond
where E 2.0-4.0
Ionic bonds are formed between metals and non-metals
Covalent bonds are formed between non-metals
Conducting an electric current. Unlike covalent compounds,
solutions of ionic compounds are able to conduct an electric current
We have seen that sharing a pair of electrons between two
atoms results in a stable covalent bond. To develop a model of bonding lets localise the electron pairs (not really true, but part of our model) and designate them as either bonding or lone pairs. Experimentally, stable covalent compounds are formed when each atom has a noble gas-like electron configuration. For the most common elements in the first three rows of the periodic table, this means that there are 8 valence electrons in the noble gas structure, hence we call this the octet rule (except H which wants only 2 valence electrons). In our model (called valence bond theory) we try and give every atom what they want: a complete octet of electrons to determine the bonding in the molecule
Drawing Lewis Structures
Formation of Li+F . Electron Transfer
The Octet Rule and Lewis structures
Lewis Structures (Silberberg Ch. 10.1)
The octet rule. When atoms bond, they lose, gain or share electrons to attain a filled outer shell of eight (or two) electrons.
Li Li [He]2s
Only the valence electrons appear in a Lewis structure
The line joining two atoms represents a pair of electrons shared between two atoms H H Single bond - two shared electrons; one line.
1s
2s
Li+F
F [He]2s 2p5
2p
1s 2s
2p
Li 1s2 (or [He])
Double bond - four shared electrons; two lines.
H
+ 1
C C
1s 2s
Triple bond - six shared electrons; three lines.
F 2s22p6 (or [Ne])
1s 2s 2p
2p
Dots placed next to an atom represent nonbonding electrons
Resonance Structures
CClF3
Place the atoms relative to each other. Place the least electronegative atom in the centre (ie the atom with the lowest group number and the highest period number relative to the other atoms)
1.
Sometimes there is more than one way to draw the molecule.
Which is correct? Often none: the molecule is really an average of all the structures.
2. # valence electrons: 4 + (4 7) = 32
Determine the total number of valence electrons. For polyatomic
ions add one e for each negative charge of the ion or subtract one e for each positive charge Draw a single bond from each surrounding atom to the central atom and subtract two valence electrons for each bond
4.
3.
Distribute the remaining electrons in pairs so that each atom has
eight electrons (or two for H). Begin by placing lone pairs on the surrounding (more electronegative) atoms to give each an octet. If a central atom still does not have an octet, change a lone pair from one of the surrounding atoms into a bonding pair to the central atom to make a multiple bond.
Electrons left: 32 (4 2) = 24
What is the Likely Structure of NCO?
Formal Charges
Formal Charge and Oxidation Number
What if the structures are not identical?
Formal charge (used to examine resonance structures) is not the
same as oxidation number (used to monitor redox reactions):
There is a method called formal charges that can be used.
To assign formal charges to an atom, work out the number of valence electrons the atom started with. Then subtract the number of electrons it owns completely in the compound (lone pairs are completely owned, bonding pairs are half owned). To work out which resonance structure is favoured, assign formal charges to each atom. The structure with minimum formal charge is favoured. If two or more have the same formal charge, then both structures will probably contribute to the final structure, however, if one atom is more electronegative than another, the structure with a negative charge on the more electronegative atom will be preferred.
(A)
In determining formal charge, the bonding electrons are assigned
equally to the bonded atoms (as if the bonding were nonpolar covalent), so each atom receives half of them: FC =
(No
of valence
e)
[(No
of shared
No
of unshared
e)]
In determining oxidation number, the bonding electrons are
assigned completely to the more electronegative atom (as if the bonding were ionic): ON = (No of valence e) [(No of shared e + No of unshared e)] e.g., Determine the formal charge and the oxidation number of O in water
(B)
(C)
[ [ [
( 2)
( 1)
(0)
(0)
(+1)
] ]
(0)
(0)
(0)
( 1)
Note the the sum of
the formal charge on each atom equals the charge of the overall polyatomic ion
Structures (B) & (C) are reasonable; (C) may contribute most (O will be happier accommodating ve charge, compared to N)
