Lanciani - The Destruction of Ancient Rome

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THE DESTRUGTION OF
ANCIENT ROME
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THE DESTRUCTION
OF
ANCIENT HOME
A SKETCH OF THE HISTORY OF THE
MONUMENTS
BY
RODOLFO LANCIANI
D.C.L. OXFORD, LL.D. HARVARD
PROFESSOR OF ANCIENT TOPOGRAPHY IN THE
UNIVERSITY OF ROME
Wefo
ff otfc
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

LONDON: MACMILLAN &
1899
All rightu reserved
CO., LTD.
COPYRIGHT, 1899
BY
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
NortoooB
J. S.
Cushing & Co.
Berwick & Smith
Norwood Mass.
THE GETTY RESEARCH

INSTITUTE LIB.V.RY
PREFATORY NOTE
PROFESSOR RODOLFO LANCIANI needs no introduction
to English readers.
This book sums up briefly the results of researches,

extending over many years, in regard to the fate of the
buildings and masterpieces of art in ancient Rome.
his
work upon
this
subject
and upon
his
large
In
map
Professor Lanciani has searched hundreds of volumes of
municipal and ecclesiastical records, besides examining

several thousand separate documents
and he has ran;
sacked the principal libraries of Europe for prints and

drawings showing the remains of ancient Rome at different periods.
Much
of the
new
material thus collected
appear in fuller form in an extensive work, comprising several volumes, which will be published in Italian
under the title Storia degli Scavi di Roma.
The present
will
volume
is
Thanks
a forerunner of the larger work.

are due to Professor
lin College, for
Walter Dennison of Ober-
kind assistance in reading the proofs, and
for the compilation of the Indexes.

F.
NOVEMBER
1,
1899.
W. K.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
I.
II.
THE DESTROYERS OF ANCIENT ROME
..........
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X.
28
47
THE SACK OF THE GOTHS
66
IN 410,
AND
THE SACK OF ROME BY THE VANDALS

THE CITY
IN
ITS
CONSEQUENCES
IN 455
...
THE SIXTH CENTURY
74
77
BURIAL PLACES WITHIN AND WITHOUT THE WALLS
89
THE DEVASTATION AND DESERTION OF THE CABIPAGNA
101
THE MONUMENTS
106
IN
THE SEVENTH CENTURY
INCURSION OF THE SARACENS IN 846, AND THE EXTEN-
SION OF THE FORTIFICATIONS OF THE CITY
THE FLOOD OF
856
126
139
XIII.
THE ROME OF THE EINSIEDLEN ITINERARY
XIV.
THE USURPERS OF THE HOLY SEE AND THE SACK OF
1084
ROME AT THE END OF THE TWELFTH CENTURY
THE
XV.
10
THE ASPECT OF THE CITY AT THE BEGINNING OF THE

FIFTH CENTURY
XL THE
XII.
THE USE OF EARLIER MATERIALS, PARTICULARLY MARBLES,

IN THE BUILDING OPERATIONS OF THE LATER EMPIRE
.
IV.
PAGE
THE TRANSFORMATION OF REPUBLICAN ROME BY THE EMPERORS
III.
.....
ITINERARY OF BENEDICT
vii
142
154
174
CONTENTS
viii
CHAPTER
XVI.
PAGE
MARBLE-CUTTERS AND LIME-BURNERS OF MEDIAEVAL AND

RENAISSANCE ROME
XVII.
XVIII.
XIX.
THE BEGINNINGS or THE MODERN CITY
XXI.
THE MONUMENTS
IN
II.
........
THE LATTER PART OF THE
THE MODERNISATION OF MEDIAEVAL BUILDINGS

SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES
MODERN USE OF ANCIENT MATERIALS
INDEXES
I.
198
THE SACKING OF ROME BY THE ARMY OF CHARLES OF

BOURBON IN 1527
214
TEENTH CENTURY
XX.
....
180
SIX-
IN
.
227
THE
.
....
253
258
INDEX OF SUBJECTS
INDEX OF PASSAGES AND INSCRIPTIONS
267
,
278
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Panoramic view
of
Rome by
Balthasar Jenichen
Frontispiece
FIGURE
PAGE
1.
Substructions of the palace of Septimius Severus.
2.
photograph
Torre dei Schiavi.
From a photograph
3.
Section of steps of the round temple of the

showing earlier and later construction
4.
Fragment
of painted terra cotta antefix
Jupiter Optimus Maximus.

Comunale, 1896
5.
From a
Forum Boarium,
.
.11
from the temple of
From Tav. xiii. of the
Bullettino
12
from an early temple on the EsquiFrom Tav. xiii. of the Bullettino Comunale, 1896
line.
Section of excavations in the Via di S. Gregorio, showing
changes of level
Fragment of the tomb of Celer. From a photograph
Excavation of the Via Nazionale on the Quirinal, showing remains of buildings of different periods. From a photograph
Part of the upper story of the Coliseum, repaired with mateFrom a photograph
rials from earlier buildings.
Another view of the upper story of the Coliseum, showing
repairs made with architectural fragments from various
Fragment
of painted tile
6.
7.
8.
9.
.........
.
10.
From a photograph
broken into fragments,
From a photograph
A statue,
15.
Section of the channel of the
16.
The remains of the Claudian aqueduct

From a photograph
...
Babuino.
After Tav.
i.
29
44
14.
13.
25
in process of reconstruction.
The monument of Stilicho in the Forum. From a photograph

The raising of level at the Porta Ostiensis, A.I>. 402
Bronze heads found in 1880 under the English Church, Via del
12.
19
21
30
sources.
11.
13
of the Bullettino
Aqua
Comunale, 1881
....
51
54
67
Marcia, at Monte Arcese,
showing deposits on the bottom and sides
........
81
at the Porta Furba.
86
18.
of P. Vibius Marianus, so-called "Tomb of Nero," on

the Via Clodia, 4 miles north of Rome. From a print
Columbarium on the Via Severiana, near Ostia, opened in
19.
The Sepolcro
20.
View
21.
23.
The column of Phocas in the Forum. From a photograph

The Pronaos of the Pantheon. From a photograph
The tomb of St. Paul and the canopy of Arnolfo di Lapo in
24.
Mura, after the fire of 1823. From a print

Tower of the wall of Leo IV., now used as an observatory.
17.
Tomb
From a
1868.
94
print
degli Stucchi,
showing the hole made by plun-
...
From a print
derers in the vaulted ceiling.
97
of the Campagna, remains of the Claudian aqueduct in
.
.100
the distance. From a photograph
.
22.
Paolo fuori
le
107
113
S.
.
From a photograph
25.
26.
From a
photo-
28.
View of the Caelian hill, looking southeast. From a photograph

View of the Forum in 1821, partly excavated, showing the
difference between the ancient and the modern level.
From
29.
The
30.
The lower end
31.
A typical Roman
32.
The
an engraving
obelisk of the gardens of Sallust as
From a
fallen.
it
lay after
it
149
163
167
had
sketch by Fontana
of the obelisk of the
140
to
...........
.........
graph
132
134
The Forum flooded by the Tiber, 1898. From a photograph

The Ponte Salario, two miles north of Rome blown up
prevent the advance of Garibaldi in 1867.
27.
93
171
Campus
Martius.
From
sketch by Bandini
172
house of the twelfth century, built with odd
.179
fragments. From a photograph
.
pulpit in the cathedral of S. Matte"o at Salerno, built with
35.
marbles from Rome. From a photograph

.185
Fragments of cornice from the temple of Vulcan at Ostia.
From a photograph
195
House and tower of the Margani. From a photograph
200
A lane of Mediaeval Rome Via della Lungarina, demolished
36.
The Porta
37.
Reliefs
33.
34.
........
.
in 1877.
From
a photograph
202
del Popolo of the time of Sixtus IV.
by M. Heemskerk (1536)
from the tomb of Calpurnianus, the
a photograph
From a sketch
209
charioteer.
From
210
xi
PACK
FIG FEE
38.
The
39.
One
40.
Bae-reliefs
hill
where Charles
of S. Onofrio,
his headquarters.
Bourbon established
of
From a photograph
.215
Madonna"
....
....
that of the "Vita della

of the Sale Borgia
From a photograph
in the Vatican.
41.
from the arch of Marcus Aurelius, now in the Conservatori Palace. From a photograph
The statues of Castor and Pollux on the Capitoline hill, restored
42.
View
43.
The Loggia
44.
The Ponte
45.
The Cesi chapel
From
in 1584.
a photograph
From a
of
233
....
243
their
sketch by Ciampini
Squarcialupi, Palazzo
Pietro
destruction
del
by
Senatore.
From an
old print
Rotto, half carried
From a photograph
229
......
of the Lateran buildings before
Sixtus V.
223
248
........
away by
the inundation of 1557.
church of S. Maria della Pace, built

with Pentelic marble from the temple of Jupiter Optimus
Maximus. From a photograph
249
in the
260
SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY
HISTORICAL AND TOPOGRAPHICAL WORKS
Adiuolfi. Pasquale
2d
edit.,
Roma
Armellini, Mariano
Le
nell' eta di
mezzo.
Roma
chiese di
2 vols.
Rome,
1881.
XIX.
dal Secolo IV. al
1891.
Rome,
Corpus Inscriptionum Latiuarum
Vols. VI., 1876
and XIV.,
sq.,
1887.
De Rossi, Giovanni
Battista
pars
Rome, Vol.
I.,
1861
Vol.
II.,
1888.
1,
Roma
Roma
Sotterranea Cristiana.
Sotterranea
Translated by J.
1869.
Romae
Inscriptiones Christianae Urbis
saeculo septimo antiquiores.
New ed.,
Duchesne. Louis
S.
or,
Northcote and
I.,
1864.
of the
W.
Roman
Catacombs.
R. Bro\vnlow.
London,
1879.
Le Liber
Vol.
Some Account
Pontificalis
Texte, introduction et
commentaire par 1'abbe L. Duchesne. 2 vols. Paris, 1886-1892.

Dyer, Thomas H. A History of the City of Rome, its Structures
:
and Monuments.
Gibbon, Edward
London, 1865.
History of the Decline and Fall of the
Roman
Empire.
Gilbert, O.
Geschichte und Topographie der Stadt
Rom im
Alter-
thum.
Leipzig, 3 parts, 1883, 1885, 1890.

Gregorovius, Ferdinand Geschichte der Stadt
:
8 vols., 4th ed.
Rom im
Mittelalter.
Stuttgart, 1886-1896.
History of the City of
Rome
in the
Middle Ages.
from the Fourth German edition by Annie Hamilton.
Translated
Vols
I.- VI.
London, 1894-1899.
Grisar,
Hartman,
telalter.
S. L.
Geschichte
Freiburg, Vol.
I.,
1898.
Roms und
der Papste im Mit-
SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY
xiv
Helbig, "Wolfgang
Antiquities in
Collections of Classical
and F. Muirhead.
J. F.
Leipzig, 1895-1896.
2 vols.
Jaff fe. Phil.
Regesta Pontificum romanorum ab condita ecclesia ad
2d
ami. 1198.
zig,
Guide to the Public

Rome.
Translation by
ed.,
revised
by Kaltenbrunner,
2 vols.
etc.
Leip-
1885-1888.
Jordan, H.
Vol.
I.,
Topographic der Stadt
part
i.,
1878, part
Kraus, Franz Xavier

Freiburg, 1896.
Lanciani. Rodolfo
- Ancient Rome
Rom im
1885; Vol.
ii.,
II.,
Alterthum.
Geschichte der christlicheu Kunst.
Pagan and Christian Rome.
Berlin,
1871.
The Ruins and Excavations
of Ancient
L' Itinerario di Einsiedlen e
1'
I.
Boston, 1893.
Recent Discoveries.
in the Light of
Vol.
Rome.
Boston, 1888.
Boston, 1897.
ordine di Benedetto Canonico.
1891.
Rome,
I Commentarii
Rome,
di Frontino intorno le acque e gli acquedotti.
1880.
Forma Urbis Romae. Milan, 1893 sq. (XLVI sheets.)

Marangoni, Giovanni Delle cose gentilesche e profane, trasportate
ad uso ed ornamento delle chiese. Rome, 1744.
Mommsen. Theodore Monumenta Germaniae historica Gesta
pontificum Romanorum. Vol. I. Berlin, 1898.
:
Miintz. Engine
IV.)
Les Arts a
la
cour des Papes.
3 vols.
(To Sixtus
Paris, 1878-1882.
Les Arts a
(Innocent VIIL-Pius III.)
la cour des Papes.
Paris,
1898.
Muratori, Ludovico
Nichols, F.
City.
M.
Rerum
The Marvels
An English version
Italicarum Scriptores.
Rome or, A Picture of the Golden
of
of the Mediaeval Guidebook.
London,
1889.
Richter, Otto Topographic der Stadt Rom. Noerdlingen, 1889.

Tommasini, Oreste Delia storia medievale della Citta di Roma e dei
:
piu recent! raccontatori di essa

di Storia Patria, Vol.
Urlichs, C. L.
I.,
in Archivio della Societk
Romana
1877.
Codex urbis Romae topographicus.
Wurzburg, 1871.
XV
SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY
PERIODICALS
Archivio della Societk
Romana
di Storia Patria.
Rome, from 1877.

Roma, from
Bullettino della Commissione archeologica comunale di

1873.
Bullettino di Archeologia cristiana, edited by Giovanui Battista de

Rossi, Vols. I.-XIII.
Rome, 1863-1895.
Nuovo
Bullettino di Archeologia cristiana, edited by G. B. de Rossi,

Rome, from 1895.
E. Stevenson, O. Marucchi.
Mittheilungen des Kaiserlich Deutschen Archaeologischen Instituts,

Roemiscbe Abtheilung; from 1886, following the Annali and
Bullettino,
La
1829-1885.
Civiltk Cattolica.
Interesting contributions
also Grisar's Analecta
Romana,
Vol.
Melanges de Pficole francaise de Rome.

ing contributions by L. Duchesne.
Notizie degli Scavi di Antichita.
Roemische Quartalschrift
from 1887.
Studii e
Documenti
fiir
I.
by H.
Grisar.
See
Naples, 1899.
Rome, from
1881.
Interest-
Rome, from 1876.
Christliche Altertumskunde.
di Storia e Diritto.
Rome, from
1880.
Rome,
FIG.
1.
Substructions of the palace of Septimius Severus.
DESTRUCTION OF ANCIENT ROME

CHAPTER
THE DESTROYERS OF AXCIENT ROME

I
WAS
sitting not long ago at the southern extremity of
the Palatine
hill,
where the remains
of the palace of Sep-
timius Severus tower a hundred and sixty feet above the

level of the
modern
streets,
the abyss which lay open at
and
my
was trying to fathom

feet, and to reconstruct in
I
imagination the former aspect of the place.
By
meas-
urements on the spot, compared with descriptions and

drawings
left
by those who saw the Palatine
state of preservation, I
in a better
have been able to ascertain that a
palace 490 feet long, 390 wide, and 160 high has so completely disappeared that only a few pieces of crumbling
wall are left here and there against the
cliff
to tell the
Who
broke up and removed, bit by bit, that

mountain of masonry ?
Who overthrew the giant ?
tale.
Was
it
age, the elements, the
hand
of barbarians, or
some
other irresistible force the action of which has escaped
observation ?
3
To answer these
questions
we must
first
try to grasp the
words "destruction" and "disappearance"

when applied to the monuments of ancient Rome. We
meaning
of the
are told, for instance, that 485,000 spectators could find
room
up
in the Circus
Maximus, and
to the people his
own
that,
when Trajan gave
imperial balcony, the available
space was increased by 5000
Perhaps there
seats.
is
an
exaggeration in these figures in fact, the capacity of the

Circus has been limited by Huelsen to 150,000 specta;
But even with
tors. 1
here
this reduction,
150,000 persons sat on
which were made

if
stairways;
space of
we
accessible
that
stone or marble benches
by an elaborate system
allow to each
twenty inches,
we may suppose
there
spectator
of
an average
must have been in the
Maximus more than 250,000 running feet of

stone and marble benches.
Not a fragment has come
down to us, and we are left in complete ignorance as to
Circus
the
way
in
which so great a mass
of solid material has
disappeared.
Near the Pantheon
of Agrippa,
on the border of the
pond or stagnum where Nero and Tigellinus used to

feast in a floating hall, there was a colonnade known by
the name of Eventus Bonus.
Its site was unknown to
topographers until May, 1891, when a capital of great
size was discovered in the Vicolo del Melone, near the
church of
S.
Andrea
della Valle
that mass of marble that

1
so great, indeed,
we were obliged
Bullettino Comunale, 1894, p. 322.
to
was
abandon
it
on account of the danger of undermining

the neighbouring houses if we should attempt to remove
where
it
lay,
Whence came
it.
the great block
found a clew to
the answer in Flaminio Vacca's account of the excava-
"In laying
tions in the time of Pius IV. (1559-1566).
the foundations of the Palazzo della Valle," says Vacca,
"columns, fragments of entablatures, and other marbles

were found, among them a capital of enormous size, out
of
which the coat of arms of the Pope on the Porta Pia

chiselled." 1 A second capital was discovered under
was
the Ugolini house, in the Vicolo del Melone, in 1862;
and a
under the Palazzo Capranica della Valle in

These three capitals and the one found in 1891
were lying on a line measuring 300 feet between the
third,
1876.
two outermost
belonged to a colonnade, the

columns of which were 47 feet high, the capitals them;
they
all
selves being 6 feet high
The
and 14
feet in circumference.
significance of these dimensions will best be appreci-
ated by architects.
Ancient documents further mention a stadium (where

now is the Piazza Navona) with seats for 30,088 spectators,
an odeum (now the Monte Giordano) with 11,600
seats, the theatre of Balbus
with 11,510
1
Memorie
seats,
(now
the
Monte
de' Cenci)
and the theatre of Pompey (near the
di varie antichita trovate in [diversi luoghi
scritte
da
Flaminio Vacca nel 1594, in Tea's Miscellanea, Vol. I. p. 25. Latest

and best edition by Richter in Berichte der Sachs. Gesellschaft der
Wissenchaften, 1881, p. 43.
seats.
Of
and stone buildings, no traces are
left
Campo
di Fiori)
Examples
the
with 17,580
of this kind are
area within
the
city
is
2.
these marble
above ground.
by no means confined to
walls.
In
Emperor Gordianus the younger, chap.
FIG.
all
the
Life
of
the
32, a description
Torre del Schiavi.
given of his villa on the Via Praenestina, two and a
half miles outside the gate of that name.
among
other
columns,
marble,
fifty
fifty
buildings,
of
of
colonnade
of
It contained,
two hundred
which were
of cipollino or Carystian
portasanta,
fifty
of
pavonazzetto
or
Phrygian marble, and fifty of giallo antico or Numidian

there were also three basilicas, each a hundred feet long,
;
an imperial palace, and baths which, in size and magnifiThe present

cence, rivalled the thermae of Rome itself.
state of this Villa
Gordianorum
is
shown
in our illustra-
tion (Fig. 2).
all
Colonnade, basilicas, palace, baths,
have disappeared. One bit of ruin stands alone in the
the Torre
landmark for miles around,
meet of the foxhounds in the
wilderness, a
dei Schiavi, a favourite
Campagna.
We may
grant that natural agencies have contributed

their share to the demolition of ancient buildings,
fires,
floods, earthquakes,
of disintegration
and the slow but
due to
rain, frost,
resistless processes
and variations
of tem-
but such prodigious changes, such wholesale

destruction, could have been accomplished only by the
perature
hand
man.
of
Writers on the decline and
fall of
have proposed several explanations,

plausible
outset
we may
as
Roman Empire
of
all
contain elements of truth.
all
if
which are
But
at
the
discard the current view that the dis-
Roman monuments was due
appearance of
barians
the
these, in
their meteoric
to the bar-
inroads, could
have amused themselves by pulverizing the 250,000 feet

of stone and marble seats in the Circus, for example,
or the massive structure of the villa of the Gordiani
!
The purpose
was to carry off such

could easily be removed, and Rome
of the barbarians
articles of value as
long remained rich enough to satisfy their greed.
when
Later,
mine had become exhausted, and the houses

the living were stripped of all their valuables, they
of
this
attacked the abodes of the dead, the humble
may have
catacombs
of
mausoleums
the
faithful
well
as
as
the
imperial
but the stanch buildings of the Republic

and of the Empire were not essentially damaged.
As we shall see in the course of our narrative, in June,
;
455 A.D., the temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus on

the Capitoline hill and the palace of the Caesars could
be successfully plundered of movable objects.
still
In
536 the garrison of the mole of Hadrian, which had

long ago been converted into a fortress (now the Castle
Angelo), was able to check an assault of the
Goths by throwing down upon their heads the master-
of
S.
pieces of
Greek
art
which
still
adorned the mausoleum.
quarter of a century later the historian Procopius
states that
many
statues
by Phidias and Lysippus could
yet be seen in Rome.

In 630 Pope Honorius
I.,
with the consent of the
Emperor Heraclius, removed the gilt-bronze tiles from

roof of the temple of Venus and Rome, for the
the
adornment
fore,
still
intact.
In 663,
the temple, there-
when Rome
for the last
by an emperor,
a great deal was still left
a Christian emperor too,
In
brief
the
period of twelve days which
plunder.
time,
to
was
of the roof of St. Peter's
and to her misfortune, was
visited
Constans spent in the city he removed
many
bronze

and
hands also upon the bronze tiles

of the Pantheon, although this had long since been
statues,
laid his
converted into a Christian church.
The
barbarians, therefore, can be left in peace, their
part in the destruction of
Rome
being hardly worth con-
sidering when compared with the guilt

" others " I mean the Romans
themselves,
of others.
By
of the Imperial,
Byzantine, Mediaeval, and Renaissance periods.
CHAPTER
II
THE TRANSFORMATION OF REPUBLICAN ROME BY

THE EMPERORS
THE growth
of a city involves
the readjustment of
public and private, to the needs of a population living under new conditions
and in a certain
its edifices,
we may say that

Rome begins with
sense
the history of the destruction
of
the
reign
of
Augustus,
who
undertook to transform the capital of the Empire from

In widening
a city of bricks into a city of marble.
and draining the old
streets, in
opening new thorough-
fares, in building the new quarters, and in carrying

out a general scheme for the sanitation and embellishment of the metropolis, many historical monuments
were
To
sacrificed.
the theatre
Pietas
of
clear the space for the erection of
Marcellus,
was destroyed,
for
example, the
so dear to the
shrine
of
Romans on account
legend of the faithful daughter who, with the

milk of her breast, kept alive the father sentenced to
death by starvation in the old Decem viral jail. 1 Dion
of the
Cassius adds that
many houses and
temples were de-
molished to make room for this structure

i
Pliny, Hist. Nat. VII. 36, 121.
10
that
many
TRANSFORMATION OF REPUBLICAN ROME
11
statues of the gods, of ancient workmanship, carved in
wood and
stone, shared the fate
builders
the
that
having
appropriated
in
the vaults
away
The example
wealthy friends,
Cornelius
the
of
the
of the
theatre
gold
(favissae')
temples
were
and
suspected
valuables
and
of
stored
of the sacred edifices. 1
by Augustus was followed by his

Marcius Philippus, Lucius Cornificius,
set
Balbus, and Statilius Taurus
but Agrippa
iwuuuuwi
FIG.
Section of steps of the round temple of the Forum Boarium, showing

earlier and later construction.
.'?.
surpassed them
his
buildings.
men with
all
We
number and splendour of

may compare the work of these
the
in
popes and cardinals of the

seventeenth century, who modernised our Constantinbut there is this differian and mediaeval churches
that
of
the
Dion Cassius, XLIII.
49.
Suetonius, Octav. 29.
12
that
ence,
while
the
renovation
century was without excuse and

feature, Augustus and his friends
tute masterpieces of
purest
type,
for
Greco-Roman
the
earlier
of
seventeenth
the
had no
did, at
redeeming
substi-
least,
construction, of the
structures
brick
of
or
rough stone.
This change may best be studied, perhaps, in the
so-called temple of the Mater Matuta in the Forum
Boarium,
afterwards
the church
of
S.
Carozze,
Stefano
now
S.
delle
Maria
del Sole, in the Piazza
Bocca della Verita.

Here we see the stone
steps
the
to
leading
stone cella of the time of
Camillus,
covered, but
not entirely concealed,
by the marble steps

and the marble cella of
the time of Augustus
(Fig. 3).
In excavat-
ing strata of rubbish of
FIG.
4.
Fragment of painted terra cotta
antefix from the temple of Jupiter Optimus
the time of Augustus,

such as the platform of
the Gardens of MaCCC-
Maximus.
-,
nas, or that of the Capi-
tolium,
we have
actually
picked up fragments
temples of the time of the Kings,
dumped
from
there with
13
other materials to raise the level of the ground.
Such
are the antefixes of painted terra cotta from the temple

of
now
Optimus Maxitnus,
1
and the
Conservator!,
Jupiter
de'
roof-tiles
on
the
the
Rome
Esquiline,
and
al Celio. 2
of
were
edifices
and
wood,
mented with
the
in
centuries
early
sacred
of
built
Palazzo
from another shrine
Museo Municipale
In
the
in
orna-
panels, cornices,
tiles of terra cotta
with
decoration.
polychrome
structure
of
discovered
this
on
kind was
the
site
of
FIG. 5.
Fragment of painted tile
from an early temple on the Esquiline.
Falerii, Civita Castellana, in
1886
the remains
of
it
are
halls of the Villa di Giulio III.,
Popolo.
in one of the
exhibited
the Porta del
outside
In tracing the history of the destruction of the Rome

of the Kings and of the Republic at the hands of the
Emperors, three facts become prominent
plete
2
8
covering over,
for
hygienic
(1) the com-
reasons,
and conse-
Bull. Com., 1896, p. 187, PI. xii.-xiii. (see Fig. 4).

Ibid., 1896, p.
Monumenti
Vol. IV., 1895.
28 (see Fig. 5).
antichi publicati per cura della reale Accad. dei Lined,
DESTRUCTION OF ANCIENT EOME
14
quent elevation, of large tracts of land

(2) the rebuilding, on a totally different plan, of one or more quar;
ters of the City, after a destructive
of
clearing
areas to
large
those
thermae,
of
Nero,
fire
make room
Titus,
and (3) the
the
for
great
Caracalla,
Trajan,
the Decii, Diocletian, and Constantine.
The
record that
first
we have
of
the
covering over
and elevation of a large area for hygienic reasons dates

from the time of Augustus.
A part of the Esquiline
hill was occupied at that time by a " field of death,"
where the bodies of slaves and beggars and of criminals who had undergone
punishment were
capital
thrown into common
pits (puticuU*), together
domestic
of
carcasses
animals
and beasts
of
with the
burden.
In the excavations made in laying out the Via NapoIII., in 1887, about seventy-five of these pits
leone
were discovered.
In some of them the animal remains
had been reduced
to a
matter
uniform mass of black, unctuous
in others the bones so far retained their shape
The field of death

they could be identified.
served also as a dumping place for the daily refuse of
the city. 1 This hotbed of infection was suppressed by
that
Augustus
Maecenas.
at
the
The
of his prime minister

was buried under fresh earth
suggestion
district
and a public park, a fifth of

a mile in extent, was laid out on the newly made
to
depth of 24
the
ground.
1
The
Ancient
results
Rome
feet,
proved of so great benefit to the
in the Light of Recent Discoveries, p. 64.

health
the
of
to be
worthy
by no means
8 et seq.)
City
sung
literal,
that
15
thought the work

In the quaint, though
Horace
in verse.
translation of Francis (Sat.
I.
vm.
In coffins vile the herd of slaves
Were
hither brought to crowd their graves;

detested ground
And once in this

A common tomb
the vulgar found;

Buffoons and spendthrifts, vile and base,
Together rotted here in peace.
thousand feet the front extends,
Three hundred deep in rear it bends,

And yonder column plainly shows
No more
unto
its
heirs
it
goes.
But now we breathe a purer air,

And walk the sunny terrace fair,
Where once the ground with bones was

With human bones, a ghastly sight!
white,
In process of time recourse was had to the same expedient in the case of other cemeteries within or near the
walls of Aurelian.
of earth
The twenty-four
million cubic feet
and rock, removed by Trajan from the west

make room for his Forum, were
slope of the Quirinal to
spread over the cemetery between the Via Salaria Vetus

1
The Licinian
(Pinciana) and the Via Salaria Nova.
Gardens
Esquiline,
a portion of the great imperial park on the

formerly owned by the Licinian family
were laid out, likewise, on the

1
site
Pagan and Christian Rome,
of
p. 284.
the
cemetery
16
between the Via Collatina
same
fate
befell
the
and Via
beautiful
Labicana.
burial-grounds
The
of the
Via Aurelia, now occupied by the Villa Corsini-Pamfili,

near the Casino dei Quattro Venti. 1
No injury was
done to the tombs when the earth was heaped upon
them their sacred character protected them from sacri;
and the cinerary urns, the
lege,
more or
left
in
inscriptions,
less valuable furniture of
the sepulchres were
The excavation
undisturbed.
modern times has proved
and the
of these cemeteries
to be exceptionally rich in
finds.
The
vast conflagrations which from time to time swept
over the city were in reality a means of improvement,

both from the aesthetic and from the hygienic point of
view.
Such was the
fire
Livy in the
Book XXVI., by which all
described
by
twenty-seventh chapter of
the shops and houses around the Forum, the residence
and the buildings in

The
were destroyed.
of the high priest, the fish-market,
the
region
district
of
the
Lautumiae
was rebuilt on a better and more sanitary plan.
This historian describes another fire (XXIV. 47), by

which the region of the Forum Boarium, from the
foot of the Aventine to the present Piazza Montanara,
was devastated
in
213 B.C.
and again
in 192 B.C. the
same quarter was burned over. I saw traces of the

fires last mentioned in
April, 1886, when the main
1
Pagan and
Christian
Some,
p. 269.

sewer on the
left
bank
17
the Tiber was built at
of
There
great depth across the piazza Bocca della Verita.
were remains of early
Republican structures nine
feet
below the level of the piazza, and upon them was a

bed of ashes and charred materials. The buildings of
a later period, above the bed of ashes, had a different
orientation.
When
the Emperor Nero conceived the idea of reand

rebuilding the capital of the Empire, the
newing
streets were crowded with shrines, altars, and small
temples which
religious
superstition
made
inviolable
improvement were opposed by the priests

and by private owners of property, and any attempt
his plans of
to carry
less
them out was
lawsuits, appraisals,
and disputes among the ex-
So he seems to have solved the
perts.
having the city set on
was
clearly destined to lead to end-
at
fire,
Antium when the
in the year
conflagration began, on
18, the anniversary of the burning of
in 390
B.C.
The
fire
Rome by
spread in a northeasterly
now
called
direction
June
the Gauls
started at the east end
Circus Maximus, at the place

it
by
Nero
difficulty
64 A.D.
of
the
La Moletta
and swept over
three out of the fourteen regions of the city, partially
destroying seven others.

tory
We
information in regard to
do not possess
all
satisfac-
the historic
monu-
ments that perished in the flames, but we know that

among them were the temple of the Moon, the foundation of
which was ascribed to Servius Tullius, the Ara
18
\
Maxima, dedicated
der, the Arcadian
of Vesta,
As
these
and
to Hercules, tradition said
by Evan-
and the temples of Jupiter
Stator,
of the Penates, together with the Regia.
monuments
encircled the
Palatine
we
hill,
may assume that the imperial residence on its summit

was also gutted, but evidence on this point is wantCountless masterpieces of Greek art and
many
ancient relics disappeared, the loss of which the
older
ing.
citizens
never ceased to lament, even amidst the splen-
dour of the new city which rose from the ashes.
The charge
that Nero had wilfully caused the
neither accepted nor rejected by Tacitus, from

learn that, after
it
had once been
arrested,
again in the Praedia Aemiliana, the

minion,
Tigellinus.
whom we
burst out
gardens of Nero's
Dyer suggests that the emperor
merely improved the occasion to have the
more widely and

which he wished to
started spread
efface
the
rebuild.
city,
it
fire is
fire
certain
already
parts
of
But whether
the emperor was wholly or partially responsible for the

conflagration, the opportunity thus afforded for rebuild-
ing was at once improved
drawn
in
new
plans were immediately
accordance with the
best
architectural practice of the time.
narrow and tortuous
streets
Museum, one
may
By
and lanes
of the time of Septimius Severus,
engineering
and
glancing at the
in the marble plan
now
in the Capitoline
see that Nero's projects can hardly
have
been fully carried out they must have left untouched

the lower and more congested quarters of the city.
;
1'J
which
May, 1877, I myself saw a strip of land
While
showed traces of this fearful conflagration.
the main sewer which drains the Esquiline and the
about the Coliseum was being built between
111
region
arch of Constantine
the
and the
site
of
Circus
the
Maximus, the workmen came across remains of houses,

of a street, neatly paved
shops, and shrines on both sides
('3,20)
A-t>^^yAAjo>AAAA^VsMX*J^WCXiuXxi3^
_j j_i_j
_j^i_^_j
j_g
4_*^M_^
_;_jj-
j-
10
(10,16)
FIG.
0.
Section of excavations in the Via di S. Gregorio, showing changes

of level.
with flagstones and lined by sidewalks, thirty-five feet

below the present level of the ground.
The
east
had apparently descended from the southcorner of the Palatine where now is the Vigna Bar-
berini,
street
toward the foot of the Clivus Scauri, now the
Piazza di S. Gregorio.
From this place, at any rate, the
debris of Xero's fire were not, as
might have been inferred from the statement of Tacitus, 1 carted
J
Ann. XV. 43:
iitique naves,
rerent.
Ruderi
accipiendo
Ostienses
away
pahtfles
to the
dfstinabat,
quae frumentum Tiberi subvcctassent, onustae rudere decur-
|77)
20
marshes of Ostia, but were spread on the spot in this

way the level of the valley was raised at once by ten or
;
The
fifteen feet.
which
made
at the time of these excavations,
superposition of
the
fire
sectional plan presented above (Fig. 6),
shows the
and buildings before and
streets
the altitudes are given in metres.
For the names of Nero's chief advisers and
we
archi-
the rebuilding of the city, Severus and Celer,
in
tects
after
who
indebted to Tacitus,
are
says
them that
of
they were clever and daring enough to undertake, by

artificial means, works the accomplishment of which
nature would have denied.
fragment of the marble mausoleum of Celer
exists
in
the Via
the garden of
Nomentana
full of dignity l
CELERI
S.
(Fig. 7)
Agnese
.
The
fuori le
still
Mura, on
epitaph was brief but
NERONIS
The block containing
AVGVSTI
it
L[iberto]
A[rchitect]0
was removed from the tomb
by Pope Symmachus (498-514), who turned

capital for one of the columns of S. Agnese.
The importance
it
into a
of fires for the architectural history
Rome in the imperial period may easily be underif we recall the

changes caused by this means in
the Forum from the time of Nero to that of Diocletian.
Four times during this period the centre of Rome and
of
stood
Fabretti, Inscriptiones domesticae, p.
VI. 14,647.
721, no. 431
cf.
C.
I.
L.

of the
as
it
Roman
is
came the
it
fire
CELEBERRIMVS VRBIS LOCVS,

an inscription, 1 was swept by flames
world, the
called in
four times
21
was
on a different plan.
of Nero, just alluded to
then the
rebuilt
FIG.
7.
Fragment
tomb
of the
First
fire of
of Celer.
the reign of Titus, in 80 A.D., the damages of which
were repaired by Domitian.

before the death of
1
The
Commodus,
third occurred shortly
in 191 A.D.
Ephemeris Epigraphica, Vol.
the build-
III., 1876, p. 287.
22
ings were restored
Domna, and
Julia
his
by Septimius Severus,
his
son
Caracalla,
who
empress
shifted
by
thirty-three degrees the orientation of the edifices bor-
dering
on
the
Clivus
Sacer.
We
have no detailed
account of the conflagration in the reign of Carinus,

283 A.D., but to judge from the repairs made by Dio-
and Maxentius, affecting the Basilica Julia, the

Senate-house, the Forum Julium, and the temple of
Venus and Rome, it must have swept from one end of
cletian
the Sacra Via to the other.
The
third and last of the
more important
factors in
Rome under
the transformation and
destruction of
Empire was the building
of the great public baths.
the
The
thermae of Caracalla cover an area of 118,255 square

metres, those of Diocletian 130,000 square metres; and
the areas of both these great structures were occupied,

before 212 and 305/6 A.D. respectively,
lous quarters, with houses
colonnades, and gardens.
by
rich
and popu-
and
insulae, temples, shrines,
The
buildings which stood on
a higher level than that adopted for one of these bath-
ing establishments were destroyed to the foundations ;

the materials of construction taken from them were
saved and were made use of again in the new structure.

But the buildings placed on a lower level were
left
the
standing to a height corresponding with that of

foundation of the thermae, and simply buried.
This practice explains the reason
why we
find in
some
23
places structures of two, three, and even four different
periods lying in archaeological
strata
one
above
the
other.
The
palace of the Flavian emperors on the Palatine
on the remains of
rests
private
houses
end
the
of
these, made accessible in 1721, are

Republic
The thermae of Titus
termed
Baths
of Livia.
wrongly
of the
and
of
House
Trajan
of
are
built
on
remains of
the
Golden
Nero, and this last was extended over the
remains of houses built before the
fire of
64 A.D.
the
three strata can be easily recognised at the north en-
trance to the cryptoporticus of the Golden House.
The Baths
were composed of a central

building surrounded by a garden, with an outer enclosure lined with halls and rooms for bathing.
Nothing
of Caracalla
found under the built portion, because the foundations of the massive walls were of necessity carried
is
down
but in the open

spaces, at a depth of only a few inches below the surface, are found remains of extensive houses and other
to the level of
the virgin soil
1
buildings which Caracalla purchased and covered up.
When
the Via Nazionale, the main thoroughfare of
modern Rome, was cut
1877 across the ridge of the

then occupied by the Aldobrandini and Ros-
Quirinal,
pigliosi
remains
1
A part
shown
gardens,
of
the
the
in
workmen
thermae
of
brought to light
Constantino
underneath
first
of one of these houses, excavated in 1860-1867
in Bttins
and Excavations,
Fig. 39.
by Guidi,
is
24
these were remains of the house
Claudius Claudi-
of
anus and of another once belonging to Avidius Quietus

and lastly, on a lower level, were walls of early reticulate
;
work (Fig.
8).
Subsequent excavations on the site of the same baths

have given us the means of reconstructing the map of
this part of the Quirinal prior to the time of Constan-
and
tine,
obtaining a
of
list,
possibly complete, of the
public and private buildings purchased and demolished
by
this
prises
Emperor
The
in or about 315 A.D.
the palaces of
T.
list
com-
Flavius Claudius Claudianus
and of T. Avidius Quietus already mentioned the palace and gardens of a C. Art(orius ?) Germanianus,
;
of a Claudia Vera, of
a Lucius Naevius Clemens, of a
Marcus Postumius Festus
and
sacred edifice, the
made of marble tiles. These tiles

architect made use of in laying the foun-
roof of which was
Constantino's
dations of
out, one
the
by
one, in 1879.
number, so
be taken
Caldarium, from which we
off
They were
all
dug them
marked with
that, in making repairs, the roof could

and put together again without difficulty
by observing the sequence of the figures. In another

part of the same foundations we found many fragments
of statues and sculptured marbles built, as common
materials, into the rubble work.
similar statement
of Diocletian.
of
this
would hold good
for
The excavations made within
immense
structure
since
1870
in
the
Baths
the limits
connexion

with
work
on
the
railway
station,
the
27
Piazza
dei
Cinquecento, the Grand Hotel, and the Massimi palace,

well as the cutting of streets and the laying out
of new gardens, have brought to light the remains of
as
several
preexisting edifices,
of a Collegium
Fortunae
foundations of concrete
among them
Felicis,
the
and a temple
offices
built
on
a colonnade or shrine rebuilt
pavements of streets,
by Gnaeus Sentius Saturninus
The materials
walls of private houses, and a reservoir.
;
of all these buildings, brick
and marble, were used over
again in the foundations of the baths.
CHAPTER
III
THE USE OF EARLIER MATERIALS, PARTICULARLY

MARBLES, IN THE BUILDING OPERATIONS OF THE
LATER EMPIRE
THE
of
practice
building
with
walls
architectural
marbles, blocks containing inscriptions, statues, and other

fine
from previous structures, goes
materials
as far
211 A.D.).
The propylaea
were restored by
fragments from
fire
of
at
least
back as the reign of Septimius Severus (193-
edifices
the
Porticus
or
damaged
The upper
Titus.
of
Octaviae
him, in the year 203, with sculptured
story of
ruined
by the
the Coliseum was
likewise restored by Severus Alexander in 223, and by
Traianus Decius in 250, with a patchwork of stones

trunks of columns, fragments of
of every description,
entablatures,
and
lintels
doorposts
taken
from
the
itself, which had been damaged by fire,

from
other buildings
several of the fragor brought
ments can be recognised in the accompanying illus-
amphitheatre
trations (Figs.
9,
10).
Another instance
of certain date
is
that of a private
bathing establishment discovered January 30, 1873, at

the junction of the Via Ariosto with the Piazza Dante
28
USE OF EARLIER MATERIALS
29
on the Esquiline.
It was a graceful little building,
from
of Diocletian and Constantine, as
the
time
dating
proved by hundreds of brick stamps of that period

found in the walls above ground. The walls below the
FIG.
surface
9.
Part of the upper story of the Coliseum, repaired

with materials from earlier buildings.
were built of statues and miscellaneous fragThere were life-size or semi-colossal
ments of marble.
figures
of
Minerva,
of
the
Aesculapius, besides several
Indian
torsos
Bacchus
and
of
and other fragments
30
column shaped like the lictors

and base and the basin of a foun-
of considerable value
fasces,
with capital
tain in pure
Greek
more familiar
style.
illustration
is
the triumphal arch of
Meta Sudans
Constantine, erected by the
in 315 A.D.
This monument, so compact and perfect to the eye,
FIG.
is
Another view of the upper story of the Coliseum, showing repairs

architectural fragments from various sources.
10.
made with
really
structures
striking
were
example
pillaged
of
to
the
way
new
erect
in
ones.
climb to the chamber above the arch (there

1
Bull Com.,
Public
no. 601.
1875, p. 70, Tav. XI. Fig.
1,
Collections of Classical Antiquities in
which old
If
is
we
a nar-
2; Helbig, Guide to the

Home, Vol. I. p. 444,
row
see
31
we
staircase in the side facing the Palatine),
why
Milizia gave
the nickname of Cornacchia di
it
We
Esopo, "Aesop's crow."

of the
reliefs
attic,
shall
shall find that the bas-
Dacian kings,
the
the statues of
the eight medallions above the side passages, the eight
and the greater part of the

entablature were removed from a triumphal arch of
columns of
antico,
giallo
Trajan, probably the areas divi Traiani which spanned

the
Via Appia (or the Via Nova)
The
Capena.
near
inside of the structure also
is
built with
a great variety of materials taken from the
the
Fabii and of
scriptions of
Under the
the
which are
rule
of
still
common
practice
tombs of
carvings
and
in-
perfect.
Constantine,
earlier buildings for the sake
the
Arruntii,
Porta
the
the
dismantling of
of their materials
this statement, startling as
became
it
may
appear, will not be considered extravagant by any one
who
has read Ciampini's
stantino
cose
constructis,"
e
gentilesche
chiese,"
Old
magno
St.
or
"De
profane
Grimaldi's
Peter's."
sacris aedificiis
or
Marangoni's
ad uso
trasportate
"Diary
of
Con-
" Delle
the
delle
Destruction of
After
the defeat of Maxentius, in the year 312,

Constantine "erected a basilica over the tomb of the
blessed Peter."
1
2
*
This was built hurriedly, and in
Romae, per I. Jacobum Komarck, 1693, in fol.

Cod. Barberin, XXXIV.
Romae, 1744, in 4.
Liber Pontificalis, Sylvester, XVI. p. 176.
50.
its
32
construction
first
part of the adjoining circus
of all a
and Nero was
of Caligula
The
utilised.
left
wing
of
the sacred edifice was carried over the three northern
which had supported the seats of

the spectators on the side of the Via Cornelia.
The
columns for the basilica were brought together from all
walls
of the circus,
In
quarters.
one of
Sangallo the younger,

quality, size, colour,
note-books
the
1
speak
styles
could not find
intercolumniation
bore
Nearly
the
to
of
basilica,
all
the ancient
collection,
and that
another,
inscriptions
except
differed
frieze
not
to
the
apse
from one
some
names and
with the
Titus, Trajan, Gallienus, and
the
one
details in regard to
and periods. Grimaldi says that he

two capitals or two bases alike. He
adds that the architrave and
blocks
da
found a memorandum of the
and other
hundred and thirty-six shafts.

quarries were represented in
of
Antonio
of
others.
and
the
The
of
the
praises
walls of
arches,
were
On
each
side of the first entrance, at the foot of the steps,
were
patched with fragments of
tiles
and
two granite columns, with composite
of stone.
capitals
showing the
bust of the Emperor Hadrian framed in acanthus leaves.
In the construction of
the fourth century
the Christian buildings of
all
we may
well believe that there was
a similar indebtedness to pagan sources.

edifices,
as
the
of these
Agnese and the adjoinConstantia on the Via Nomentana,
church of
ing mausoleum of
Some
S.
These note-books are now
in the Uffizi, Florence.
33
the church of St. Lawrence on the Via Tiburtina, and

the church of S. Clemente, are
Additional
without the walls.

in
the accounts
Salvatoris in
road
still
left
those
by
Laterano, and
to Ostia, before
instances the location
their
standing within or
proof may be found

who saw the Basilica
that of
St.
Paul on the
some
In
modernisation.
and use
of blocks of marble
have
A pedestal of a
been changed three or four times.
statue erected in the year 193 in the town hall of some
municipality in the vicinity of Rome, was utilised in the
restoration of the Baths of
of
Caracalla in 285.
the
Volusianus, prefect
City
block from the Baths and turned
in
honour of Valentinian
I.
It
in
Rufius
365, removed the
it
into a
seems
monument
finally to
disappeared about 1548 in a lime-kiln of Pope Paul
The great department of

"Department of Marbles"
have
III. 1
imperial administration called

(statio
marmoruni), apparently
suspended operations before the middle of the fourth
any rate we have been unable to find any

structure built after the time of Constantine with macentury
terials
at
fresh
from the quarry.
This
is
the more re-
markable in view of the fact that on the banks of the

Tiber at the marble wharves (La Marmorata) and on
those of Trajan's channel (Canale di Fiumicino), where
the marbles belonging to the Emperor or to private importers were landed, there
of
unused blocks.
t>
still
remained a vast number
These two sources

C.
I.
L. VI. 1173.
of
supply have
34
been drawn upon by means of excavations almost uninterruptedly since the time of the Cosmatis, and yet
and columns of the
their wealth in blocks

of
seems
breccias
Romans
hardly
to
have
rarest kinds
diminished.
The
the fourth century, however, emperors as
of
well as private citizens, thought
less
it
troublesome to
rob the splendid monuments of the Republic and early
ornaments already cajved, and to transthese to their own clumsy structures, than to work
Empire
fer
of their
anew the materials stored
at
La Marmorata.
Abundant
may be gained, not merely from

ecclesiastical, but also from secular structures, as the
evidence on this point
Forum Boarium,
four-faced arch of the
the temple of
Saturn on the Clivus Capitolinus, the bridges of Cestius

(S. Bartolomeo) and of Valentinian (Ponte Sisto), the
Grain Exchange at the church of S. Maria in Cosarena
medin, the
Portions
Maximae
and
podium
of
of Gratian, the
the
Coliseum, the
monumental columns
on the Sacra Via, the market-hall of the Caelian (S.

Stefano Rotondo), the market-place of the Esquiline near
S. Vito, the
shops at the east of the
Forum Romanum,
and a hundred other buildings of the Decadence.

There are on record several edicts of Constantius
(350-361)
having to
of heathen temples.
made
a present of a temple,
away
tion
of
or
II.
do with the compulsory closing

According to Libanius he often
horse
just as one might give

and Ammianus makes men-
dog
some courtiers who had received
;
gifts of this
But the
kind. 1
works
fate of
did away with
all
their precious
in the year 383,
when Gratian
edifices
the privileges
and confiscated
priests,
and
pagan
was sealed
of art
35
the temples
of
their revenues.
Eight
Valentinian and Theodosius prohibited

if strictly domestic and private.
and
years later
sacrifices,
even
These decisive measures led to open rebellion on the

but
who
those
part of
after
still
the defeat
clung to the ancient
of
the
rebel
leader
beliefs,
Eugenius,
which took place early in September, 394, the temples

were closed forever.
Strange to say, this prohibition
pagan worship contributed for the time being
of the
to the embellishment of certain parts of the City, such
the forums, the baths, and
as
where
the
august
seats,
art. 2
of
statues
were
This
of
the
the courts
gods,
expelled
of
justice,
from their
up and exhibited simply as works

referred to in the words which
set
is
Prudentius puts into the mouth of Theodosius, when

addressing the Senate after the defeat of Eugenius
(Contra Sym.
I.
Marmora
501-505):
tabenti vespergine tincta lavate,
proceres, liceat statuas consistere puras
Artificum
magnorum
Ornamenta fuant
opera
haec pulcherrima nostrae
patriae nee decolor usus
In vitium versae monumenta coinquinet

1
artis.
See Dyer, History of the City of Home, ed. of 1805, p. 308.

Interesting information on this subject will be found in C. I. L.
see also de Rossi's papers in Bull, di archeologia
Vol. VI. Part I.
2
cristiana, 1865, p. 5,
and Bull. Com., 1874,
p. 174.
36
The
of
practice
worship
to
removing statuary from
edifices
civil
is,
places
of
however, older by half a
As early as the year

century than the decree of 394.
331 Anicius Paulinus, prefect of the City, transferred
statues to the
thermae of the Decii on the Aventine
L. VI. 1651); Fabius Titianus lined the Sacra

Via with other examples of the sculptor's art in 339(
same way Fabius Felix Passifilus Paulinus

embellished the Baths of Titus in 355, Clodius Hermo341
in the
genianus the Baths of Trajan in 368-370. The Basilica

Julia was likewise ornamented with borrowed statues
by Gabinius Vettius Probianus in 377

parts of the
on
which
five
of
them
stood
have
come to
pedestals
;
and contain inscriptions with
light ((7. I. L. VI. 1658),
statuam quae basilicae Juliae a se noviter

ornamento
Some of these masesset, adiecit.
reparatae
terpieces were of Greek origin ; one was attributed to
the formula,
Praxiteles,
the
others
to
Polyclitus,
Timarchus, and
Bryaxis.
From
inscriptions
we
statues were overthrown
and by the
cursions,
learn also that in later times
by the barbarians
citizens in civil strifes.
in their in-
pedesdiscovered in the fifteenth century near S. Maria

Nuova, at the top of the Clivus Sacer, bore the in-
tal
scription
Castalius Innocentius
praef{ectu8) urbis
tuit ((7.
I.
....
Audax
v(ir) cQarissimusy
barbarica incursione sublata resti-
L. VI. 1663).
Another, discovered during
the pontificate of Julius III. (1550-1555), speaks of a
37
statue of Minerva that had been thrown
time of
tire
caused
and
riot,
by
by Anicius Acilius Aginatius, apparently
/.
((7.
down
set
in
at the
up again
483 A.D.
L. VI. 1664).
To what
use the temples were put immediately after
the expulsion of their gods,
we do not know; but
it
is
certain that they were not occupied
by Christians, nor
This change
turned into places of Christian worship.
was only
to take
place
two centuries
later,
when
the
scruples about the propriety of worshipping the true

God in heathen temples had been overcome.
In
the
year
609,
IV.
Boniface
Pope
"asked
the
Emperor Phocas for the temple which was called Pantheon, and turned it into a church of Mary the Virgin
ever blessed."
Two
in the converting of
tian
periods, then,
pagan
may
be distinguished
edifices into places of Chris-
worship, one anterior to the year 609, the other
following
alone
that
date.
During the
first,
civil
edifices
were transformed, partially or completely, into

such were the Record Office, which became
churches
the church of SS.
Cosmas and Damian, and the round
market on the Caelian
Hill,
now
S.
Stefano Rotondo.
After 609 almost every available building, whether secular or sacred, was made into a church or chapel, until
the places of worship seemed to outnumber the houses.
We
of
must not imagine, however, that the good-will

the emperors and the guardianship of the prefects of
the City saved
all
statues from destruction.
Far from
38
Public protection was extended only to the works

of art which adorned the streets, squares, baths, parks,
it
and public buildings, few in number when compared

with the thousands upon thousands that belonged to
A special magistrate was appointed
private owners.
to take charge of this
under the
ues
"
;
Curator Statuarum, " Keeper of Stat-
title of
but the
branch of public administration,
office
was not long kept up.
King
Theoderic and his adviser Cassiodorius revived

the year 500,
hands of
dorius
and masons, the

marble-hunters mentioned by Cassio-
lime-burners,
bodies
three
of
VII.
(Variar.
stone-cutters,
The Curator Statuarum
13).
then had the help of two assessors,

the
abandoned
the
other
himself
deric
the
to
Domus
in
the statues from the
order to save
in
it
from
buildings
the
lime-kilns
caused
the
columns
to
be
plundering,
illegal
control
Pinciana
one to protect
and yet Theoand marbles of
removed from Rome
to
well
be
Ravenna. 1
The
destruction
illustrated
simulacra,
of
marble
statuary
by the fate of the

"most precious images
may
pretiosissima
of
deorum
the gods," placed
by Augustus in the compital shrines at the crossings

of the main thoroughfares of the City, in the years
about two
The number of these shrines
10-7 B.C.
hundred
to
in the time of
two hundred
1
and
had been increased
Augustus
sixty-five
Cassiod. Variar. III. 10, ed.
in
73
A.D.,
Mommseu.
and
to

three
hundred and twenty-four
39
the
beginning of
They offered an almost complete
the fourth century.
at
chronological series of works of Greek plastic art to

the
appreciation
become
of
all
the citizens of
of
these
" most
Rome.
What
"
precious images
If
has
we
1
of
plinth and four pedestals
series have come down to us, we
consider that only one

that
incomparable
cannot doubt that the three hundred and twenty-four
"most precious images"
Greek workmanship belonging to the compital shrines shared the same fate as
those from the temples,
they were broken to pieces,
of
and the pieces thrown into the
new
the walls of
buildings, as
if
lime-kilns, or built into
they were the cheapest
rubble.
Foundation walls built up in part of statues and

have been found by the score.
I add here
busts
a few examples from the "
Memoirs "
of Flaminio
Vacca
(1594) and of Pietro Sante Bartoli (about 1675).

"A foundation wall which runs under the hospital of
2
St.
John Lateran," Vacca
reports,
fragments of excellent statuary.

1
The
plinth
Mater Matuta
was discovered
(S.
in
Maria del Sole)
"
is
built entirely of
saw there knees and
1896, near the so-called temple of

in the piazza
Bocca
della Verita.
It
belonged to a celebrated work of Scopas the younger, being inscribed

a statue of Hercules, surnamed Olivarius from
OPTS SCOPAE MIXORIS,
See Huelsen, " II Foro
I have
Boario," in Dissert. Accad. archeol. Serie II. Vol. VI. p. 261.
described the four pedestals in Pagan and Christian Home, pp. 34, 35.
2 Edited
by Fea in Vol. I. of the Miscellanea, Rome, 1790.
the location of the shrine near the Olive Market.
40
elbows modelled in the style of the Laocoon of the Belve-
dere" (Mem. p. 13). Further, "In the walls and foundations of an old house, which stood near S. Lorenzo
Mura, and was pulled down to make room for
fuori le
a square in front of that church, eighteen or twenty
Most of
emperors were discovered.
"
to the Farnese Gallery
(ibid.
of
portrait-busts
them were removed
And
11).
p.
the
to
levelled
again,
"A
ground
great block of masonry was

the
in
vineyard of Hannibal
Caro, outside the Porta San Giovanni, for the improve-
ment
the
of
the twelve
marble
plantation.
Caesars,
as
complete set of busts of
well
as
of
other emperors,
bas-reliefs
sarcophagus bearing
of
the
twelve
labours of Hercules, and other line marbles were found
embedded
came
in the masonry.
of the busts
have forgotten what be-
the front of the sarcophagus, how-
was cut away and sent to Nuvolara, a villa of

Monsignor Visconti," on the left bank of the Po
ever,
(ibid.
"
48).
p.
When
the Via Graziosa was opened in 1684," says
"along the north slope of the Cespian, opposite

Lorenzo in Panisperna, remains of ancient houses
Bartoli,
S.
were found, 1 and fragments of an exquisite statue of

The statue was afterwards
Venus built into a wall.
restored
by
Ercole
Sweden" (Mem.
cellar
of
a house
1
p.
Ferrata
17).
Queen Christine of
Finally, "In exploring the
for
on the Corso, the famous
See Ruins and Excavations, p. 393, Fig. 149.
architect,

Lorenzo
discovered
Bernini,
pieces and
built into a wall.
41
seven statues broken
The
in
statues were restored
almost perfectly, so few were the fragments missing"

(ibid. p. 42).
Francesco de' Ficoroni saw, in the year 1693, u a very

great
number
of fragments of the
most beautiful
stat-
ues, which had served as building materials" for the

foundations of the Torre di Nona, near the bridge of
S.
Angelo (Mem.
of blocks
last
of
p. 2).
alabaster
The same
discovered,
archaeologist speaks
in
tower of the City walls on the
Tiber,
by the Monte Testaccio.

fiorito was cut into
alabastro
One
slabs
1705, under the
bank of the
left
of the blocks of
and used
Madonna
decoration of the front of the altar of the

Sasso in the Pantheon (ibid. p. 105).
Laocoon
known
is
the
in
del
replica of the
to be buried in the substructures of
the church of S. Pudentiana, and a fine statue of colossal

size
under
Were
S. Marcello.
to relate
my
personal experience in the
of similar finds, the entire

for the narrative.
In
all
volume would hardly

sorts
of places, both within
and without the walls of the City,

of
fragments
strata
as well
statuary
as
in
used
as
Toward
have come across
rubble,
in
the
those of later periods.
three instances must answer for
way
suffice
older
Two
or
all.
the end of the second or the beginning of
the third century, a colony of Greek sculptors
Rome from
Aphrodisias, in Caria, and set
came to
up a studio
42
on the Esquiline
the
of
gardens
between the Baths of Titus and
hill,
They were
Maecenas.
active
artists
indeed, and worked harmoniously under the mastership
whom
of a leader,
One day
their
'
came
to grief
they called apxiepevs (high priest).
workshop and their exhibition rooms

whether by fire, or by the fall of the
by violence of men, I cannot tell. In the

1886, when the Via Buonarroti was being cut
building, or
spring of
through in the direction of the Baths of Titus, a wall

was discovered entirely built with the contents of the
There were statues of Jupiter, Juno, Pluto,

bacAesculapius, Cybele, Minerva Parthenos, Hercules
studio.
chic
mouths
fountains,
vases,
figures of animals, bas-reliefs,
nearly
bers
all
of
of
candelabras,
wells,
and other carvings
and
by one of the membrotherhood from Aphrodisias
the works were signed

artistic
this
seventeen signatures in
all.
The
no essential
fact that
each work were missing shows that they

were brought entire to the scene of destruction, and
portions of
then broken up and thrown into a foundation wall.
Two
temple of
angelo, the
later,
the same kind was
discovery of
the
and a half
years
Via
Isis,
now
Galileo,
in
November, 1888,
made on
the site
a
of
by the Via MichelVia Leopardi, and other streets.

crossed
Another wall was found containing three or four hundred fragments of sculpture, out of which fourteen
statues,
or
important
reconstructed.
They
portions
represent
of
statues,
Jupiter,
have been
Serapis,
Isis

crowned with poppies and ears
43
and the same
of grain,
there
goddess veiled, with a crescent on her forehead
are also three replicas of the same type, and a female
;
figure
wearing the Egyptian head-dress, probably a porThese marbles are, beyond doubt, spoils
trait-statue.
from the great temple close by, hammered and broken

and utilised as building materials, after the closing of
the temple
Apparently the sanctuary supplied

marbles and stone to the whole neighbourhood for cenAt the foot of the platform on which it stood
turies.
itself.
another wall was found in December, 1888, built with

blocks of amethyst breccia (breccia ametistina), amount-
ing in
all to
twenty or twenty-five cubic
feet.
In 1884, while collecting specimens of rare marbles,

to be exhibited in the Museo Urbano in the Orto
was shown a beautiful piece of purplish

with oval spots resembling in shape and colour
I
Botanico,
granite,
those of a leopard's skin, which had just been discov-
ered under the Hickson Field palace, on the Via Merulana.
As
the block
was not
me with
the
pieces of the
stipulation
that
shapeless,
entirely
bore marks of the chisel on one side,

if,
but
it
was given to
in the
future, other
same object should be found, the donation
Two
should be cancelled.
years later,
when
the con-
vent of the Cluny Sisters was being built, at a distance

of six hundred feet from the Field palace, what should
be brought to light but the missing portions of that

very work of art
It
was a beautiful and nearly per-
44
feet replica of the sacred cow, Hatlior,
the symbol of
seemingly copied from the original, discovered in

1884 among the ruins of the temple of Isis in the Campus
Martius.
After such instances of the destruction and
Isis,
of
dispersion
FIG.
11.
statuary, can
statue,
we wonder
broken into fragments,
at
the fate
of
in process of reconstruction.
the Farnese Hercules, the torso of which was found in
the Baths of Caracalla, the head at the bottom of a

well in the
miles from
Trastevere, and the legs at Bovillae, ten
Rome?

In the accompanying illustration (Fig.
in
process
of reconstruction a
11)
we
see
Victory that
It
was discovered
L. Aurelius Avianius
Symmachus on
had been broken into 151

in the house of
statue of
45
pieces.
the Caelian. 1
My
Rome
experience in the excavations at
has sug-
gested the following observation in regard to the condition of marble statues

in loose earth,
among
when
discovered
Those found
the ruins of the edifices to which
they belonged, generally lack head and arms ; but those

that have been used as building material in foundation
walls can often be reconstructed in their entirety, head
and arms being not far away.

These facts show that before the burial of Ancient
Rome, many
ing off their
The
loss
had been injured by knockmost prominent and easily broken parts.
of the statues
of
head and arms may
in
some cases have
resulted from the overthrowing of the statue, the
body
where
it
the
head
off
to
one
side.
fell,
remaining
rolling
Most of the loose heads are rounded and smooth as if
had used them to play the popular game
Some of them have a hook or ring on the
street-idlers
bocce. 2
of
crown, and must have been used as weights for large

1
Ruins and Excavations,
This
is
smaller one, which

balls,
p. 347.
game played with six larger balls and one

used as a mark. Each of the two players rolls three
a purely Italian
is
and those that stop nearest the mark gain a point. The temptation
when wooden balls were not available must
to use loose heads of statues
have been strong.
46
scales.
The
time were
my
The
five
all,
or six hundred heads
discovered in
except a dozen or two, without noses.
fact that heads
and arms
of statues
used as build-
ing materials are rarely missing, shows that the breaking up of statuary became
early period of the
of
art
Roman
common
decadence,
ornamenting palaces and
suffered but little injury.
at
a comparatively
when
gardens
the works
had
as
yet
CHAPTER IV
THE ASPECT OF THE CITY AT THE BEGINNING OF
THE FIFTH CENTURY
ALTHOUGH Rome had
recover, from
not recovered, and could not
removal
the
of
the
imperial court
to
Byzantium, accomplished in 330, yet at the beginning

of the fifth century the great buildings still remained
substantially
and
intact,
to the list of
existing
impressiveness
of
effect that
II.,
who
Palatine
visited
Forum
may
The
architectural
be measured by the
in
it
357,
to
twenty-seven
years
be
of
the
seat
after
imperial
graphic account of the visit is given

Marcellinus in the tenth chapter of Book
I
quote but one passage referring to
of Trajan
Having now
marvellous
City
had ceased
by Ammianus
XVI., from which
"
monuments.
government.
the
few additions were made
produced upon the mind of Constantius
it
the
the
Forum Trajanum, the most

human genius, he was struck
entered the
creation
of
with wonder, and looked around in amazement at the

great structures, which no pen can describe, and which
mankind can
create
of
centuries.
and behold but once in the course
Then he turned
47
his attention to
48
the equestrian statue in the centre of the Forum, and

to
said
attendants he would have one like
his
Constantinople
to
it
in
which Hormisdas, a young Persian

'You must first
prince attached to the court, replied,
provide your horse with a stable like
'
this.'
Constantius was indeed overwhelmed by the greatRome. The other edifices mentioned as having
especially astonished him are the temple of Jupiter on
ness of
the
the
Capitoline,
the
Pantheon, the temple
theatre of
There
visit
is
the
Thothmes
Flavian Amphitheatre,
Baths, the
Venus and
of
Rome, the
Pompey, the Odeum, and the Stadium.

also a monumental record of this imperial
highest obelisk
the
of
world,
erected
by
III. before the
great temple at Thebes, removed by Constantius to Rome, and set up in the Circus Maximus.
It now stands in the piazza of the
Lateran.
Constantius
is
said to have taken
away the
superb statue of Victory, presented by Augustus, from

the Senate-house
but it must have been saved from
;
injury, for
place
It
Julian the Apostate (361-363) was able to
it
again on
is
difficult
magnificence of
its pedestal.
for
us to form a conception of
Rome, even in
its
decline.
the
According
to the regionary catalogue compiled in the time of Con" contained 2

1
circuses, 2 amphistantine, the City then
1
There are two editions of
name
of Notitia
this catalogue.
Begionum Urbis Bomae,
ond, called Curiosum urbis
The
first,
known by
dates from A.D. 334
the
the sec-
Bomae regionum XIV., must have been
BEGINNING OF THE FIFTH CENTURY
40
3 theatres, 10 basilicas, 11 thermae, 36 arches
theatres,
of marble,
2 commemorative
columns, 6 obelisks (im-
that is,
ported from Egypt), 423 temples, 1790 domus
extensive private residences, or palaces, of the wealthy
besides which there were reckoned 46,602 tenements
(insulae).
The open
places were adorned with 2 colossi
(probably
those
Nero and
horses
'-
of
presumably
counting
Augustus),
22
not
the
merely
equestrian statues, as that of Marcus Aurelius,
'great
large
now
in
Capitol, but also groups of which

horses formed a part, as those of the Dioscuri on the
the square of
the
Capitoline and of the Horse-tamers on the Quirinal
to
which are added 80 gilded and 77 ivory statues of the

gods, no mention being made of the countless lesser
In the number of obelisks, at
statues on every side."
any
rate, the catalogue falls far short of the truth
such as these, impressive though they
statistics
and
may
be,
are after all of no real assistance in trying to form an
idea of the aspect of the City unless
we
reconstruct, in imagination, the buildings
are
able
and works
to
of
art so concisely summarised.
The year 403
is
memorable for the celebration of a
triumph, the last ever seen in Ancient Rome.
cen-
tury had elapsed since the Romans had beheld such a

issued in or after 357, because
in the Circus
Maximus.
it
mentions the obelisk raised in that year
For a bibliography on these two invaluable
documents see Ruins and Excavations,

E
p. vii.
50
Diocletian's triumph in 303
sight
nay, in that -space
time they had only thrice seen the face of an em-
of
peror.
The pretext for this pageant was the subjugaNumidian rebel, Count Gildo.
This event
tion of the
is
commemorated by
is
a pedestal of an equestrian group, discovered in the
Forum near
the arch
1549 and 1565

learn that
it
several existing
of
Septimius
One
monuments.
between
Severus
bears an inscription, from which
it
we
was erected by the Senate and the Roman
people as a testimonial of their rejoicing at the crush-
ing of the rebellion and the recovery of Africa.
erected in
distinctly attributes
directly
third
In
place was found the pedestal of a statue

honour of Stilicho, the inscription of which
the same
the
in
to
him the reconquest

of
face
the
historical
of Africa,
evidence. 1
commemorating the repairing
inscription,
of
Claudian and Marcian aqueducts, in the plain of

Arsoli, with the money confiscated from the rebels,
the
is
preserved
in
the
palace
Prince
of
Massimi
at
Arsoli.
Another
historic
monument
relating
to
the
Gothic
wars stands on the edge of the Forum opposite the

Senate-house.
the
army
The
inscription praises the gallantry of
of Arcadius, Honorius,
and Theodosius
in de-
feating Rhadagaisus at the battle of Florence in 405;
the
1
victory
being
attributed
to
Stilicho,
post con-
See Huelsen, "II monumento della guerra GiWonica sul Foro Roin Mttheil, 1895, p. 52
C. I. L. VI. 1187, 1730.
mano,"
BEGINNING
fecf.um
Grothicum bellum
Flavii Stilichon is
THE FIFTH CKNTUKY
<>F
consiliis ct fortitudine
l
.
The monument
FIG. 12.
.1
of Stilicho in the
Forum.
This memorial, shown in our illustration (Fig. 12),

set up "by decree of the Senate and the Roman people,
1
Notizie degli Scavi, 1880, p. 53.
52
under the care
It
Romulus, prefect of the
the meanest and poorest in the whole Forum.
is
City,"
Pisidius
of
presents
pride, taste,
made
It is
century.
evidence
indisputable
and resources
which forms the
of
the
decline
of
at the beginning of the fifth
two blocks, one of travertine,

and one of marble above. The
of
base,
marble block had previously been used as a pedestal

for an equestrian statue of bronze
the statue was
;
knocked
the
off,
pedestal
end, the cracks in
clamps
it
set
up awkwardly on one
being brought together with iron
then the old inscription was carefully obliterit.

In the same year,
ated,
and the new one cut over
405,
perors
triumphal arch was raised to the three Em" because

with spoils of other edifices
they
had swept from the face of the earth the nation

Goths."
Four years later, the very barbarians
they boasted to
of the
whom
have annihilated, stormed and sacked
the city.
The arch
S.
just
mentioned
stood
church
by the
Orso, near S. Giovanni de' Fiorentini.
of
Just as in
classical
times, such
honorary monuments were raised
on
Sacra
leading
the
Jupiter
era,
Via,
Optimus Maximus,
to
so
the
now,
great
in
the
temple
of
Christian
they were built over the roads converging towards
and especially at the foot of the bridges

which the pilgrims had to cross on their way to the
St.
Peter's,
Apostle's tomb.
The arch
and Theodosius, erected
of Gratianus, Valentinianus,
in the year 382, stood in the
53
Piazza di Ponte S. Angelo, that of Arcadius, Honorius,
and Theodosius (405 A.D.) at the approach to the Pons

Vaticanus, that of Valentinian and Valens (366-367)
by the Ponte
Sisto.
The Emperors Arcadius and Honorius,
an
fearing
advance of the Goths under Alaric, undertook the general restoration of the City walls under the direction
The work was
of Stilicho.
and celebrated by several

cut
on the
Porta
finished
in
January, 402,
inscriptions, three of which,
Porta
Tiburtina,
Praenestina,
Porta Portuensis, have come down to
and
us.
They speak
"the restoration of the walls, gates, and
towers of the Eternal City," but also of "the removal
not
only of
of large masses of rubbish."
This allusion to the dispoof great importance for our subject,
sition of rubbish is
because
it
gives us the date and the cause of the
great rise in the level of the City, at least of
ing districts.
first
the outly-
After the removal of the imperial court to
Byzantium, the municipal regulations requiring the re-
moval
of the City refuse to a safe distance apparently
into abeyance
and all sorts of material seem to
have been heaped up against the walls. Stilicho had
neither time nor means to cart away the bank of debris,
fell
which certainly diminished

ful defence
off
402,
and
it
spreading
therefore,
the
1
C.
over
level
I.
chances
his
so he contented
of
of
success-
himself with levelling

the
adjoining
imperial
L. VI. 1188-1190.
land.
Rome on
it
In
the
54
of the walls
line
was raised
at once
by ten or twelve
feet.
The
best evidence of this fact
Porta Ostiensis,
mid
of
now Porta
of Cestius (Fig.
402
13).
FIG.
arch
13.
found at the
to be
The threshold
of the gate
about twelve feet higher than the base of the
is
pyramid and the threshold

the
is
di S. Paolo, close to the pyra-
of
The
of the gate of 272.
Augustus on the Via
raising of level at the Porta Ostiensis, A.D. 402.

of Cestius is shown at the left.
formed the Tiburtine gate
of 272,
is
Again,
Tiburtina,
which
The Pyramid
ten or twelve feet
The same observation

lower than the gate of 402.
Porta
to
the
Porta
Praenestina, Porta
Flaminia,
applies
1
and Porta Septimiana.

The Porta Appia
have been rebuilt with materials taken from
Portuensis,
seems to
the beautiful temple of
Mars outside the
any change of level. In only one part

have I found traces of a lowering of the
1
walls, without
of
soil
See the illustration in Ruins and Excavations,
the
walls
below the
p. 76.

level of
the classical period.
55
This single exception
is
at the northeast corner of the Praetorian camp.
The
in
gates of Honorius have been
modern
Flamiiiia in
Septimiana
1478
in 1-198
IV.
Sixtus
times.
ruthlessly treated
dismantled the
Porta
Alexander VI. destroyed the Porta

Pius IV., the Nomentana in 1564
;
Urban VIII., the Portuensis and the Aurelia

Gregory XVI., the
Praenestina
in
in
In
1838.
1642
1869
Pius IX. dismantled the Porta Tiburtina, in order to
make use
of the stones of which it was built in the

"
foundations of the " Colonna del Concilio at the church
of S. Pietro in Montorio.
in the
bombardment
in its present
form
of
The Porta
September
in 1872.
damaged
was rebuilt
Salaria,
20, 1870,
CHAPTER V
THE SACK OF THE GOTHS IN
CONSEQUENCES
410,
AND
ITS
THE repairing of the city walls by Arcadius and

The sucHonorius was accomplished none too soon.
cess of Stilicho in checking the advance of the Goths
at the battle of Florence, in 405,
was only temporary;
the barbarian host, two hundred thousand strong, had
overrun the plains of northern Italy, and would undoubtedly take advantage of a favourable opportunity
to attack Rome itself.
Such an opportunity came with
who was banished

his name
monument erected in his
the disgrace and death of Stilicho,

in
407 and murdered at Ravenna in 408
was even erased from the
honour in the Forum, described
The Roman
before
leader
Rome
saw,
in the previous chapter.
had hardly been put out

for
the
first
of the
time since the
way
Gallic
invasion of 390 B.C., a host of barbarians surrounding

the walls.
This time Alaric was induced to lead his
army away by the payment
of an exorbitant
one of the items of which was

of
gold.
five
ransom,
thousand pounds
In order to meet this demand, the Romans

50

were compelled to
heavy gilding.
Two
strip
IN 410
57
the
bronze
statues
410,
Alaric
and
of
their
years
in
later,
his
hordes
entered the City, on the twenty-fourth day of August,

in the dead of night by the Porta Salaria, and set fire
the
to
houses
near
imperial mansion
the
of
doned
citizens
to
the
gate,
among which was the

The lives
in the gardens of Sallust.
were spared, but the City was aban-
two sacred
except as regards the
plunder,
At
enclosures of St. Peter and St. Paul.
the end of
the third day the barbarians withdrew, carrying off an
amount
incredible
we
if
of articles of value,
are to believe Procopius
among which
were the spoils of the
temple at Jerusalem which Titus had placed in the

but the testimony of Procopius on
temple of Peace
this point may well be doubted.
;
In these days of terror the Aventine with its 130

palaces, the most aristocratic quarter of the city, suffered
more than
all
the remains of the

of Trajan
in the
the
made
nessed excavations
other regions.
have wit-
in the
Vigna Torlonia, among

Thermae Decianae and of the house
Vigna Maciocchi, among the ruins
of
the palace of Annia Cornificia Faustina, younger sister
Ummidius Quadratus
where
the palace of the
Anselmo,
Marcus Aurelius and wife
of
in the
1
garden
of
S.
of
Zosimus, V. 45, speaks of the actual melting of gold and silver

and also of the gold and silver ornaments of bronze or mar-
statues,
ble statues.
58
Pactumeii was discovered in 1892
and
in the garden
of S. Sabina, once occupied
Minister
of
Finance
by the houses of Cosmus,

under Marcus Aurelius, and of
Marcella and Principia, the friends of St. Jerome.
In
was struck by the fact

excavations,
that these beautiful palaces must have perished towards
watching these
the beginning of the fifth century of our era, and
The
from the same cause.
signs
of
destruction
all
are
of flames which blackeverywhere

ened the red ground of the frescoes, and caused the
roofs to fall on the mosaic or marble pavements of
the
the
ground
same:
floor
traces
scattered
coins
among
the
ruins,
belonging, with rare exceptions, to the fourth century

statues that had been restored over and over again
marbles stolen from pagan buildings, mostly from sepulchral monuments, and utilised for hurried restorations
;
and Christian symbols on lamps and domestic utensils.

These indications fix the period and point to the same
historical event,
the capture and pillage of Rome by
The Aventine paid
the Goths in August, 410.

for the
partiality
wealthy.
The
shown
treasures
for
it
dearly
by the noble and the
accumulated
in
its
palaces
roused the cupidity of the invaders, and led them to

excesses of plunder and destruction such as were spared
to
more humble
districts of the City.
Although the imperial casino

lust
is
in the gardens of Sal-
the only structure distinctly mentioned
rians as having been
consumed by
fire,
we
by
histo-
are constantly
59
IN 410
discovering evidences of a far more widespread loss from
and even among the written records of those

eventful days some new particulars come to light, from
this cause
time to time, as in the following instance

On the Caelian Hill, between S. Stefano Rotondo and
:
the Lateran, there was a palace belonging to the descendants of the Valerii Poplicolae, namely, to Valerius
Severus, prefect of Rome in the year 386, and to his

The
son Pinianus, husband of Melania the younger.
palace was so beautiful aud contained so much wealth,
that
when Pinianus and Melania, crushed with
on account of the
in
for sale
ad
it
tarn
loss of all their children,
grief
it
put
up
none willing to purchase
mirabile opus accedere nemo ausus
404, they found
magnum
et
However, seven or eight years later the same

domus pro nihilo
palace was sold for little or nothing
venumdata est. The reason for such a change has lately
fuit.
been discovered in a manuscript of the library of Chartres.

its
The barbarians had plundered
valuables, and wrecked
it
by
fire.
the palace of
all
Additional evidence regarding the fate of the palaces

on the Aventine is furnished by St. Jerome, in Epistles
54 and 127.
One of these palaces, as we have seen,
belonged to Marcella, the founder of monastic life in

Rome.
This noble matron was left a widow after
seven months of marriage, and being pressed by the
Consul Cerealis to marry again, determined to sever
1
Compare, however. Ruins and Excavations,
p. 345.
60
connection with the world for the rest of her
all
life.
Following the rule of St. Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria, she dressed herself in simple garb, gave
use of
up the
wine and meat, and divided her time between
and pilgrimages
to the tombs of apostles and martyrs.
St. Jerome became Marcella's spiritual adviser such was the serenity
the study of the
Scriptures,
prayers,
and beauty of her character, that in one of

she is addressed as "the pride of Roman
However, when Rome became
his letters
matrons."
the prey of the
Goths,
the barbarians broke into her peaceful retreat and tor-
tured her in an attempt to discover the secret hidingplace of her treasures, treasures that she had long
before given
Fearing more for the
up to the needy.
safety of Principia,
whom
she had adopted as a spirit-
ual daughter, than for her
own
life,
she threw herself
and begged to be
Paul outside the walls,
at the feet of the Gothic chieftain
conducted to the church of
St.
which, like St. Peter's, had been set apart by Alaric

as a refuge for women and children.
The destruction
her Aventine
of
and
home and
the shock of the
pillage brought Marcella's life to a close
torture
she died
before the end of that eventful August.
The barbarians attacked with equal fury

buildings
One
of
of
the
Aventine,
especially
these establishments, called
the
the public
thermae.
Thermae Decianae
from the family of the Caecinae Decii, who had built

in the neighbourhood of their palace, was under-
it
61
IN 410
mined by the Goths so that the main wall of the tepidarium leaned forward, dragging into its own ruin all
the neighbouring halls.
made
repairs
haste
in
The damages, as well as the

by Caecina Decius Albinus in
the year 414, are described in an inscription discovered
on the spot in 1725, and now preserved in the Capi-
The temple
Museum. 1
toline
Juno
of
Regina,
first
erected by Camillus after the capture of Veii, and rebuilt in imperial times
with great magnificence, seems

if not destroyed, on this
to have been seriously injured,

occasion.
Its
Illyrian priest,
marbles were made use of by Peter, an

who built the church of S. Sabina in 425.
Such being the fate of the Aventine, with its luxurious homes and countless treasures, it need not surprise
us
the Genius of the
if
say)
has
searchers
Such a
now and then vouchsafed

after
antiquities
truly
was that made in the
find
would
place (as the ancients

to
us
modern
remarkable
pontificate
of
find.
Pius
IV. by Matteo da Castello, the Pope's architect, who,

while planting a vineyard near the church of S.
came across two or three receptacles of lead,

containing eighteen hundred pieces of gold, with the
Prisca,
image
of the
bol of the
Pope
as
of his
Empress Helena on one side, and the symon the other. He duly notified the
discovery, and received the whole treasure
cross
a present.
The gold was valued

1
C.
I.
L. VI. 1703.
at
about three
62
thousand
Matteo
Flaminio Galgano, a contemporary of
dollars.
da
was
Castello,
While
fortunate.
equally
quarrying stone at the foot of the hill near S. Prisca,

he discovered in the heart of the rock a square room,
with the pavement inlaid with pieces of agate and
cornelian,
copper, in
and the walls covered with panels of gilt

the cornice of which rare medals were set as
a motive of
decoration.
paterae and instruments
The room
Pietro Sante Bartoli, in his

the
following
many
damaged by fire.
Memoirs (n. 128), gives
account of another
ciated with the
contained
of sacrifice, all
find,
probably asso-
same barbarian invasion:
"When Urban
VIII. built the Bastione del Priorato di Malta, in front

of
the church
of
S.
Maria
Aventiria,
many
curious
things were discovered.

Among them was a hidingplace, formed by two walls, inside of which was concealed a silver table service,
place
of
The
in repousse.
concealment was covered and screened from
view by a piece
the
worked
Villa
of a
Pamfili.
marble cornice, since removed to
Another
treasure
of
gold
coins,
and other precious objects was found inside an

earthen jar; the police, acting under the orders of Carrings,
dinal Antonio
Barberini, sought far
and wide
for the
but they could never lay hands on him. A few

days after, another workman from Aquila discovered a
leaden box, and, although his pay for several weeks of
finder,
labour was
still
to his credit, he thought
it
better to
abscond with the box than to wait for his money."

Perhaps the most remarkable
IN 410
63
of silverware
set
ever
buried in Rome for fear of barbarian plundering is the

one discovered between June, 1793, and March of the
following year, under the convent of the Paolotte, on

the Via di S. Lucia in Selce, the ancient
buranus.
The
service
a lady
of
collection,
of
which belonged
1029 ounces, and
rank, weighed
names
comprised a pyxis inscribed with the
Clivus Su-
to the toilet-
of Turcius
Asterius Secundus and of his wife Projecta, two candlesticks in the shape of brackets, five plates
and four
soup-plates, with the name "Projecta Turci," in goldniello, five goblets in the shape of ewers, a wash-
basin
in
spoons,
the shape of a shell, and lamps,
together with
remains of a sedan
forks,
and
chair
and
sundry other articles, the catalogue of which is given

1
Pius VI. allowed the
by Ennio Quirino Visconti.
treasure to be disposed of
by
sale.
few pieces were
bought by Carlo Gherardi, and resold to Baron von

Kevenhuller
all the rest were purchased by Baron
;
von Schellersheim.
The
finest
objects are
now
exhib-
Museum, thanks to the generosity

of the late Sir Augustus Franks.
The silver set was
ited in the
British
evidently hidden in great haste.
Visconti affirms that
he saw a piece of a linen towel inside the shell-shaped

basin, "a proof," he says, "of the hurry with which
the treasure was buried." The concealment must have
1
Lettera di Ennio Quirino Visconti intorno ad

2d ed. Rome, 1827, xxv. plates.
(Vargento, etc.
una antica
supeUettile
64
taken
place
362
after
when Turcius Asterius
A.D.,
Secundus was prefect of the City, and in fact after

his death, because some of the pieces bear the name of
a
Peregrina,
We
who seems
The question
of 410.
the same time and for
dug out and recovered

The inquiry
barians?
answered.
knew
the secret lost
possibly the palace
the sack
is
the retreat of
more
one
their
of
the
Why
and many others concealed

the same cause, were not
after
the
Perhaps
the date of
naturally suggests itself
this collection of valuables,
at
have been his daughter.
to
are not far, therefore, from
easily
two
or
the
in
lives
the
raised
than
persons
who
sack of
410
was burnt
Asterii
bar-
to
the
ground, and all access to the hiding-place cut off.

The barbarian invasions had one result which, from
the archaeological point of view,
is
even greater
of
nificance than the burying of treasure
of bronze
careful hiding
order
making
statues
save them from injury
to
their
possible
a perfect state
instances,
we
of
are
in
or
sig-
refer to the
times of panic in
destruction,
thus
rediscovery in modern times in
preservation.
Of
course,
in
many
not able to determine whether the
concealment took place in 410 rather than in 455 or

What we do know is, that
537, or some other year.
bronzes were hidden through fear of an imminent calamity; and the presumption is in favour of the earlier
date because the
number
of bronze statues in existence
must have been vastly diminished

ing of the City.
after the first sack-
IN 410
65
been suggested that fear of the Christians, on

account of the acts of violence occasionally committed
It has
by the populace against the temples and their contents,

may have been the cause that led to the concealment
of images, particularly of the gods
lence against pagan sanctuaries
but deeds of vio-
not
uncommon
in the
East, as in the case of the destruction of the magnifi-
cent Serapeum at Alexandria in 391

rare in
combs
Rome.
of
The rough painting
the Via Salaria Vetus which represents the
unique in its way; and

speaks of "the overthrowing of
1
overthrowing of a statue
though
were extremely
in one of the cata-
St.
Augustine
is
the images in the City of Rome," his words, obviously
all
3
metaphorical, are contradicted by Claudianus, who, writ-
ing in the year 403, mentions vast multitudes of bronze

and marble statues, lining the streets and the forums. 4
Statues were sometimes concealed by the magistrates
themselves.
Two
inscriptions,
one of which was
dis-
covered at Benevento, the other at Capua, describe the

reerection of works of statuary, reperta in abditis
or translata ex abditis
locis.
have described elsewhere 5
De
Augustine, Sermo cv de rerbis evang. Luc. X. 13.

De vi. consulatu Honorii, 42.
locis,
Rossi, Bull, di arch, crist.. 1865, pp. 3, 4.
Fuller information on this subject will be found in Edmund Le

Blant's paper, " De quelques statues cache"es par les anciens," published
4
Compte-rendus de I'Acad. dcs Inscriptions, 1890,
in
Ipapi del Medio Evo, ital. edit, of 1897, Vol.

Ruins and Excavations, p. 456.
Grisar's
6
I.
p.
541
p. 38.
and
in
66
the discovery of
Hercules Invictus which
the bronze
had been hidden by the charioteers of the Circus Maximus, and of the Hercules Magnus Gustos concealed by
those of the Circus Flaminius
in
first
came
to light
the time of Sixtus IV. (1471-1484), the second in
This
1864.
of
the
coffin
last
made
had been carefully buried in a kind

of
slabs
of
portasanta.
gladiator, likewise, discovered
foundations
the
of
in
Nazionale, had not been buried

of rubbish,
The
March, 1885, in the
Drammatico
Teatro
The bronze
in
on
the
haste in that heap
but had been treated with the utmost
figure,
which was
in
Via
care.
a sitting posture, had been
upon a stool, and the

trench, which had been dug under the platform of the
temple of the Sun to conceal the statue, had been
on a stone
poised
capital,
as
with finely sifted earth, in

bronze from any possible injury.
filled
As
rule,
the bronzes
order
discovered
in
to
save
Rome
the
since
the Renaissance
I speak of this later period because
our knowledge of earlier finds is too imperfect and fraghad been carefully hidden,
mentary to be of value
or even
thrown into the Tiber, in times of panic. The

was lost, either on account
secret of the place of hiding
of the death
of
those
who knew the

made
the great masses of debris had
reach
it
Many
in
spot, or
it
because
impossible to
again.
of these places of concealment
our days
three
of
them deserve
have been found

special
mention.
FIG.
Brouze heads fouud
14.
1.
Augustus.
3, 4.
under the English church, Via del

Babuino.
2. Nero.
in 1880
Portrait head of the first century
name unknown.

The
first is
IN 410
69
the treasure-trove unearthed in 1849, a few
storming of Rome by the French

army under General Oudinot, beneath the house at No.
It con17, Vicolo delle Palme, now Vicolo dell' Atleta.
weeks before
the
sisted of a marble
Lysippus
copy of the bronze Apoxyomenos of
now
of the bronze horse,
in the Palazzo dei
"an unique
Conservatori, described by Emil Braun as
"
work, a masterpiece, and a genuine Grecian antique ;

of a bronze foot with a particularly ornamental caliga,
which may possibly have belonged to the rider of the

horse
of a bronze bull,- and many other fragments of
;
less
importance.
The second discovery was made September

at
the
Gesu
was
feet
corner
of
the Via del
15, 1880,
and Via del
Babuino
Maria where the English Church of All Saints
below the
was a head
of
The bronzes
erection. 1
in process of
threshold
more than
of
life
the
represent Augustus, and to

with the mausoleum of that Emperor
perforated,
and
known personages of the first

The third discovery took
There
which was thought

have some connexion
size,
to
with the eyes
lay nineteen
main door.
a head of
several
busts of
Nero
un-
century.
place
about
the
same
time at the corner of the Via Nazionale and Via di
Eufemia, while the Marchesa Capranica del Grillo

(Madame Ristori) was laying the foundations of her
S.
city
house.
The
i
treasure
consisted
Bull. Com., 1881, p. 30,
pi.
of
i.
marbles
and
70
The
bronzes.
art,
rank among the best specimens

if
indeed they are not purely
There was a
sitting statue of Cybele, holding
latter
Greco-Roman
of
Greek.
a diminutive millstone
a
of
in
the left hand
mouth
the
fountain in the shape of a lion's head, and the
head of a youth, the most superb piece of bronze work I

have ever seen. These bronzes all soon disappeared, and
I
have never been able to find out what became of them.
Another consequence
abandonment
of
of the Gothic invasion
Catacombs.
the
Christian
was the
archaeolo-
have stated that burials
.in the Catacombs, very

410
400
and
on
rare between
account of the insecurity
of the suburbs, were given up altogether after 410.
gists
The reason
for this
abandonment
is
The
easily seen.
end of a great and
storming of Alaric marks, thus, the
"
glorious era in the history of
underground
Rome
"
;
it
put an end altogether to the work of the fossores,

After suffering more damage in the invasion of 457,
the
Catacombs
were
irreparably
during the siege of the

distinctly
stated
devastated
in
Goths under Vitiges.
by the biographer
of
Pope
537,
It
is
Silverius
" churches and tombs of

martyrs were
(536-537) that
destroyed by the Goths"; but it is not easy for us to

understand why the Goths, bigoted Christians as they
were and
and
full of respect for the basilicas of
St.
Peter
Procopius declares, should have ransacked the Catacombs and have violated the tombs of
St.
Paul, as
martyrs, breaking up their commemorative inscriptions.
IN 410
71
Perhaps they could not read Latin or Greek epitaphs,

and so were unable to make a distinction between
perhaps they were
pagan and Christian cemeteries
hunting for hidden treasures, or the relics of saints.
;
Whatever may have been the reason
of their behav-
iour, it is certainly a significant fact that at
least
two
encampments of the Goths in 537 were just over the

Catacombs and around their entrances one on the Via
;
Catacombs of Thrason, and the other

on the Via Labicana, over those of Peter and MarcelSalaria, over the
The
linus.
barbarians,
naturally,
could hardly resist
the temptation to explore those subterranean wonders
indeed, they were obliged to do so by the most elementary rules of precaution. In each of the two cata-
combs
mentioned, a memorial tablet
made
the
in
has
been
found
haste
repairs
by Pope
between March, 537, the date of the retreat
Vitiges, and the following November, the date of
commemorating
Vigilius
of
the journey
this Pope's restorations
catacombs,
to Constantinople. 1
of Vigilius
especially
Traces of
have been found also in other

those
in
of
Callixtus
and Hip-
polytus.
His example was- followed by private indi-
viduals.
The tomb
Via
of
Crysanthus and Daria, in the
was repaired
Salaria,
barians pauperis ex censu,
after the retreat of the bar-
with the modest means of
one of the humbler followers of the Master.
Notwithstanding the feeling of insecurity caused by

1
Cf.
Payan and
Christian
Home,
p. 324.
72
sack of 410, the body of the Emperor Honorius,
the
who
in
died at Ravenna, August 15, 423, was not interred
that city, but was transported to
the
in
burial
imperial
mausoleum
Rome and
given
been
had
which
on the
south side of St. Peter's Church, in

wretched imitation of the great structures of Augustus
This tomb of the decadence was comand Hadrian.
raised
posed of two round halls, joined by a covered passage.

Each rotunda contained six or seven recesses, in which
Mention
the imperial sarcophagi were placed.
with
structure
(mausoleum)
A.D.),
of
who
the
life
of
Stephen
mosileos
II.
(752
the
supposed daughter of St. Peter,

derived its mediaeval name of S. Petronilla
it
other
rotunda was known as the
Andrew, and
first
denomination
genuine
of the
placed in the western chambers the remains
Petronilla,
whence
its
occurs in the
of
also of
"Our Lady
chapel
of
of the Fever."
building was destroyed in the
first
St.
The
quarter of the
make
new basilica, where the chapel of Saints Simon and
Judas now stands
the other met with a similar fate
room for the south transept of
sixteenth century, to
the
during the pontificate

occupied by the
mosileos,
new
of
Pius VI., and
sacristy.
The
so similar to that of the
its
place
was
architecture of the
tomb
of St.
Helena
(the Torre Pignattara) on the Via Labicana, gives us

the measure of the decline of Roman art and civilisa-
when we compare
with the imposing mausoleums of Augustus and Hadrian.
tion,
it
THE SACK OF THE GOTHS IN
73
410
The
robbery of the imperial graves which filled

rotundas by St. Peter's was accomplished at
It excels, in
various times and by various persons.
the two
refinement of barbarous and useless destruction,
deeds
other
of
The
occurred.
the
first
second took place
unique
set
unscrupulous
1519
the
of
last,
in
rius
and
his
it
the
The
1544.
the fifth century was
sent to the mint, or sold or given away.
ception of a bulla
the
all
which
desecration dates from 1458

in
crown jewels
of
age
in
inscribed with the
With
names
the ex-
of
Hono-
empress Maria, daughter of Stilicho and
Serena, and sister of Thermantia and Eucherius, which

is
now
every
in
other
identity.
the
hands of
specimen
has
Prince Trivulzio of
disappeared
or
Milan,
lost
its
THE SACK OF ROME BY THE VANDALS
THE
IX 455
exact date of the second capture of Rome, by
Genseric and the Vandals,
not known, but
is
it
was
probably the beginning of June, 455, three days after

the murder of Petronius Maximus, who had himself
caused the death of Valentinian
and usurped the

were mixed Bedouins
III.,
The Vandals, with whom
throne.
and Moors, entered the City by the Porta Portuensis,

and plundered it at leisure for the space of fourteen
The booty was
days.
carted
methodically to the
off
moored alongside the quays, now

morata and Ripa grande. The palace
ships
which Valentinian
III.,
called
of
La Mar-
the Caesars,
unlike his predecessors, had con-
stantly occupied and had kept in repair, was stripped

The temple of Jupieven of its commonest furniture.
Optimus Maximus, who from the lofty summit

the Capitoline hill had presided over the destinies
ter
the
Roman Commonwealth
quins,
was
offerings
also
off
of
since the time of the Tar-
put to ransom
were carried
of
to
its
statues
and votive
adorn the African
resi-
dence of Genseric, and half the roof was stripped of

its
tiles
of gilt
bronze.
It
74
is
also
reported that the
THE SACK OF THE VANDALS
IN 455
75
Jewish war, represented in the basof the arch of Titus and deposited by him in
of
trophies
reliefs
the
the temple of Peace,
These
rians.
fell
into the hands of
spoils, as well
plundered from the
Roman
the barba-
as the massive gold plate
churches, were discovered at
Carthage, eighty years later, by Belisarius, and carried

back in triumph, not to Rome, but to Constantinople.
have a memorial of these eventful days in the
We
Basilica Eudoxiana,
now
the church of S. Pietro in Vin-
which was built by Eudoxia the younger, widow

III., and a victim, first, of the usurper
coli,
of Valentinian
Maximus, and then of Genseric. This beautiful church

is built with columns of Greek marble taken from one
perhaps the Baths of
a fact
Titus or of Trajan, or the Porticus Tellurensis
the
of
neighbouring
edifices,
paid by the members of the imperial families to the laws concerning

The edict of
the preservation of ancient buildings.
which shows how
little
respect was
Maiorianus, issued at Ravenna in 458, forbidding once
more the dismantling of ancient structures

tion of
new
had come
for the erec-
ones, confirms our belief that the former
to be looked
upon
as stone quarries.
cannot undertake here to speak with more detail

of the consequences of the sack of the Vandals, as reI
gards the fate of buildings and works of art, for the

In most
reason that exact information is. wanting.
cases
tain
we
are
results
not in a position to
followed
this
invasion,
know whether
or
those
of
cer-
later
76
date.
Nor does
it
fall
within
my
province to recount
the history of the City for the half-century after the
storming of Genseric,
truly a harrowing narrative of
siege, famine, pillage, massacre, fires,
general
we may assume
and
pestilence.
In
that the last half of the fifth
century was almost as disastrous a period for the history

of the Roman monuments as it was for the wretched
inhabitants.
CHAPTER
VII
THE CITY IX THE SIXTH CENTURY
AT
the opening of the sixth century the prevailing

is
gloom
contrast,
penetrated, and
thrown into
a ray of
by
dawn with
light.
new
even
stronger
era seemed
to
the accession of Theoderic, whose enlight-
(500-526) gave itself no little

On the
concern for the remains of Rome's greatness.
ened
administration
day of his arrival in Rome Theoderic addressed kind

words to the people from the rostra in front of the
Senate-house
(in
loco
qui
Palma aurea
dicitur),
and
The
pro-
then proceeded to the palace of the Caesars.

visions
made by
this Prince for the
improvement
of the
City are recorded in the Variae of his secretary, Cas-
He
appointed a body of engineers and architects to superintend the restoration of public edifices,
siodorius.
under the direction of

as
"
we
publicorum, and
have already seen he revived the office of the
keeper of statues."
an
The
arcliitectus
theatre of
Pompey was
re-
paired with the help of one of the great men of the

the Coliseum, with the help
age, Avianius Symmachus
;
of
Decius
Marius Venantius
City in the year 508.
Basilius,
The duty
77
prefect
of
the
of putting the aque-
78
ducts in order, and keeping the baths and the foun-
was entrusted
tains well supplied with water
formarum
urbis;
named Johannes
tary engineer
bour of
Rome was
portus urbis
shows
"
were
supervisor
given
Romae),
the theatres and
expense
the charge of the har-
a harbour-master
assisted
under
by
the
amusements
Thus thoroughgoing
of
to
(comes
a deputy (vicariu9)\
other buildings
placed
of
to a comes
the care of public sewers to a sani-
designed
for
public
of
superintendence
"
(tribunus
were
repairs
voluptatum).
made, not
at
the
other edifices, as in the case of the prede-
cessors of Theoderic, but with brick expressly prepared

in
the
great
old
brickyard
called
Portus
Licini.
in this case appropriately,

They were all stamped
we must acknowledge
with the inscription
REGNANTE D N THEODERICO FELIX ROMA

I
have never made or witnessed an excavation
the site of any of the great buildings of
Rome
on
without
discovering one or more of Theoderic's bricks.
The
masonry which prevailed in his time can best

be examined in the repairs made to the " arcus Caelistyle of
montani," the branch aqueduct supplying the imperial

The sums
palace in the Via di S. Stefano Rotondo.
destined for such works were derived from local taxation.
Maximian
of
Ravenna
two hundred pounds
states in his annals that the
of gold set aside for the restoration
of the walls of the City
and
of the imperial residence
THE CITY
IN
THE SIXTH CENTURY
were collected from the city tax on wine
day remains one of the chief sources
this
the municipal treasury.
The churches
on the Via Aurelia and
of
from the time of
S.
which
at
revenue for
of
of
Martino
79
St.
Pancras
Monti date
ai
this benevolent ruler.
In describing the siege of Vitiges, which lasted from

February, 537, to March, 538, and the intrenched
camps raised by the Goths around the beleaguered

refers
Procopius
to
the cutting
following words
the
of
the
(De Bello Goth.
City,
aqueducts
I.
in
"The
19):
Goths having thus surrounded the City, broke down
Rome
the aqueducts to cut off the supply of water.
has fourteen aqueducts
and
high
broad
through them."
respects
the
that
and their channels are so
horseman
This statement
is
could
easil}
ride
erroneous in two
aqueducts were in reality not fourteen
Appia, Anio Vetus, Marcia, Tepula, Julia,

Virgo, Alsietina, Claudia, Anio Novus, Trajana, Alexaudrina and their channels " could not be entered even
but eleven,
by a
pygmy
Belisarius
riding on a goat or a ram."
walled up the mouths of
order to prevent the
in
means
the
aqueducts,
enemy from making them a
of entering the City.
The consequences
of the
cutting were not so serious as to cause a water famine,

because there were enough springs within the walls to
meet the emergency of the moment, not to speak of

1
Fabretti,
De
aquis, p. 145
ne Pygmaei quidem,
arietis,
dorso insidentis, quales eos describit Plinius, capaces fuerunt.
capraeve
80
the Tiber, the water of which has always been consid-
ered potable and wholesome.
It
observe that, after the removal of
is
also
the imperial Court
to Constantinople, the water supply of
much
Any
of
necessary to
Rome had
lost
world-famous purity and wholesomeness.
its
one can convince himself of the truth of this state-
ment by examining the channel of the Marcia, the purest

and best of Roman waters, at the Ponte degli Arci at
the foot of
Monte Arcese, near
Claudia, which
near
the
Madama.
I
made
real
at
state
The following
section of the channel,
Monte Arcese, May

of
the
case
of the
and Castel
between Tivoli
Monitola
Colle
Tivoli, or that
ranked next to the Marcia, 1
in purity
which
5, 1881, will indicate the
than
better
any
description
(Fig. 15).
The channel
(specus)
measured
originally
one -half feet (2.05 metres) in height, that

base of the vaulted ceiling, and three and
breadth.
feet (1.01 metres) in
As long
six
is,
to
and
the
one-third
as the
aqueduct was well taken care of by the curatores aquarum

and their staff of subordinate officers, the dimensions
of
and
channel
the
diminish.
There
are,
its
capacity
did
not
perceptibly
on the sides and the bottom, thin
layers of alabastrine purity
and transparency, which may
have been formed in the golden age of Roman administration; but they hardly exceed half an inch in thickness.
The
deposits, however,
1
Frontinus,
I.
13
formed
at the time of the bar-
qnae bonitatis proximae
est
Marciae.
THE CITY
IN
THE SIXTH CENTURY
81
harian invasions and in consequence of the abandonment

of
the aqueducts,
are
fourteen inches thick,
the free
channel being thus reduced from six and a half to a

little
more than four feet
(1.65 metres) in height, and
to
a width
of
less
than
These deposits are of

every colour and quality, confoot.
taining carbonate of lime of
spongy texture, mud, clay,

and a conglomerate of gravel.
Another curious
instance
of
the neglect of the aqueducts

after the middle of the fourth
century
is
to be seen in the
Vigna di S. Croce in Gerusalemme, as you enter by the

first gate on the left of that
church.
The water dripping
through
the
stones, of
is built,
FIG.
joints
Ot
the
which the channel
Arcese
Section of the chan-
15.
nel of the
>
Aqua Marcia,
showiu e de P
bottom and
at
sits
Monte
on the
sides.
was so saturated with
deposits of lime that the whole height of the
was covered with incrustations, and came
to
arcades
have the
appearance of a great rock honeycombed with cavities.

Although the inhabitants of Rome were not immediately
affected
by a water famine,
in
other respects
the cutting off of the water supply by the
barbarians
82
proved disastrous to the City as well as to the country

around it. In the City it led to the abandonment of
the great imperial thermae, which
just
tried
shared
to
put
into
by the artificial
repair.
basins
King Theoderic had

The same fate was
called
stagna or euripi,
and by the 1212 public fountains and 247 reservoirs

which had adorned and supplied the City in earlier
days.
The higher
quarters suffered the most, because
water supply, borne many miles on stone or brick

The supply of
arcades, could be more easily stopped.
the lower quarters, on the other hand, was never
their
diverted
for
any great
length
of
time,
because
the
channels of the Virgo, of the Appia, and of the Anio
Vetus,
which
fed
the
Campus
Martius,
ran
underground and could be repaired without

This is the reason why the more salubrious
mostly
difficulty.
hills
were
abandoned toward the end
of the fifth century, not to

be inhabited again until the time of Sixtus V., who
in
1587 made
life
building of his
One
upon them
Acquedotto
possible
again with the
Felice.
incident of the Gothic siege
of
537, connected
is described by ProcoBetween the Latin and the Appian

exist two aqueducts (the Claudian
with the fate of the aqueducts,

pius as
Ways
follows
there
"
:
still
and the Marcian), supported by massive arches.

the fiftieth furlong from
Rome
(at the place
now
At
called
the Torre Fiscale), they join and cross each other in
such a
way
that the one which
was on the right now
THE CITY
diverges
the
to
THE SIXTH CENTURY
IN
After
left.
short
83
distance
meet and cross again, and each follows its

The space between the two crossings
course.
they
original
there-
is
surrounded by aqueducts, the lower arches

of which were filled up by the barbarians with stones and
fore entirely
mud,
so as to
form a regular
fortification,
within which
they remained encamped, to the number of at least seven

thousand, in order to prevent any kind of provisions from
entering the City.
tions, the
With
Goths occupied themselves with despoiling and

They remained there a long
ravaging the Campagna.

time,
this as a base of opera-
and were only driven out by the plague."
De
Rossi has collected important proofs of the accu-
racy of
this
Describing
portion of
the
the
sepulchral
narrative
crypt,
in 1876, at the fifth mile-stone of
of
Procopius.
found by Fortunati
the Via Latina, on
" In
Vecchia), he says
this very quarter of the suburbs I located the campus
Prince Torlonia's farm
barbaricus,
(Roma
where the Goths intrenched themselves
in the
sixth century, and I suspected that the bodies, which

bore traces of having perished by a violent death, and
which were lying very near the surface quite close to

In
the Torlonia tomb, were those of this warlike horde.
the Torlonia
tomb
itself
we
found, on the skull of one
of the skeletons, evident traces of an oblique cut, inflicted
by a sword or some similar weapon."
" In
1853,"
De
Rossi continues, " by the side of the

1
De
Bella Goth.
II. 3.
84
modern road
fifth
Albano, between the fourth and the
to
was
mile-stone,
present
at
the
discovery
tombs, made with simple marble slabs, and
cophagus.
cloth, of
ing,
we saw
threads.
corpses
the
which, at
traces
moment
of
uncover-
gold and purple
of
far off, just beneath the sur-
of
series
a sar-
had been enveloped in
first
form
the
in
Then not
we saw
face,
The
rich
of
of
made
coffins
of stones
and
random, filled with skeletons of men,

and breasts bound with broad bands, which
tiles collected at
the loins
looked as
we
these
they had been saturated with blood, and

thought to have been soldiers killed in acif
This discovery recalled to my mind an

episode in the Gothic war (as described by Procopius)
which made fearful havoc among the neighbouring
tion.
villas.
of a
'
In the records of Gregory II. mention is made

Massa Camustis iuxta campum barbaricum ex corpore
'
patrimonii AppiaeS
It is
done
easy to picture to ourselves what damage was
to
this
Campagna,
once
and
to
and
fertile
the
smiling
aqueducts
that
part
of
traversed
the
it,
most conspicuous of them

but just to observe that the barbarians
especially to the Claudia, the

all.
Yet
it
is
damaged the aqueducts only

stop the flow of the water
pose
that they threw
down
was necessary to
we have no reason to supso far as
great arches and pilasters
that would
simply for the pleasure of destruction
creaThese
wonderful
have been mere lost labour.
THE CITY
Roman
tions of
crossing the
IN TIl
hydraulic
Campagna
were so
many
in every direction
other
themselves, in times
85
these triumphal arcades
skill,
and
uting everywhere fertility

as
SIXTH CENTURY
and
distrib-
health, were destroyed,
monuments, by the Romans
much
nearer to our
own than
is
ordinarily supposed.
We
have reason to believe that in 1585, when the
construction of the Acquedotto Felice was decreed by

Sixttis V., the series of
arcades of the Marcia and of
the Claudia (Fig. 20), both seven miles long, were practically intact.
resignation,
Matteo da Castello,
Domenico Fontana,
laid
first,
and, after his
hands on the noble
burning their travertine blocks into lime,

and
hammering those of tufa and peperino for
splitting
use in the new aqueduct.
Whatever remains were left
structures,
standing became the prey of local land-owners, especially

of the trustees of the hospital of S. Giovanni, in
whose
archives I have found documents concerning the sale at
public auction of the stone arch, over which the Claudia
spanned the Via Latina near the farmhouse of Roma

Vecchia and again, the sale of four piers of peperino to
;
Bartolomeo
so on.
Vitali, of
two
to the brothers Guidotti,
Three or four hundred
feet of the channel of
the same aqueduct were destroyed
farm
of the Capannelle in
way Company,
1887
by the owner
of the
the Mediterranean Rail-
which, about the same time, built the
line to Segni, is responsible for other

1
and
damages.
Lanciaili, / Comentarii di Frontino, p. 149.
new
86
walk from the Porta Furba (on the road to Frascati)
Porta Maggiore, by the Vicolo del Mandrione,

will give the student a melancholy appreciation of the
to
the
Roman
importance and of the fate of the
FIG.
16.
The remains
which, after so
among
the
aqueducts,
of the Claudian aqueduct at the Porta Furba.
many
centuries
of
spoliation,
most impressive remains
of
are
ancient
still
Rome
(Fig. 16).
Notwithstanding the ravages of the Vandals and the

desperate straits of the people of Rome on many occa-
THE CITY
IN
THE SIXTH CENTURY
87
sions since the first sack of the Goths, Procopius,
whom
have already quoted so often, speaks of a number of

monuments as standing uninjured toward the middle
I
of the
sixth
century.
We
learn from
and the Forum
City in general,
him that the
especially, retained
an
imposing array of bronze and marble statues, the works
and Lysippus
of Phidias
Myron was yet
Forum
of Peace
cubits high,
was
to be seen
;
that the celebrated
Cow
of
above the fountain in the
that the bronze statue of Janus, five
preserved in the cella of his four-
still
and that the group of the Three Fates

the one, probably, which Pliny classifies among the
earliest works of the kind in Rome
still gave the
faced temple;
name
of
Forum
Tria Fata to the north corner of the
by the Senate-house.
The same historian describes how one
camps had been established

of
the
of the Gothic
Gaianum, a circus or
Doonitia, and how the
in the
of
hippodrome
gardens
Greek garrison of the mole of Hadrian hurled upon its
assailants many statues which even to that time had orna-
mented
this fortified
mausoleum.
the world," he concludes (IV.

their
Of
all
" the
22),
the people in
Romans
monuments
love
the
best.
fallen a prey to barbarian invaders so
many
City
Although
and
"
its
historical
times, they have succeeded in keeping
up many
of their
great buildings, and preserving relics connected with the

origin
I
and foundation
of their City.
Among
these last
can mention a large canoe hollowed out of the trunk
88
of a tree,
bank
left
which they preserve
in
the arsenal on the
by Aeneas
of the Tiber, as the one used
in
reaching the Latin shore."

In the year 590, which was that of the election of
Pope Gregory the Great (September
3),
Rome seems
have reached the extremity of misfortune.

An
inundation of the Tiber, at the end of the previous
year, had caused the ruin of some temples and monuto
ments and
innumerable private dwellings, and the

by famine and pestilence.
of
flood was, as usual, followed
The
beautiful
mausoleum
the
of
legend
Hadrian in
of
seen
angel
the
act
above
the
of
sheathing his
sword, while Gregory at the head of the panic-stricken
population was proceeding in pilgrimage to St. Peter's
(a memorial of the vision still remains in the bronze
figure
on
really the
of
Rome.
the
first
rounding
Lombards
mean
of Aurelian
district
of
Castel
S.
Angelo), marks
change for the better in the fortunes
By Rome
by the walls
the
top of
was
the City itself protected
and Honorius
incessantly
for the
devastated
Agilulf and Ariulf, and
murdered or driven away.
its
sur-
by the
inhabitants
CHAPTER
VIII
BURIAL PLACES WITHIX AND WITHOUT THE WALLS
FROM
a remote period, burial within the city limits
was prohibited by Roman law. Yet many graves have

been found within the walls, and Nibby has suggested
infringement of the early enactment, the
interments intra muros, must be regarded as a
that the
first
first
consequence of the siege of Vitiges.

Earlier instances
lacking.
of
the practice,
Tombs dating from
(493-526 A.D.) have
been
the
found
however, are not

time
in
of
the
Theoderic
Praetorian
camp, in the gardens of Sallust, and in the graveyard

Giacomo del Colosseo.
Those of the Praetorian
of S.
camp were seen by Lupi,

last century,
the
of
in the first quarter of the

within the cells which line the north side
quadrangle
those
of
the
gardens
of
Sallust
were seen by De Rossi, in 1869, in that part of the

Vigna Barberini-Spithoever which is now crossed by
the Via Flavia and the Via Aureliana.
The
gan
exploration of the graveyard by the Coliseum be-
in the spring of 1895,
at length in the Bullettino
and
its
results are described
Comunale of the same year.
There were two or three layers of tombs,
the oldest,
90
same
at the
with the amphitheatre, dating from
level
the time of Theoderic, the latest dating from the begin-
One
ning of the seventh century.

discovered
the
opposite
of the later tombs,
now
is
arcade,
thirty-third
exhibited in the
Museo Municipale on the Caelian
The
gives the names of a Fortunatus
inscription
Lucia and of their
little
Hill.
and
daughter Gemmula, and ends
with the warning, " Whoever shall violate or injure

"
No
this tomb, may he share the fate of Judas
!
wonder
the
grave
thoroughfare, which,
stood
right
even in
the
in
those
middle
days,
must
of
have
been crowded.
The two
one of green and one of

reddish basalt, removed toward the end of the last
precious basins,
century from the Baths of Caracalla to the Cortile

di Belvedere of the Vatican Museum, had both been
used for
coffins.
sepulchral vault containing
hundred bodies was discovered

stantine
the
1
;
Vigna
time each
the
Roman
of
many
Baths of Con-
the remains of other baths
Grimani (Barberini).
of
hundred
several
in
another,
the
in
them
In
course
of
and there were
churches
came
the
in
to
possess
We
local
Rome
cannot excavate anywhere

graveyard.
without coming across one of them.
I have seen, and
in
several
in
instances
have myself explored, cemeteries

Maria ad Martyres (the
belonging to the church of S.
Pantheon); of
1
Vacca,
S.
Mem.
Marcello, of S. Nicola in Calcarario,

112.
Bartoli,
Mem.
31.
BURIAL PLACES
Maria
of S.
of
in
Ciriaco
S.
The
others.
91
Campitelli, of S. Sebastiano in Pallara,
Camilliano, of S.
cle
largest of
all,
Maria Nuova, and
attached to the hospital of
Maria delle Grazie, occupied one half of the Basilica

Julia, the layer of human remains being from six to
S.
eight feet in thickness.
The Catacombs,
410
as
we have
seen,
were abandoned
in
but what was the fate of the pagan tombs and
mausoleums which lined the highroads
in every direction
I wish that I could

beyond the limits of the City ?
summarise here the information given on this subject
by that indefatigable explorer of Roman tombs, Fran-
cesco Ficoroni, in his work,
romani, Part
II.
as
it
is
La
Bolla d'oro dei fanciulli
can only mention a few
points.
The family
composed
of a
vaults,
Ficoroni remarks, were generally
room
or enclosed place on a level with
the road, where the funeral banquets and the anniver-
sary gatherings took place, and of a crypt where the

ashes were kept in urns, or the bodies laid to rest in
The former, standing

richly carved marble sarcophagi.
above ground, and within easy reach of the passer-by,
must have been stripped of their valuable contents at
a very early period, perhaps even before the
of Alaric.
the
When
inroad
there was nothing else of value
Romans attacked
tombs were
first
the
very walls
of
which
left,
the
built, the porticoes, colonnades, and roofs,
Dicersita dei mausolei romani, loro diroccamento, etc.
92
for the sake of the marble,
This process
lime-kilns.
sepulchral
monuments
emperors had
the
which they wanted

burning the
of
for lime
to
enact
for their
marbles
of
became so common that
capital
punishment as a
In 349, sixty-one years

penalty against the offenders.
before Alaric's invasion, the Emperor Constans substituted a heavy fine for capital punishment. 1
These imperial provisions may have saved from destruction for a few years longer the mausoleums more
standing back from the

highroads, screened by trees or by the undulations of
I
the ground, probably disappeared faster than ever.
exposed to view
speak,
of
but those
of
course,
the general rule, because
among
the three or four hundred thousand tombs which encircled the City, there were, to be sure,
able exceptions.
and for
size
few
some remark-
of them, conspicuous for their
their wealth in marble
and
travertine, have
survived to the present day, as the mausoleums of Caecilia
Metella and of Lucilius Paetus, and the tombs of
Vibius Marianus (Fig. 17) and of Vergilius Eurysaces.
The underground rooms,
or
hypogaea, suffered
less
damage.
Search was made, either by the degenerate
Romans
or by the barbarians, for the valuable objects
or placed as a memento in
such
as
cinerary urns,
ear-rings, finger-rings, and
brooches (fibulae) but the urns themselves, the beauti-
buried with
the
corpse,
the
See his constitution to Limenius in the Codex Theotlosianus, X.
17, de sepulchris violatis.
Tit.
BURIAL PLACES
ful sarcophagi, the glass
to columbaria,
why
vessels peculiar
left
undisturbed.
This
is
the excavation of our ancient cemeteries
rinds, as I
FIG.
and terra eotta
and even the bronze lamps and candela-
were often
bras,
93
17.
My
is
rich in
can testify from personal observation.
Tomb
first
the reason
of P. Vibius Marianus, so-called "Tomb of Nero," on the

Via Clodia, 4$ miles north of Rome.
experience in the exploration of tombs dates
from 1868, when those lining the Via Severiana, between

Ostia and Castel Fusano, were first opened by the elder
Visconti (Fig. 18).
They yielded
a great quantity of
glassware and exquisite Arezzo cups, besides a few obNext in date and imporjects in gold and enamel.
tance came the exploration of
the columbaria of the
94
Statilian family, in that portion of the Esquiline ceme-
tery which extends from the so-called Minerva Medica

to the Porta
Maggiore (1875). In the space of a few

an area of a few thousand square
and
within
weeks,
feet, we recovered 566 inscriptions, and many hundred
FIG. 18.
Columbarium on the Via Severiana, near
objects in terra cotta,
glass,
Ostia, opened in 1868.
bone, ivory, bronze,
gold,
and precious marbles.

has offered an ingenious suggestion in regard to the engraved gems or cameos which are found
loose in the earth in great numbers within a circuit
silver,
Ficoroni
three or four miles from the walls.
After stating
that out of ninety-two sepulchral chambers, which he
of
BURIAL PLACES
95
had excavated in the Vigna Moroni by the Porta S.

Sebastiano, between 1705 and 1709, only one had not
before, he
been searched
says
" I
found
in
the un-
a few neck-
the charred
bones,
opened urns, among
laces, ear-rings, and finger-rings, and a piece of jewelry
with sapphires.
My workmen, however, in sifting the
earth which filled
up or covered these columbaria, and
open passages between them, found a great

and intaglios in precious stones, broken
cameos
many
These stones are conor indented around the edge.
also
the
stantly found in the vineyards and orchards
which ex-
and as they still show

traces of the hard glue, by means of which they were
tend over the old cemeteries
fastened
to
their
sockets,
it
seems to
me
that
they
must have been taken out and thrown away as a useless encumbrance by those who were seeking for gold
What
alone.
possible value could engraved stones rep-
resent in the eyes of the
Romans
of the fifth century,
or of their invaders?"
This general
prising
cases
if
to
we
rifling of burial crypts is the
recall
conceal
the
the
taken
precautions
entrances
to
them.
more
in
sur-
many
After the
occupant had been laid to rest, and the sarcophagi

or urns sealed with brass clamps and molten lead, the
last
door was walled up with stones or blocks of marble,

resembling in colour and shape those with which the
mausoleum was covered
and every trace

of an entrance was then made to disappear.
This is
rest
of the
96
the reason
why some
crypts, rich
have escaped molestation
tion,
The
recent period.
of Caecilia Metella
in
until
funereal decoraa
comparatively
secret passage leading to the
was discovered by accident,
tomb
in the
time of Paul III. (1534-1550), by a stone-cutter en-
gaged in wrenching away the blocks of travertine

from the square foundation. The beautiful sarcophagus found in the inner chamber is still to be seen in
the palace
that
of
Pope.
similar
discovery, under
Alexander VII. (1655-1667), took place also in connexion with the pyramid of C. Cestius, the entrance
to
which was so artfully disguised that it could be

by the hollow sound of the stones with
located only
which
ever,
it
had been blocked.
have avoided the
The
difficulty,
grave-robbers,
in nine cases out of
boring a hole through the core of
by
ment toward
ten,
Most
of
its
the
how-
monu-
the
centre.
sepulchral chambers discovered in
time had been plundered in this way.
The
my
best in-
stance can be seen in the beautiful crypt at the second

mile-stone of the Via Latina, called " Sepolcro degli
from the well-preserved bas-reliefs in plaster,

representing nymphs and nereids driving sea-monsters,
The door leading
which ornament its vaulted ceiling.
stucchi,"
into this
hole
chamber was found
could be seen
to be undisturbed
in the ceiling, hardly
two
but a
feet in
diameter, by means of which the plunderers had effected

their descent,
and carried away the
spoils (Fig. 19).
The
BURIAL PLACES
97
marble sarcophagi had been carefully searched, some by

lids, found lying in pieces on the floor,
the removal of the
some by means
FIG.
19.
of a hole
The Sepolcro
made
degli Stucchi,
in the side of the coffin.
showing the hole made by plunderers in
the vaulted ceiling.
98
I
may
close
this
chapter
by reminding the reader
from the time of Boniface VIII., who instituted

the Giubileo in 1300, to the end of the last century,
that
the
to
highroads
Rome were
followed
by the pilgrims on the way
repaired every twenty-fifth year, at the
expense of the tombs lining the road on either side.

The information which I have collected on this point
will be published in Vols. III. and IV. of my Storia
degli Scavi di
Roma.
CHAPTER IX
THE DEVASTATION AND DESERTIOX OF THE
CAMPAGXA
THE
of the
final desolation
Campagna, with
its
con-
comitant, the plague of malaria, dates from the time of

Villas and farmhouses
Gregory the Great (590-604).
were set fire to, olive orchards and vineyards uprooted,
the supply of water cut off;

thrift
were
drained,
to the sea
and
the
all
whole
was turned
Apennines
and dangerous wilderness.
Whenever
last years, I
Roman
villa
what the cause of

a general rule,
ruins
into
plain
life
soil,
its
from the
has been excavated in these

strati-
only means of finding out
There
destruction was.
three strata.
The uppermost
are, as
consists
produced by the disintegration of the
themselves, by the decomposition of
bushes, and grass, and
pheric agencies.
and
an unhealthful
have paid special attention to the
fication of its ruins, as the
of vegetable
sources of
by
earth
the trees,
deposited by atmos-
The middle stratum
is
made up
of
building materials, such as brick, blocks of tufa, tufa
prisms for reticulate work, plaster, cement, and fragments of marble veneering. The lowest, lying directly
101
102
over the marble
or
mosaic
composed almost
is
floor,
exclusively of roof tiles and roofing materials.
From
we
villas
relation of parts
this
perished by
the
or
fire,
part to
first
which, for
that
by natural decay and abandonment,

in
fall
reason,
must have
walls
whether the
infer that,
was the
lie
roof, the
remains of
upon the pavements.
fallen decades,
The
not centuries, later,
if
because there
is always a thin layer of vegetable soil

between the remains of the roof and those of the walls.
The
walls have generally fallen toward the same point
the compass, as
of
thrown down by an earthquake
if
and a similar observation has been made
One thing
the columns of the peristyles.

that
when
by the
in regard
is
to
certain
fell, whether by natural decay or

of man, the marble statues which
the roofs
violence
adorned the
villa,
colonnades were
its
still
its
terraces,
in situ, and
nymphaea, and its

some cases were
in
The herms at the

standing on their pedestals.
the
of
the
exquisite carved
crossings
garden avenues,
still
fountains,
the
portrait-busts
likewise uninjured, and so they

to the present
the early
of
day had
it
the
of
atria,
remained
would have remained
not been for the lime-burners
Renaissance, and for the contractors for
the maintenance of the highroads,
who
in this respect
more works of art

have caused incalculable damage
have been destroyed in the last five centuries than in
;
all
the centuries of barbarian plundering.
For the same reason, the few
villas
which, on account
DESERTION OF THE CAMPAGXA

of their secluded
location
and
safe
103
distance from
the
highroads, escaped the mediaeval and Renaissance plunderers, prove to be a perfect
collected
some
remarkable
mine of statuary. I have

documents on this point
be published later. Let me quote two instances, one from the Villa Quintiliorum on the Appian
Way, the other from the Villa Voconiorum near Marino,
which
will
the ancient Castrimoenium.
The
Quintiliorum, the picturesque remains of
Villa
which are now called
S.
Maria Nova, from the church
and monastery of that name, which owned them

has been
ages,
excavated
at
least
times,
eight
such good results that a section of the farm

ally called
Statuario,
"
in past
is
The
mine of statuary."
with
actuoldest
search dates from the pontificate of Innocent VIII.,

more precisely, from April 16, 1485.
It led to the
discovery of the body of the so-called Tulliola,
still re-
taining the rosy colour of the flesh and lifelike appearance. 1
Several inscriptions, sarcophagi, and sepulchral
monuments came
tomb
to light on the
of the Apusii
was found
same occasion.
The
in the following century.
Winckelmann, who was present
at
the excavations of
1762 made by Cardinal Alessandro Albani, describes the

finding of a beautiful marble basin, thirty-five palms in
circumference, with the Labours of Hercules in alto-relievo
of a portico, of the areostyle type,
of the Ionic order,

1
and
with columns
of a wall covered with frescoes.
See Pagan and Christian Home,
p. 295.
104
Here
also, in 1780,
columns of
bigio
Giovanni Volpato discovered several

and breccia corallina, thirteen feet
high; the colossal head of Julia
and the "Antiochia," now

sides the statue of
Domna, the Ganymede,
in the Vatican
Museum;
be-
young Caesar, which was bought
Pacetti.
by
About the same year an Englishman and a Scotchman,
Thomas Jenkins and Gavin Hamilton, tried their luck in
the section of the same villa called
Roma
Vecchia.
They
found a bust of Lucius Verus, another of Diocletian,

a third and a fourth of two Romans, perhaps Decem-
with the names engraved on the plinth
viri,
size statue of
with
birds,
several
life-
Euterpe, two statuettes of youths playing
and
fragments
scenic
of
masks
less
two
sarcophagi,
The
importance.
and
best por-
was purchased by Pius VI. for

the Vatican Museum, who at the same time ordered
fresh excavations to be made on his own account.
of these marbles
tion
These excavations lasted from

1792, and led
15,
to
the
May
11,
discovery
of
1789, to
May
the following
Eleven statuettes belonging to the ornamentation of one or more fountains

eight life-size statues
items
nine heads and busts

agi
two double herms
mosaic pavement
inscriptions,
several
and other objects of
Ionia purchased
two sarcoph-
columns, pedestals,
Carlo Tor-
interest.
the grounds at the beginning of
the
present century, and undertook other excavations about
1828-1829, the magnificent
results
of
which
are
de-
DESERTION OF THE CAMPAGNA

scribed by Nibly
and by Visconti
105
in the catalogue of
Museo Torloma.
The last search, made by Giovanni Battista Guidi,
about 1855, was also attended with considerable sucthe
He found among
cess.
other interesting things a cas-
tellum aquae, with its organ-like range of water-pipes,
inscribed with the names of the patricians
who owned
property in the neighbourhood, and who drew their

supply of water from this reservoir of the Villa Quintiliorum.
Having myself surveyed the
site
of the villa
on more than one occasion,
I have persuaded myself

no
means
exhausted.
by
The Villa Voconiorum was excavated at my sugges-
that the mine
tion
is
Luigi Boccanera in 1883-1884.

remains have since been destroyed,
Its
by Signer
beautiful
against our laws,
under
cultivation.
much
by a local owner, and its area put

The most interesting particular
gathered from these excavations is that when the statues fell, or were thrown from their pedestals, the floor
of the villa
of
debris.
was already covered with over three feet

The statues therefore were still standing
after the first barbarian invasions.
we may
Once
for
all,
then,
absolve the barbarians from the blame of a
useless destruction or mutilation of classic statuary. 2

1
Analisi, Vol. III. p. 726.
Gavin Hamilton excavated,
eighth mile-stone of the Appian
in or
about 1780, a round temple at the
Way, with
as
many
statues as there were
intercolumniations, each lying a few inches only from

tion.
See Riccy, Pago Lemonio,
p. 122, n. 1,
its
original loca-
CHAPTER X
THE MONUMENTS IN THE SEVENTH CENTURY
THE
early years of the seventh century were
marked
by three events of special significance for the history

monuments. These are, the erection of the col-
of the
umn
of
Phocas, the transformation
into a church,
transferring
of
the
Pantheon
and the inauguration of the practice of

of martyrs from the Catacombs to
relics
sanctuaries within the walls.
Phocas, the murderer of the Emperor Mauritius, had

seized the throne of the East in
The
November, 602.
and
cowardly assassin" and

of his wife Leontia were received in Rome with the
portraits
of
"base
this
customary honours by the clergy and the Senate assembled in the Basilica Julii at
ward exhibited
the
to
Cesario in Palatio. 1
show
farther in their
the
public
Lateran, and afterthe
in
church
The Romans went even

of servility
of
S.
a step
they raised an hon-
orary column, inscribed, Phocae dementissimo principi,

in the middle of the Forum, which still remained free
from
ceal
1
the
it.
ruins
This
The remains
is
that
were
the last
later
to
monument
of this church are described in
p. 169.
106
bury
and
con-
erected in that
FIG. 21.
of Phocas in the Forum. At the right, further back,

the remaius of the temple of Saturn.
The column
THE MONUMENTS
historical
It
place.
THE SEVENTH CENTURY
IN
marks
end
the
the
of
109
ancient
"Of
period and the beginning of the Middle Ages.
the three monumental columns still extant at Rome,"
Dyer well remarks, "two were erected to the best
emperors (Trajan and Marcus Aurelius), one to the
worst and basest
the style of their
From
merits are aptly typified by
their
monuments." 1
the inscription on the pedestal of the column
Phocas (discovered February 23, 1813) we learn

the pillar was surmounted by a statue in gilt
bronze.
Now such a statue could not have been modof
that
elled
and cast in Rome
in 608 A.D.
(the column was
dedicated on August 1 of that year).
It
must have
been an old statue, cast centuries before, of which,
am
inclined to believe, not even the head
The column
for the occasion.
is
was changed
forty-five feet high,
and leans considerably toward the southeast. The style

of the shaft and capital is certainly better than that prevailing in 608 A.D.
therefore,
either the
column was
removed bodily from a classic edifice, or else the Romans

and their exarch Zmaragdus dedicated to Phocas a monu-
ment which, up
to his time,
had borne another name.
It is interesting to note that the
was
at this time free
Forum
of Trajan also
from any accumulation of rubbish.
Venantius Fortunatus, a contemporary of Gregory, speaks

of the custom of poets reciting in that place as still
flourishing in his
1
day (Carm.
III.
History of the City of
23).
Home,
p. 363.
110
Boniface IV., elected bishop of Rome in the same

year in which the column of Phocas was dedicated,
from
obtained
that
Emperor the permission
to
dedi-
Pantheon of Agrippa to the Virgin Mary and

Christian martyrs.
This concession marks an ex-
cate the
all
important
ceedingly
moment
destruction and transformation

as
cause,
have
of the
beginning
the
in
history
ancient
of
of
the
Rome, be-
previously remarked, up to
seventh century the Christians
the
had
abstained from worshipping in places where divine

honours had been paid to pagan deities.
No classic
no
only civic buildings had thus

far been used for churches
but about this time all
temple,
shrine,
such scruples disappeared.

To speak only of the edifices lining the Sacra Via and the Forum, we now find
the
dedicated
Senate-house
hall of the
ple of
to
to S.
Augusteum
St.
Antoninus and Faustina to
Janus to
St. Dionysius, that of
The Heroon
Hadrian, the inner
Maria Antiqua, the temSt.
Lawrence, that of
Saturn to the Saviour.
Romulus, son of Maxentius, becomes
of
the vestibule of the church of SS. Cosmas and Damia-
nus
a chapel to
of the temple of
St.
Peter
is
raised in the vestibule
Venus and Rome
another to
S.
Mar-
tina in the Secretarium Senatus; a third to SS. Sergius
and Bacchus, near the steps of the temple of Concord

and a fourth to an unknown saint in the Basilica of
;
Constantino. 1
1
Cf.
Pagan and
Christian
Home,
p. 162.
THE MONUMENTS
THE SEVENTH CENTURY
IN
111
would be interesting to know whether the Pantheon was submitted to any alteration in the process
It
of transformation
into
a church.
Were
the
colossal
Augustus and Agrippa still standthe year 608, in their niches under the portico,
portrait statues of
ing, in
or those of the ancestral gods of the Julian gens in

their shrines
of
gilt
itself,
under the dome?
bronze
still
fixed
in
Were
the
and the bronze bas-reliefs
the great rosettes
coffers
still
of
the
dome
ornamenting the
It is difficult to give a
pediment of the pronaos?
I incline to the
satisfactory answer to these queries.
view that when the Pantheon was placed under the
the
of
protection
of
Queen
Martyrs,
it
was already
reduced to the present state, or rather to the state
which
was before the
it
in 663, of
1747. l
in
Urban VIII.
In the lapse
spoliations
in 1625,
of
Constans
in
II.
and of Benedict XIV.
time between the closing
of
and the abandonment of the public baths,

and the reign of Phocas, the statues of the gods and
of temples
heroes must have been

their pedestals,
Constans
removed or thrown
off
from
and the rosettes of the dome probably
the tiles of gilded bronze which covered the

and the dome Urban VIII. melted into cannon
metal from the trusses of the prouaos and Bene-
stole
II.
roof of the pronaos
410,778 pounds of
XIV. destroyed the marble veneering of the attic story.

2 For the fate of the three
Caryatides by Diogenes the Athenian,
formerly in the Paganica and Giustiniani palaces, supposed to have
dict
formed a part of the decoration of the attic, see Notizie degli

Emil Braun, Bull. Inst., 1853, p. 36.
1881, pp. 265-267
;
scavi,
DESTEUCTION OF ANCIENT ROME
112
had
fallen,
one by one, through the disintegration of
The bas-reliefs of the

masonry of the coffers.
It seems
pediment had perhaps escaped spoliation.
the
when
that
Piazza
the
della
Rotonda was
exca-
first
vated and paved by Pope Eugenius IV. (1431-1439),

a head, possibly of Agrippa, the leg of a horse, and
the wheel of a chariot,
all
were found
cast in bronze,
These fragments may have

No mention is made of
fallen from the pediment.
marble statues, except of a head attributed to Cybele,
at the foot of the steps.
which Camillo Fanucci claims to have seen lying on

the floor near the high altar in the year 1600. l
Another clew as to the

taken possession
of
clumsy restorations
by Vitalianus
when
state of the Pantheon,
by the Church, is given by the

made by Boniface IV. (610 A.D.),
(663),
and
Gregory
III.
with
(735),
materials taken from other edifices, such as the marble

slab
containing
removed
Albums,
/.
(<7.
the
L.
temple of
I.
Isis
honorary
from the
285),
the
belonged to the
friezes,
Forum
beautiful
is
by Visconti
and other such
the fact that some
Pantheon
itself,
as
of
frieze
(illustrated
Vol. IV., 1876, p. 92),
more important
inscription
in
Lucius
Augustus
from the
Bull.
spoils.
of
these
Com.
Even
spoils
the two beautiful
with festoons and candelabras and sacred im-
plements, removed from the sides of the
and the doorpost taken from one of the

1
of
Camillo Fanucci, Trattato di
tittte
V opere
great
door,
side entrances.
pie, etc., c. xxxvi.
THE MONUMENTS
IN
THE SEVENTH CENTURY
115
These three pieces had been used in the restoration

steps leading from the square in front of the
of the
Pantheon to the pronaos (Fig. 22), and were found

between December, 1874, and September, 1875.
The designation
Maria ad Martyres, given to

the Pantheon by Boniface IV., recalls an interesting
of
S.
According to the Liber
fact.
was given
to the
this
Pontificdlis,
name
newly consecrated church on account
twenty-eight cartloads of sacred bones which had

been removed from the Catacombs and placed in a
basin of porphyry under the high altar.
This was the
of
beginning of an important change.

I have stated above that burial
was given up
Rome by
in
410,
the
.-X"-
in
the
year of the
Catacombs
storming
of
Alaric, and that great damage was done to
As the
during the siege of Vitiges.
country around Rome became more and more insecure
and unhealthy, and was almost completely abandoned
them
by
in
its
inroads,
537,
inhabitants
it
at
the
time
was deemed necessary
of
the
to
place
Langobardic
within the
protection of the city walls the bones of the martyrs,
whose tombs, from the time of Constantine, had more

and more become centres of pilgrimage.
The first
translation
remains
is
time of Boniface IV.
the
648
of
the third in 682,
Felicianus
of Viatrix,
one just mentioned, of

the second took place in
the
;
when
the bodies of Primus and
were removed from Nomentum, and those

Faustinus, and Simplicius from the ceme-
116
tery of
Generosa, at the sixth mile-stone of the Via
Campana,
The
in the
Vigna
Ceccarelli, near
La Magliana.
Catacombs for the bones
last exploiting of the
martyrs was due to Paschal I. (817-824).

" innumerable "
porary documents speak of
ences of
relics.
One
of them,
the
official
of
Contemtransfer-
register of
relics, removed July 20, 817, to S. Prassede,

mentions twenty-three hundred bodies deposited under
the chapel of S. Zeno, which Paschal I. had built in
the
memory
of
his
mother,
Theodora
Episcopa.
The
mosaic legend of the apse of St. Caecilia speaks likewise of the removal of bodies quae primum in cryptis
pausabant.
These removals of relics are interesting from another
they mark the beginning of archaeological research among the remains of the great imperial thermae.
The relics of martyrs were, as a rule,
point of view,
deposited in basins and bath-tubs of
which the thermae

larly abounded.
of Caracalla
The bones
of
rare
marble, in
and Diocletian particuViatrix, Faustinus, and
Simplicius, mentioned above, were placed by Leo II.

under the high altar of the church of S. Vibiana " in
a basin of oriental alabaster of oval shape, twenty-five
palms in circumference, with heads of leopards in high

relief."
Stephen V., while rebuilding the church of
SS. Apostoli in 816 A.D., likewise placed the
of
and Claudia " in a basin of
Eugenia
(in concha porpJiyretica).
Two
bodies
"
porphyry
archaeologists, Giovanni
THE MONUMENTS
THE SEVENTH CENTURY
IN
117
Marangoni and Francesco de Ficoroni, have made a

list,
though incomplete, of these precious
interesting
Roman
of
spoils
add
should
baths
another
used
class
of
in
churches
works
of
to
art
we
it
similarly
employed, the sarcophagi, which occasionally take the

place of the bath basins, in spite of their
distinctly
pagan
as
Singular
reliefs of
character.
this
practice
judge of the taste of the
seems
Roman
to
us,
we cannot
clergy in those dark
and semi-barbaric days in the light of our own feelings and education.
They could hardly spell the Latin
words inscribed on the marble
slabs
which they used
in
the pavements, in the walls, and in the altars of their
much
could they understand their meancovered

with symbols of the worship
pedestal
ing.
of the Magna Mater, in its most crude and hateful
churches
less
form, was
used as
church
S.
an
altar
of
Michele in Borgo.
Flavius Agricola from Tibur, with
of
the
Crucifix
round
left front
The high altar in the

Baldacchino.
Teodoro was supported, until 1703, by a
on the rim of Avhich the following words
the
of
S.
altar,
were inscribed
"
On
cense was offered

St.
of
its
grave of St. Peter, in the foundations of the
church of
the
epicurean legend,
14, 1626, a few feet from the
was discovered August
column
in
The tombstone
Paul's without
to
this
the
the
marble of the gentiles
in-
The pavement
of
gods."
walls
miscellaneous inscriptions.
was patched with
931
118
worshipper raising his eyes toward the apse of the

church of SS. Cosmas and Damianus, could behold at
the same time the
great mosaic figure of the Saviour,
and a group of the twin founders of the City sucking

In the basilica of Junius
the wolf, in opus sectile.
Bassus on the Esquiline, Christianised under the name
of St. Andrew at the Manger, he could see the group
of the Saviour with the Apostle in the Tribune, and,
turning to the side walls, the portraits of Nero, Galba,
and six other emperors, Diana hunting the stag, Hylas
stolen
by the Nymphs, Cybele on the chariot drawn by
lions, the
chariot
of
Apollo, initiates performing mys-
and other representations from

may mention in the last instance the
terious Egyptian rites,
pagan
cults.
church of
S.
Martina, formerly the Secretarium Senatus,

adorned with the bas-reliefs
the walls of which were
from the
arch
Emperor
Maximus.
Marcus Aurelius, representing the
of
sacrificing before the altar of Jupiter Optimus
The Epitome
of
the
Chronicon
Cassinense,
which
dates from the time of Stephen II. (752-757), says that

"
after the " recovery of the Cross
made by Heraclius
in
629,
he was
diadem
Emperor betook himself to Rome, where

proclaimed Emperor, and given the imperial
the
in the throne
(in augustdli solio

tus
et
room
of the palace of the Caesars
Caesareani Palatii a senatoribus posi-
diademate redimitus, monocrator constitutus
esfy.
This passage of the Chronicon shows that the palace,
THE MONUMENTS
the
Romans
themselves,
ceremonies in the
By
THE SEVENTH CENTURY
119
the pillages of Totila, of Genseric, and of
spite of
in
IN
could
be used for state
still
half of the seventh century.
first
mean the special wing known in classical

" Domitian's house "
(olicia
by the name of
palace I
times
Aedes publicae populi Romani.

This
been
used
as
a
had
never
structure
dwelling by
great
the emperors, but simply as a state residence where
Ao/imafoO) or
they held their levees, delivered their decisions, presided over councils of state, received foreign envoys,
and gave
official
required repairs,
of
its
banquets.
The building had never
on account of
construction.
the enormous solidity
The remains
of
the hall, where
Heraclius took place, are still to be

the
seen. It was excavated by Bianchini in 1724, and again
Judging from the finds made on
by Rosa in 1865.
coronation of
these
two
occasions, there
is
no doubt that in 629
this
throne room was well preserved, not only in its essential parts, such as walls, ceiling, roof, and windows,
but also in
its
two columns
decorative details.
of giallo antico
Bianchini discovered
which stood on either
side
main door, which were sold by the Duke

Parma to the stone-cutters Perini and Macinocchi
of
the
3000 scudi
so
a threshold
made
of a block of
of
for
Greek marble
large that the high altar of the church of the Ro-
tonda has since been cut out of
it
fragments of the
of
columns
sixteen
pavonazzetto supporting the entablature, with capitals and bases exquisitely cut in ivory;
DESTRUCTION OF ANCIENT HOME
120
two out
marble, and
coloured
statues which stood
the
of
in the niches.
If so
of the decoration of the hall in 1724, after

at the
of lime-burners
mercy
of
space
ten
colossal
eight
much remained
it
had been
and stone-cutters
centuries, the hall itself
may
for the
well have
been in almost perfect condition at the time of the

coronation of Heraclius.
Another wing
the
Domus
of
the palace, the northeast section of
Graiana,
which overlooks the Forum and the
Sacra Via, seems to have been kept in repair and sometimes occupied by the popes, as a practical evidence of
their
in
power
political
under the
care
About 680 one
an
of
of
Rome.
officer
these
This wing was put

styled a euro, Palatii.
officers,
named
Plato, rebuilt
or repaired the long staircase which ascends from the
Clivus Victoriae to the rooms above.
His son, having
been elected pope in 705 under the name of John VII.,

conceived the plan of making the Domus Gaiana the
official
residence
of
the
bishops
Rome, above the
of
present church of S. Maria Liberatrice (super ecclesiam

sanctae
Dei
genetricis
qitae
antiqua vocatur episcopium
construere voluify.
John VII. did not

as
live to see his project carried out
took no interest in
his successors
it,
they repaired
and strongholds of the Palatine only

case of necessity.
There were four of these ecclesi-
to the monasteries
in
astical
establishments on the Palatine, the Ecclesia and
Monasterium
S.
Caesarii in Palatio,
first
mentioned in
THE MONUMENTS
IN
THE SEVENTH CENTURY
121
the time of Phocas, 603 A.D., but probably older, where

the images
to the public as a
the monastery
called
represented by the church of S.
Polveriera in the
the
of
symbol of the power that they
Rome
claimed over
now
Byzantine emperors were exhibited
the
of
still
Palladium,
Sebastiano alia
Vigna Barberini, near the
east corner
a strongly fortified place where the popes
hill,
sought refuge and protection in times of popular outthe Turris Cartularia built on the platform of
breaks
;
the temple of
which
in
the archives of
centuries
many
and
by the arch
Stator,
Jupiter
of
were
the church
Titus,
kept for
lastly the Septizonium, the great-
mediaeval stronghold of the Palatine, garrisoned by

the Frangipanis under the ownership of the abbots of
est
the
monastery
SS.
Andreae
et
ad
Gregorii
Clivum
Scauri.
The
latest bit of evidence
regarding the real or nomi-
Palatine episcopal
of the
nal occupancy
the popes came to light
November
8,
by
1883, during the
excavation of the House of the Vestals.

east
residence
At
the north-
corner of the peristyle the remains of a modest
mediaeval dwelling were discovered, belonging to a high

official
of the court of
wise obscure,
who occupied
942 to 946.
of
the
that
This
pope's
ruins of the
when
Marinus
official
II.,
the chair of St. Peter from
must have been
rooms which were
Domus
this small
Gaiana.
a pontiff, other-
It is
house was
placed
in
charge
among the
important to notice
built, at the
beginning
122
tenth
the
of
the
century,
of
pavement
'
the
Atrium
Vestae was already covered with a layer of rubbish

The columns of the peristyle had
five feet thick.
been removed or knocked down from their bases, the

walls
of
stripped
small tesserae
the
from their
setting.
their
marble
the
of
even
mosaic pavement wrenched
Around the
the Byzantine colony, to which

tion of the churches of
and
veneering,
Palatine hill clustered
we owe
the construc-
the Anastasis, of S.
Maria in
Theodore, and of
Schola
Graeca,
St.
existing, as well as those of S. Euplos

which
have long since disappeared. 1
Phocas,
S.
The
S.
of
Saba,
St.
still
George,
and
of
visit of
Heraclius to
Rome
in 629 is connected
with another event in the history of the destruction

He made a present to Pope Honorius I.
of the City.
(625-640) of the gilt-bronze

roof of the temple of
that
to
of
St.
tiles
which covered the
Venus and Rome,
Peter's.
This
fact
to be
proves
removed
that
the
temple was at that time in a good state of repair

while, on the other hand, the stripping off of the tiles
was a sure way to promote the downfall of the build;
ing.
Specimens of these
by Justus
tiles
were seen and described
Rycq and Giacomo Grimaldi
at the time
Paul V., who destroyed, in 1606, the roof and
nave of old
St.
For further
the
Peter's.
Another famous
1
of
edifice fell at the
same time into the
particulars, see the interesting chapter
on the history
of the Palatine in Grisar's History of the Popes in the Middle Ages.
THE MONUMENTS IX THE SEVENTH CENTURY
123
hands of the Pope, the Curia or Senate-house, which

he dedicated to St. Hadrian, a saint otherwise unknown.
The
ancient decorations of the hall, the gilt coffers of
the vaulted roof, the marble panelling of the walls, the

the pediment, and the bronze door did
or alteration with the " Christianisa-
of
bas-reliefs
not suffer damage

tion
"
of the building.
They disappeared
hands
the
partly
in
classic
shape of the building.
at
1654,
of
partly in 1589,
Cardinal
Agostino
Cusano and of Alfonso Sotomayor, who raised the floor
of the church to the modern level, and altered the
removed
to the church of
The bronze doors were
St.
ander VII., but as the folds,

about eighteen by eleven
doorway
John Lateran by Alexwhich filled an aperture
feet,
were smaller than the
a band, ornamented with the
of the Lateran,
Pope (Chigi), was added to the

ancient metal work.
A third edifice, the Heroon of
typical
of the
stars
Romulus, son of Maxentius,

the same time.
roof about
temple from destruction
lost the
bronze
Pope Sergius
I.
tiles of its
saved the
dome with
by covering the
sheets of lead. 1
On
July
5,
663,
Rome had
fortune of an imperial
for the last time the mis-
Constans
visit.
by a guilty conscience on account

1
See
De
Rossi, Bull, di arch,
were afterward
stolen,
up on the bare dome.

found roots of
ilexes,
in the cracks of the
crist.,
and vegetation,
When
and
the
1867, p. 62.
II.,
compelled
fratricide
The
to
sheets of lead
of considerable growth, sprung
monument was
fig-trees,
masonry.
of
restored,
in 1879, I
four inches in diameter, wedged
124
wander from sanctuary
Rome
to
pilgrimage
had undertaken a
to sanctuary,
in
the spring of
that
and
year,
was met by Pope Vitalianus and the few inhabitants

the
near the sixth mile-stone of
and
short
of
visit
friendly
proved most disastrous to the

seized
everything
of
value
sieges of Vandals, Goths,
is
not exaggerated.
Christian
emperor
Roman monuments
the
after
which,
of
Dyer
in
he
repeated
and Lombards, had been
The statement
to plunder.
The
Appian Way.
this
left
regard to this
" In the twelve

days which
"
he carried
says this writer,
robbery
Constans spent at Rome,"
off as many bronze statues as he could lay hands on
and though the Pantheon seemed to possess a double
;
claim to protection, as having been presented by Phocas

to
the
and
Pope,
Christian church,
legious
as
yet
having been converted into a

Constans was mean and sacri-
enough to carry
which covered
off
the
tiles
of
After perpetrating these
it.
bronze
gilt
acts,
which
were, at least, as bad as robberies, and attending mass

the
at
tomb
of
St.
Constans
Peter,
carried
booty to Syracuse. His plunder ultimately

hands of the Saracens."
fell
off
his
into the
remarkable discovery has been made in later years

The Embearing on this visit of Constans to Rome.
peror,
between
and
basilicas,
and
ruins.
attendants
his acts of doubtful devotion in churches
found time to
These
visits
by scratching
visit the
pagan monuments
were recorded by one

his
sovereign's
of his
name on
THE MONUMENTS
IX
THE SEVENTH CENTURY
125
prominent part of every building which the party dishonoured with its presence. One of these graffiti is
to be
found on the four-faced arch, Janus Quadrifrons,
on the right side
archway facing the church of

Velabro, the ancient Forum Boarium
of the
S. Giorgio in
another on the very top of Trajan's column.
Possibly more than mere records of a visit of curi;
osity, these scratchings

is
every probability
are records of
that the
statue
plunder.
of
There
"best of
the
was
Princes," on the top of the column of Trajan,
car-
by this visitor. The fate of the statue on the

column of Marcus Aurelius also is not known perhaps
ried off
it
was hurled down from the top
of the
column, and
broken into pieces by the fall.

When the Marchese
Ferrajuoli rebuilt the foundations of his palace on the
south side of the Piazza Colonna, in 1868, the finger
of the left hand of a bronze statue of colossal size
was discovered in the layer of rubbish which covers the

ancient stone pavement of the square.
It is quite possible that a careful examination of the principal Roman
monuments, such as the Coliseum, Pantheon, and the

column of Marcus Aurelius, would lead to the discovery
of *other graffiti of a similar character, and thus enable
us to follow, step by step, the wanderings of the last
Emperor who saw Rome

Normans.
before
the
ravages
of
the
CHAPTER XI
THE INCURSION OF THE SARACENS, IX 846, AND THE

EXTENSION OF THE FORTIFICATIONS OF THE CITY
THE
Palermo by the Saracens
conquest of
in
831
caused the reigning Pope, Gregory IV., to adopt cer-
The
tain measures of defence.
tion
Tiber
of
fort
an
as
first
was the construc-
outpost at the
mouth
of
the
another was the abandonment of the churches
outside the walls, in the wilderness of the Campagria,

their contents
being transferred within the shelter of
the City's defences.
The founding of
mouth of the river,
Gregoriopolis,
the
fortress
at
the
described in the Liber Ponti-
is
AVe are informed that the ancient colony and

ficalis.
harbour of Ostia, "stricken with age, seemed to have
been altogether destroyed "
stricken inhabitants
Gregory
a
new
is
line
still
yet there were a few fever-
wandering among the
ruins.
praised by the biographer as having built

of
walls
with
portcullis
gates,
crowned
with powerful batteries (petrariae), and protected by a

The account is greatly exaggerated, to
deep moat.
judge from the
remains
1
of
this
Gregorius, IV. 38.
126
Gregoriopolis which
the late
INCURSION OF THE SARACENS, IN
846
Carlo Ludovico Visconti and
laid
erecting
on the
left
to
in
the
main
the
or
little
two or three blocks
of
side
Ostia
at
amounts
fortifications
simply selected
They
did
actually
and
street
or his
way
of
nothing.
of old houses
filled
up
mud
walls.
also barricaded the openings of the streets
which
the doors, windows, and shop-fronts with
They
bare in
What Gregory IV.
the winter of 1867-1868.

representatives
127
It is possible, although we
found no evidence, that the houses surrounding this
rudimentary fort on the opposite sides of the boundary
ran between the blocks.
were levelled to the ground.

of 846 is a well-known event
streets
The Saracenic invasion

main
in its
lines,
but very uncertain in
The
its details.
biographer of Sergius II. (844-847), a contemporary, and
perhaps an eye-witness, of the

scription at the
most
critical
facts, leaves off
It
point.
his de-
seems that on
the 10th of August, 846, Count Adalbert, Governor of
Tuscany and protector

fleet of
warning that a
seventy-three Saracenic vessels, carrying eleven
thousand men and

nalled
of Corsica, sent
making
five
for
the
hundred
mouth
had been
horses,
Tiber.
the
of
sig-
Count
Adalbert urged the Romans to place within the protection
of
the walls the bodies
apostles, Peter
in gold
and
of
the
princes
of
the
and Paul, as well as the great treasure

which many generations of pilgrims
silver
had deposited over

defenceless basilicas
their
of
outlying
and
Via Cornelia and of
the
tombs
the
in
the
128
Via
The Romans, however, paid
Ostiensis.
tion to the warning of Adalbert,

selves with
but
little
atten-
satisfied
them-
communicating the contents of his letter to
the villagers and farmers of
the Campagna, that these
might assemble for the defence of the coast.
Villagers
and farmers, likewise, treated the message with

tempt
so that
when
the Saracens landed at the
con-
mouth
Tiber, on the twenty-third of the month, they

found Gregoriopolis abandoned, and were able to make
the
of
that outpost their base of operations.
In these straits the

ness, not
to
shown want
had
call
it
Romans showed
much weak-
cowardice, as they had previously
The only
of forethought.
sufficient
as
inhabitants
who
courage to rush to the defence of Porto
(on the side of the river opposite Ostia, and connected with it by means of a " wretched bridge ") were
the
members
the
of
foreign
colony,
and the Franks, who lived

Biygus, between the castle of
Frisians,
called
the
in
S.
Saxons, the
the
quarter
Angelo and
the Vatican.
After two encounters, in which nineteen skirmishers

lost
their
lives,
Porto was taken by the
the garrison put to the sword
and
the few survivors were
Ponte Galera.
pursued as far as
26th of
infidels
This happened on the

on the following day the Saracens
August
marched upon Rome, while
stream, and took possession
;
their
free
fleet
was towed up-
and undisturbed
of
the basilicas of St. Peter and St. Paul outside the walls.

I
of
129
846
on the authority
weight of gold and
have taken the pains to estimate

Liber
the
lavished
silver
Pontlficalis
on
the
the
decorations
rich
of
the
two
churches from the time of Constantine down; as nearly

as I can reckon it, about three tons of gold and thirty
of
must have
silver
an
cens,
them
almost
fallen into the
fabulous
hands of the Sara-
booty, which well
repaid
and trouble of their expedition.

While these depredations were going on, the Romans
for the cost
attempted a sally in the "plains of Nero" (the Prati di

The farmers
Castello), but were easily driven back.
Campagna, supported by the villagers from the

Alban and Tiburtine hills, seem to have been more
of the
successful in attacking and dispersing a
near the Basilica of St. Paul.
For
band
of pirates
this reason, or per-
haps because they had secured more booty than their

vessels would hold, the invaders began their retreat,
after slaughtering a
number
of
men, destroying
by fire many towns and strongholds, and carrying off
"a very great booty of people and of all things."
Their infantry and cavalry went south along the Appian
Way, while
great
the fleet skirted the coast as far as Gaeta.
Fleet and crews were ultimately lost in a gale off the

coast of Sicily.
The most important circumstance

events
is
in
this
chain of
the fate of the tombs of St. Peter and St. Paul.
There can be no doubt that the Romans despised the

warning of Count Adalbert in regard to the safety of
130
in
treasures
the
and
gold
silver
to
belonging
both
these tombs
all the accounts agree in

;
testifying that
Saracens seized in either place innumerabilia bona.
the
Did the people
of
Rome heed
the second part of the
admonition as regards the bodies of the apostles?
Did
they open the sarcophagi and carry the precious contents within the City walls?
The answer
more than doubtful.
Pope Sergius, in
the first place, was so broken down by gout and humor
he was
podagricus that he could attend to no duties
is
for
"good
his
own
from
same
(brutus
source,
et
the
statement
"extremely dull and

valde), and so of even
was
stolidus
In the second place, the Saracens
account.
of
His brother, Benedict, we learn
biographer.
the
passive"
less
according
nothing,"
to
fell
on both sanctuaries like a thunderbolt, according to

a plan of campaign that had been carefully matured
beforehand.
What
this
plan of
the
Moslem invaders was,
it
is
Suppose that the crusaders had

taken possession of Mecca. Would not their first aim
have been to invade the Kasbah and scatter to the
easy to
understand.
four winds the
like policy
bones of the prophet?
in
the
followed
infidels
seems to have been
by
regard to
our sanctuaries.
They
the treasures of the crypt
body
and plundered
reposed the most holy
certainly entered
" where
of the Prince of the
Apostles" (ubi sacratissimum
corpus principis apostolorum requiesdfy ; here
is
the proof

of
it.
Leo
of
gilt
silver,
III.
846
131
had placed over the tomb a
bas-relief
representing the
Redeemer, the Virgin
The basMary, Peter, Paul, Andrew, and Petronilla.

relief was stolen by the Saracens, and a copy was subby Leo IV.
stituted in its place
after the retreat of the
invaders.
would be impossible to discuss
It
ail
present
the arguments
Peter and Paul in 846.
same
My
opinion
in
is
that the fate
all
the
respects
that the sarcophagus of St. Peter, placed in a
subterranean crypt and protected
metal
like the
the sanctuaries of both
two holy places was not
the
book
forward to prove
brought
or to deny the profanation of
of
in a
embedded
in
masonry,
by a case
escaped
of
solid
while
rifling,
that of St. Paul, a plain marble coffin level with the
was certainly injured or destroyed.

the evidence of the fact last mentioned in the
floor of the basilica,
We
find
life
of Benedict III.:
Sepulchrum (Pauli
apostoli)
Sarracenis destructum fuerat, perornavit.
quod
The word
destructum, however, cannot be taken in a literal sense
the lid of
the sarcophagus,
with the epitaph
APOSTOLO MART(YRI) engraved

of Constantine,
Chapter
II. p. 145.
is still
xxii. in
PAULO
in the style of the age
in existence.
saw
it
on Decem-
Duchesne's edition of the Liber Pontificalis, Vol.
The passage
relating to St. Peter's, in the life of
Leo
IV.,
mentions not the grave, but the altar of the Apostle as having been
beatiss. Petri altare violatum et ad vilitatem
injured by the Saracens
:
perductum.
132
1, 1891, having lowered myself from the fenestella

under the high altar. 1 (Fig. 23.)
The most noteworthy consequence of these events,
from a topographical point of view, was the inclusion
ber
FIG. 23.
The tomb
of St.
Paul and the canopy of Arnolf o
di
Lapo
in S. Paolo
fuori le Mura, after the fire of 1823.
of
the
Vatican district
construction
of
two
in
the
City proper, and the
powerful outlying forts, one at

church of S. Lorenzo fuori
St. Paul's, the other at the

le
Mura.
The
walls
of
1
the
Civitas
Leonina,
See Pagan and Christian Rome,
or
p. 157.
Burgus, are
133
846
and are properly considered a masmediaeval military engineering.

Leo IV.
in existence,
still
terpiece of
undertook to imitate, to a certain extent, the construction of the wall of
and has two
The lower
gallery
within.
The
His structure
Aurelian.
feet thick,
is
is
twelve
galleries, one above the other.
supported by open arcades facing

is level with the battlements.
The upper one
arcades of the lower gallery were walled up in
Pope Borgia, and the gallery

the famous
the fifteenth century by
transformed into a secret passage
itself
Corridojo di Castello
connecting
Vatican with the fortress of
S.
the
palace
Angelo.
To
the
of
this cor-
many popes and cardinals have been indebted for

one of the most strikescape from death or servitude
ridor,
ing instances
May,
is
1527, fled
that of Pope
through
this
Clement VII., who
in
passage from the hordes
of Charles of Bourbon.
The construction
of
the
Leonine wall, so elaborate
in the level stretch between the Vatican
and the
for-
tress of S. Angelo, becomes more simple on the hill

behind the church, the steep slopes of which consti-
tute
we
natural
and
effective
find a plain wall with
line
of
defence.
Here
no
galleries, save a passage

at the height of the battlements, as may be seen in
our illustration. (Fig. 24.) The most exposed angles
were
still
the
by round towers, two of which are

existence and form a conspicuous landmark in
protected
in
Vatican landscape.
The one represented
in
the
134
illustration,
which stands
the
sea,
187 feet above
commands an unlimited view over
pagna and the
FIG.
at a height of
2-i.
Tower
and
is
of the wall of
Leo
coast,
IV.,
unde mare prospicitur

tions of the Vatican group.
turris
the
Cam-
therefore described as the
now
in
used as an observatory.
the
It is
early
now used
representaas an ob-
servatory for photographing the section of the heavens
which was
allotted
to
the
Holy See by the Interna-

Astronomical
tional
used
as
chapel
Congress.
the
for
135
846
The other tower

new summer casino
is
of
Leo XIII.
The
pontifical treasury
zens of
and the resources of the
Rome were unequal
to the task of
the walls in the required time.

service (praestatio operis)
and
to,
the
colonists
of
was
completing
system of forced
in consequence
the
citi-
fortified
resorted
farms of
the
Campagna were called upon to take a share in the

work. Two inscriptions, now affixed to the arch which
spans the Via Angelica, give important details of the
scheme adopted to obtain thus speedy assistance and
cheap labour.
the
One
says,
"In
Pope Leo IV., the Militia
the time of our Lord

Saltisina (a colony
the road to Ardea, fifteen miles from
Rome)
on
built these
two towers, and the wall between them " the other,
" In the time of our Lord the
Pope Leo IV., the
Militia Capracorum (a colony founded by Hadrian I.
;
near the ruins of Veii on the
site of
the present farm
S. Cornelia) built this tower and the wall which

connects it with the next."
Both companies declare
of
that they
worked under the direction
who was probably
of a certain Agatho,
the chief engineer of the Leonine wall.
In 880 John VIII. did
for
St.
Paul's without
the
Walls what Leo IV. had done thirty years before for
St. Peter's, but with this difference, that while the
1
am
This work is entrusted mostly to Cavaliere Mannucci, to

indebted for the illustration.
whom
136
Burgus was included

proper, the
astery
Basilica
and
in
and became a part
Ostiensis with
hospices
remained
its
of the City
adjoining mon-
detached
con-
fort,
nected with the City only by means of a colonnade a

to be seen above
founder.
its
the
same
ground
now
after
of
which no trace
second detached fort was built about
time for the
Lorenzo
S.
is
was named Johannipolis
The stronghold
mile long.
fuori le
protection of
Mura.
No
the basilica of
historical
document
but we possess a drawing of Martin

Heemskerk which shows the state of the stronghold
The fact that two inhabited centres of
about 1534. 1
mentions the
fact,
the Campagna, Saltisinum and

nish a strong contingent of
Capracorum, could fursoldier-workmen for the
defence of the Capital, seems to prove that a few fortified farms did escape from the depredation of the
Saracens.
may add
that some of the Saracens them-
namely, the prisoners taken at St. Paul's and

on the road to Gaeta, were compelled to take a share
in the work, the fact being recorded in an inscription. 2
selves,
The extent
of the zone plundered in the fearful visita-
tion of 846 can be determined with the help of the

of churches
list
which Leo IV. had to refurnish with sacred
implements and vestments. None of the church buildings, however, seem to have been materially damaged;
at least I
have not been able to find in the Liber Pon-
Reproduced
De
in
Fig. 35.
Rossi, Inscriptiones Christianae urbis
Romae, Vol.
II. p.
347.
any mention of Leo IV. or
tificalis
repaired
137
846
his successors
The
roofs, walls, windows, or doors.
having
list
of
plundered churches comprises those of Silva Candida,

of the delta of the Tiber, of Ostia and Porto.
I must
record especially that of S. Cyriacus on the Via Osti-
because
ensis,
remains
that
it
was
Signor
twenty-five years ago
just in the
Pietro
traces
neighbourhood of its
Rocchi discovered some
one of
of
the
Saracenic
camps, consisting mainly of daggers and poniards with

curved blades of Oriental make.
Other churches are
mentioned on the Tusculan and Alban
hills
(Frascati,
Morena, Massa Maruli), and along the Via Appia as

far as Terracina and Fondi.
Important, above all, is
the
mention of the church of SS. Cosmas and Dami-
anus (S. Cosimato) near Subiaco, because it shows that

the Saracens carried their devastation as far as the
upper valley of the Anio, and into the very heart of

the Simbruine Mountains.
We
day
find a survival
from
this incursion at the present
in the village of Saracinesco,
perched like an eagle's
on a conical
and almost inaccessible peak at a

height of 2500 feet above the sea, and of 1350 feet
above S. Cosimato.
There is no doubt that a foraging
nest
party, having been
cut off from
the
finding a retreat impossible, took
main body, and
shelter
among
these
rocky precipices, and that afterwards they were allowed

to form a settlement and live in peace by substituting
the
cross
for
the
crescent.
Some
of
the
inhabitants,
138
who come
resque
their
Arabic
Elmansour
is
hood of the
fore,
Rome
to
costumes
names,
like
also the
name
From
village.
the Saas-Thal in
which
El-Mansour
(Almansorre).
of a cave in the neighbourthis point of view, there-
Anio forms a counterpart of

the Valaisan Alps, the villages and
our valley of
peaks of
every winter clad in their pictupainters' models, have preserved
as
the
still
preserve
their
(Monte Moro,
Allalin,
Balferin, etc.),
from the invasion
Saracenic
names
Mischabel, Alphubel, Almagell,

of 927.
CHAPTER
XII
THE FLOOD OF
ON
January
6,
856,
856
when Benedict
III.
was pope, the
Tiber rose violently, broke through the embankments,

and flooded the lower quarters of the City to the
According to the Liber Pontidepth of several feet.

waters
reached
the highest step of the stairs
the
ficalis
of St. Dionysius, near the present church of S. Silvestro
in Capite,
and the architrave of the door of
Via Lata.
in
Houses
fell
or were washed
men and
way down
S.
Maria
away by the
hundred, trees were uprooted,
cattle
and crops destroyed,
the river from
Rome to the sea.

What damage was
all
the
in this instance
monuments we do not know
drowned,
done to the
classic
but the records show that
during the Middle Ages there were several destructive

inundations of the Tiber, and they are described with
an almost stereotyped formula in the Liber Pontifie alls.
The formula runs thus
On
such an hour, on such a day of such a year, 1 the

waters broke through the posterula of St. Agatha, and
1
Hora
diei
X. for the inundation of October
Pontificalis, Vol. II. p. 145, chap, xxiii.
139
30, 860.
See Liber
140
rushing over the waste
fields
of
the
Campus
Martius,
followed the line of the Via Flaminia (the modern Corso)

to the foot of the Capitoline hill
this obstacle,
then,
pushed back by
they followed the line of the Pallacinae,
etc.
Such a description would not be applied to a gentle

rising of the waters, which quietly spread over the low-
FIG.
'25.
The Forum Hooded by the Tiber
18%.
lying districts, giving time to the citizens to save
and property
we have
life
here rather a sudden outburst,
produced by the breaking away of an obstacle, whether

a levee, or an embankment, or a wall.
In the inundation
of 856 the obstacle
must have been
in the line of the
THE FLOOD OF
141
856
and Honorius, which followed the left

the river from the Turris ubi umbra Neronis
walls of Aurelian
bank
of
by the present Ponte Margherita, to

There were two or three gaps in
the Ponte Sisto.
din
mansitavit,
the wall, called posterulae, which served to give access

the
to
ferries
The
and
to
the mooring stations
along the
Agatha, through which

inundations broke, was the northernmost of the
bank.
the
posterula
of
St.
and consequently the most exposed of all

any
temporary obstruction of the water here would be apt
gaps,
to give
Even
quent.
at
the
way
in
under the pressure of the flood.

modern times floods have been not
first
Our
illustration
time
inundation
in
of
1557
Aemilius (Fig- 44).
infre-
shows the Forum under water
freshet
carried
(Fig.
25).
away part
A
of
destructive
the
Pons
CHAPTER
XIII
THE name
a
summary
Einsiedlen Itinerary has
description of
century, which
tions,
mostly of
is
Rome
been
given to
dating from the ninth
appended to a collection of
Roman
inscrip-
volume
origin, in a manuscript
formerly in the library of the Abbey of Pfeffers, now

in that of Einsiedeln, in Switzerland.
The volume has
been examined and illustrated in
by Haenel, Jordan, De
its
minutest details
and myself. 1
Our joint
researches have proved that the Itinerary was made up
the
of
legends
of
Rossi,
map
Charlemagne, prepared
Rome
of
for the
of
legends, therefore, are arranged so as to

itineraries,
or
routes,
religious attraction.
between
The
list is
the
time
use of pilgrims.
the
form eleven
main
as follows
of
The
centres
of
ROUTE
I.
From
the Aelian Bridge to the Esquiline, by S. Lucia in
Selce.
II.
From
the Aelian Bridge to the Porta Salaria.
Haenel, in Archiv fur Philologie und Padagogik, Vol. V. (1837)

pp. 115-138; Jordan, Topographic von Horn, Vol. II. p. 329; De Rossi,
1
Inscr. Christ., Vol. II. pp. 9 et seq.; Lanciani,

e
V Ordo
di Benedetto Canonico,
Rome,
142
1891.
V Itinerario di Einsiedlen

III.
From
the Aelian
143
Bridge to the Porta Asiuaria (now
S.
Giovanni).
IV.
From
the Aelian Bridge to St. Paul's without the Walls.
V.
From
the Porta
VI.
From
the Porta Flaminia (now Porta del Popolo) to the
Nomentana
to the
Forum Romanum.
Capitol (Via di Marforio).
VII.
From
the Porta Tiburtina (S. Lorenzo) to the Subura by
the Esquiline gate of Servius
VIII.
From
and again
the Porta Tiburtina to the Subura by the Viminal
gate of Servius.
IX.
From
the Porta Aurelia (S. Pancrazio) to the Porta Prae-
nestina
X.
From
(now Porta Maggiore).
the Circus
Maximus
to the Porta Metroni, across the
Caelian Hill.
XI.
From
the Porta Appia
(now Porta
di S. Sebastiano) to the
Schola Graeca (Bocca della Verita).
The Ninth Route, from west to east, marks what the

camp surveyors would call the decumanus maior; the
Third, from north
to
approximately, gives us
the line of a cardo, at right angles with it ; the others
are designed to illustrate the four quarters formed by
the intersection of the cardo and the decumanus.
The
author of the
south,
document had two purposes
show the pilgrims
in
view
first,
way from one basilica
to another, from the grave of one martyr to that of
and secondly, to point out to them the most
another
to
their
conspicuous
edifices,
profane as well as sacred, which
they would see on the right or on the
left
of
their
144
The map used by the compiler of the Itinerary

we have knowledge, after those
path.
the oldest of which
is
which served
of the time of Constantine,
pilation of the Notitia

I
fact,
believe
it
com-
for the
and of the Curiosum Urbis ;
to be a revised
in
Con-
of the
edition
map, because some of the names are so

(as, Vicus Patricii, Minervium, Ha-
stantinian
distinctly classical
as to
drianum)
much
betray a
origin than the
earlier
time of Charlemagne.
The
the
which the pilgrim
streets along
are
City
exactly
those
change had yet taken

their
pavement
of
of
led through
Rome
imperial
in
place
of blocks
is
their
direction,
worn by
basalt,
age,
no
and
was
not yet covered with a layer of rubbish or with sand
from the inundations of the Tiber.

course, in general
deviation
of
for there
the
am
speaking, of
more than one instance
is
from a straight
obstacles placed in
way by
order to avoid
in
line,
downfall of some
the
great building of the Republic or of the Empire.
conception of the importance of this document, as
throwing light on the state of the Roman monuments

in the ninth century, may be gained from the first of
Routes, which
the
to
the
City.
Esquiline,
The
takes
directly
edifices
are
us
from the Aelian
through
the
S(inistra)
The
text says
left,
itself.
in
grouped
those on the right of the path,
the
heart
the
columns
three
D(extra)
Bridge
of
those on
and those crossed by the path
145
ST. PETER TO THE CHURCH OF

LUCIA IN ORTHEA
FROM THE GATE OF

S.
On
The Circus
the
On
Right
The church
Flaiuinius.
the Left
of S. Laurentius in
Damaso.
The
The Rotunda.
theatre
of
The
Pompey.
Cypress.
The thermae
of
The church
Coramodus.
of St. Lawrence.
The
Capitol.
The Forum
of Trajan
and
its
The church
column.
is
The Arch
of Septimius Severus.
The
The Tiber.
The church
of S. Sergius, where
the Umbilicus Romae.
of St. Hadrian.
statue
equestrian
of
Con-
stantine.
The Forum Romanum.

The church
of St. Agatha.
Subura.
The thermae
The church
of Constantine.
of S.
Pudens in Vico
Patricii.
The church
Longo,
of S. Vitalis in Vico
where
the
The church
of S. Laurentius in
Formoso.
Back again by the
beautiful
Subura.
horses are.
The church
Vico
of S.
Euphemia
in
The thermae
The gate
of
of Trajan
ad Vin-
cula.
Patricii.
St.
Peter, from which
gate of the Aurelian wall,
we
which opened
start,
is
Cistiberine entrance to the Aelian Bridge, on the

of the present Piazza di
Ponte
S.
the
at the left or
site
Its classical
Angelo.
Porta Aurelia (nova) .had since the time of
Procopius (Goth. I. 19) been superseded by that of
name
Peter,
of
" the chief of the

apostles."
We now
enter the
146
Via del Banco
di
S.
and Via del Pellegrino,
Roman
Via dei Banchi Vecchi,

ancient as shown by the re-
Spirito,
all
pavement which are constantly

discovered under the modern pavement at a depth varymains of
basaltic
The buildings pointed

ing from ten to fifteen feet.
the Stadium, where now is the
out on the left are
:
Piazza Navona, to which the

is
wrongly applied
the
name
of Circus Flaminius
Rotunda, or Pantheon
the
Thermae Commodianae, probably the Baths of Agrippa

First on the right are the
restored by Commodus.
Library and archives of the Church of Rome, founded
by Pope Damasus in the barracks of the green squadron
of charioteers (Stabula Factionis Prasinae, S. Lauren-
and the theatre
Pompey, the remains of which occupy the space between the Piazza
di Campo di Fiori and the Via Argentina.
We are not sure what is meant by " the Cypress "
tius in Prasino);
(Cupressus*),
of
Pompey's
which
zetta
of
streets,
of
ruins,
are
Our Ninth Ward (Rione)
Rome.
Piazza
Names
Pigna,
or
mention
even of
from a solitary tree growing conspicu-
a wilderness
ously in
della
in our itinerary follows the
theatre.
quarters, derived
of
" Pine-tree
Ward
"
;
not infrequent in
is
we
actually
have
called
also
" Elm-tree
Olmo,
Square," and a Piaz"
"
Fico,
Fig-tree ; a Via dell' Arancio, etc.
dell'
del
Yet, while such designations
may
be adopted by the
seems hardly credible that they should have

been registered in such a document as the Itinerary,
populace,
it
147
and put down as indicating one of the most important

landmarks of the City.
Resuming our journey toward the Forum, we enter

the Via delle Botteghe Oscure, skirting the east side of
Flaminius (the site of which is indicated

by that of the church of S. Laurentius in Pensilis,
built among and above its ruins), then the Via di S.
the
Circus
Marco
or
Pallacinae,
and
named Clivus Argentarius
in
Prothi in the Middle Ages.

the Capitoline
hill
Via
lastly the
antiquity,
The
and the church
di
Marforio,
and
Ascesa
Itinerary mentions
of
SS. Sergius and
Forum and the column of

left,
Trajan on the right. Entering the Forum Romanum by
the arch of Septimius Severus, we turn at once to the
Bacchus on the
the
and following the succession
left,
della Croce
Lucia
of short streets,
Via
Bianca, de' Monti, Leonina, and Via di S.
in Selce,
corresponding to the Argiletum, Subura,
and to the Clivus Suburanus, we reach the end
of the
journey at the Esquiline gate, in the neighbourhood of

the church of S. Lucia in Orthea, better known under
the
name
of S.
Lucia in Selce.
Nine points of
interest
are
recorded
on
the
namely, the Senate-house dedicated to St. Hadrian
Pope
Honorius
called dei SS.
I.,
the
Quirico e
church
Giolitta
of
;
S.
the
Cyriacus,
church of
left,
by
now
St.
Agatha, the Baths of Constantine, and the beautiful

group of the Horse-tamers, from which the Quirinal
hill
borrowed
its
popular name of Monte Cavallo; and
148
churches of
the four
lastly,
Longus (Via di
Pudens, and
of
churches are
which
Lorenzo in Panisperna,
Euphemia on the Vicus Patricii
S. Vitale), of S.
of
S.
Via
Urbana,
(Via
Vitalis on the Vicus
S.
still
Bambino Gesu).
del
All
these
extant except that of S. Euphemia,
was
destroyed by Sixtus V. in 1587, while

cutting open the new street between the Panisperna
and
S.
only
are
Basilica
it
is
Maria
mentioned,
of
S.
On
Maggiore.
Pietro in
true that the
the
Baths
the
Vincoli.
modern
streets
two
right
of
edifices
and
Trajan
in
Though
the
general
mentioned above, dei
Banchi, del Pellegrino, delle Botteghe Oscure, etc., follow

the lines of ancient thoroughfares, the statement must
not
be
too
accepted
slight deviation to
literally.
There
the right or to the
is
usually
left,
in conse-
quence of which the old pavements of basalt have come

to light, as a rule, under the houses which flank the
modern
streets,
rather
than
under the streets them-
selves.
The importance
of the other section of
this precious
document, in which are transcribed some of the monumental inscriptions of the City,
of
that
containing the Itinerary.
inscriptions
ence,
such
Nazzareno,
from the
as
the
edifices
the arch of
obelisk
of
is
almost as great as
I do not refer to
which are
Claudius
the
still
in the
Vatican,
the
in
exist-
Via del
column
Trajan, and the arch of Septimius Severus, but to

those from buildings which have partly or wholly
of

disappeared.
we
Following the order of the manuscript

monument to be the bridge by which
find the first
the Via Salaria crossed the river Anio, broken

first
in
151
down
by Totila in 544, again by the Neapolitan army

and for the third time by the Pope's own
1798,
soldiers in 1867 (Fig.
Next
the
of
26).
order are inscriptions from the square base

mausoleum of Hadrian, the epitaphs of the
in
the second
great emperors of
century buried within.
The epitaphs were destroyed in July, 1579, by Pope

Gregory XIII., who made use of the marbles for the
decoration of the Cappella Gregoriana in
The document mentions furthermore
St.
Peter's.
the triumphal arch
and Theodosius, which stood by
of Arcadius, Honorius,
the church of S. Orso at the entrance of the bridge
Nero (Pons Neronianus or Vaticanus); that of Gratian, Valentinian, and Theodosius, which stood by the
church of S. Celso in Banchi, destroyed toward the
of
fifteenth century ; and lastly an arch built

at
the curved end of the Circus Maximus,
Titus
by
the fate of which is not known.
end of the
We
was
find
a reference
also
to
Nymphaeum, which
century by Flavius Philippus, prefect of the City, at the corner of the Via
della Navicella (Vicus Capitis Africae) and Via dei
rebuilt
in
the
fifth
SS. Quattro (Tabernola);
made about 1500 by

i
C.
we
Peruzzi.
possess a drawing of
1
The monumental
L. VI. 1728 a.
it,
in-
152
market (macellum) of Li via were
scriptions of the
in
place
they were afterwards made use of
Maria
in
pavement
various
of
restoration
Trastevere,
of
that
churches, including
two
miles
distant,
still
in
of
from
which they came to light again
the
S.
the
in 1868.
The Baths of the Julii Akarii, which, according to

another document of the Einsiedlen manuscript, stood
near the island of S. Bartolomeo, are otherwise unknown.
The Septizonium
at the
south corner of the
Palatine hill seems already to have fallen into a ruin-
The inscription on the frieze of

lower colonnade numbered originally 280 letters,
ous condition.
the
of
which 118 could be copied by the Einsiedlen scribe,

on the extreme left of the building toward the Circus
Maximus, and 45
letters
by the anonymous Barberi-
nianus (Cod. XXX. 25) on the extreme right toward

There was consequently a gap
the arch of Constantine.
of
117
which
between the
letters
were
respectively
two ends
called
Septem
of
the
Solia
ruins,
Maior
and Septem Solia Minor. As the total length of the

building was not far from three hundred feet, twofifths
of
had seemingly collapsed before or about the time

2
Charlemagne.
Another inscription
rather confused
way
of
the
collection
to the repairs
and Honorius to the theatre
of
C.
I.
refers
in
made by Arcadius
Pompey, which had
L. VI. 1178.
p. 183.
153
The Forum of
been half -ruined by an earthquake. 1
and
of
Diocletian
still
the Baths
retained some
Trajan
of their
ment
monumental
Forum Romanum,
the
of
The pave-
inscriptions in place.
of
Sacra Via, of
the
the Vicus Tuscus, and of the Argiletum was
still
clear
from any accumulation of rubbish, as shown by the

fact
the
that
compiler
the
of
collection
could
copy
the inscription of the Caballus Constantini, and others
almost level with the pavement
He saw
itself.
monuments on the Capitoline

siderable remains of the embankment
several
Tiber.
the
It
appears,
lonesome
their epitaphs
and
roads
the
walls
of
also
conthe
many tombs along

Campagna still retained
that
and marble decorations, and that, here

fell on an edict issued, centuries
there, the eye
before,
by some
prefect
regulations
against
Janiculum,
and
the
finally,
of
hill,
and
gates and
Honorius.
of
the
of
frauds
the
of
such
as
the
millers
of
the
City,
the
the customs officers
posterns
of
stationed
the walls of Arcadius and
C.
Ibid., 472, 562, 773, 916, 1014, 1472, 1708.
I.
L. VI. 1191.
Ibid., 1711, 1016, c.
at
CHAPTER XIV
THE USURPERS OF THE HOLY
OF
THE two
AND THE SACK
centuries between the pontificate of
VIII. (872-882) and that

the
witnessed
SEE,
1084
deepest
mediaeval Rome.
As
of
John
Gregory VII. (1073-1085)
degradation in the history of

we follow the chain of events,
roughly described in contemporary chronicles, we are

often reminded of the time of the "thirty tyrants" in
the third century of the Empire, the comparison being
always in favour of these last.

We read of pontificates lasting only weeks or even
days, as that of Boniface VI., which extended over fifteen days
days,
and
Peter
for
popes
in
of
of
Theodore
Benedict V.,
sixty-three
two hundred
who was Pope for twenty

who filled the chair of St.
II.,
days.
There
were
forty-nine
years, and the succession was
determined, not by established usage, but by the prevalence for the moment of one or another faction.
Popes
were elected in
direct
opposition
to
the statutes of
(882-884), Formosus (891elections were secured

896), and John X. (914-928)
by an open purchase of votes, as that of Benedict
canon law, as Marinus
I.
154
THE USURPERS OF THE HOLY SEE

1
VIII.;
there
was a double and even a
that of Sergius III. and
Benedict IX., Sylvester
of
John IX.
155
triple election,
in 898,
and that
and Gregory VI. in
III.,
1045.
The supreme pontiff might be thrown into prison

by his own attendants, as was Leo V., in 903, after
reigning only 40 days
pelled and shut
in
up
usurpers might in turn be ex-
in a monastery, as Christopher
was
might be strangled with a rope, or

with pillows, or stabbed to the heart, as
a pope
904;
suffocated
Stephen VI., Leo V., Christopher I., John X., John

2
or chased from the chair of St.
XII., Benedict VI.;
The grave of a pope might

Peter, as Romanus was.
be violated for the sake of the richly embroidered vestments in which the body had been buried, as was the
tomb of Hadrian III., at Nonantola, in 885 3 in one
;
case the
body
was exhumed from before the high

the face and hands, mutilated, dragged
itself
altar, slashed in
on the
floor of St. Peter's,
such a
lot befell the corpse of
and thrown into the
river,
in 896. 4
Formosus
Sepulchral inscriptions of popes in this period are
still
1 1021-1024.
The sum spent on this occasion is variously stated
at 1000 to 2000 pounds of Papienses, or gold denarii coined at Pavia.
See Lib. Pont. Vol.

2
De
ch. 10
pod.
II.
pp. 270, 275.
Rossi, Inscr. Christ. Vol.
III.
Lib. Pont. Vol.
43
II. p.
II. p.
235, n.
215
1, p.
Auxilius, Defens. Formos.
248, n. 18
Martinus Polonus in Lib. Pont. Vol.
Lib. Pont. Vol. II. p. 225, n.
"Ann. Alamann."
in
Lintprand, Auta240.
3.
Mon. Germ.
Auxilius und Vulgarius, p. 95.
II. p.
Scr. Vol.
I.
p.
53;
Dummler,
156
"
extant in which their predecessors are called " wolves l
and "unclean." 2
The sacred
office
was
at the
mercy
an unspeakable Theodora vestararia and a Marotia
of
senatrix. 3
Patricians,
like
George
and
Aventinensis
4
Gregory the Nomenclator, were blinded, mutilated, and
dragged from church to church.
Matrons were punished
by being stripped of their garments in the

populace and scourged till the blood ran,
Superista.
There were
foreign
often
invaders, famine, pestilence,
The extent
murders.
to
Maria
like
fights in the streets, attacks
the castle of St. Angelo, appeals

to
face of .the
on
successful
robberies,
fires,
which the moral sense
of
men
w as blunted may be inferred from the fact that the

paternity of John XI. (931-936) is registered in the
r
But
Liber Pontificalis in words that are unquotable.

is
only
affairs
fair
to
remember that
did not prevail in
this
Rome
of
The whole
of
shocking
alone.
it
state
Europe in those dark days was corrupt yet, even in

period, we now and then find a pope of noble
character, whose virtue, wisdom, and sanctity are in
;
this
striking contrast with the tendencies of the age.
To what
vicissitudes the remains of ancient
subject in the tenth century
it
is
easier to imagine than
Be
Ibid. p. 215,
Chronicon of Benedict of Soracte, ad a. 928.

Mon. Germ. Scr. Lang. p. 483 Ann. Fuld. ad
Rome were
Rossi, Inscr. Christ. Vol. II. p. 212.
and Lib. Pont. Vol.
II. p. 258, n. 4.
Defens. Formos. ch. 4.

6 Mon. Germ.
Scr. Lang.
p. 483.
a.
882
Auxilius,
THE USURPERS OF THE HOLY SEE
157
Amidst general disorder and the

strifes of contending factions, they became the prey of
any one who had the power to seize them and use them
to set forth in detail.
own
for his
purposes.
Some
formed into strongholds
great buildings were trans-
others were levelled to the
their occupation by the opposite

few were occupied by the lowest orders of
thus the Forum Transitorium was taken
tradespeople
to
ground
prevent
faction.
by the butchers, the Basilica Julia by the

rope-makers, the Crypta Balbi by the candle-makers, and
possession of
the Circus Flaminius
by the lime-burners.
There was a decline in the number of pilgrims
vis-
in regard
Holy City. Lack of knowledge
and
so
far that,
had extended
reading
writing
after the double election of Sylvester and Gregory,
the
iting
to
in
1045,
pontiff
holy
as
both these popes were
illiterate,
third
was named who could help them celebrate the
offices. 1
The falling off in the number of pilgrims was manifest

in the shrinkage of the " Pilgrim's Pence," the principal
item in the revenue of the Holy See.
This was due to
the insecurity of travel not only in the Campagna, but

also in the rest of Italy and in the Alpine passes.
There
were regular bands of highwaymen, organized to waylay

the pilgrims and rob them of the pence that they were
expecting to offer to the "great beggar," as Rome was
Especially for pilgrims from the northern side
called.
1
See Mon. Germ. Scr. Lang. Vol. VI.
p.
358 ad
a.
1044.
DESTRUCTION OP ANCIENT ROME
158
journey to the "seat of the Apos-
Alps the
the
of
tles" involved risks and sufferings which
An
credible.
now seem
in-
inscription formerly in the parish church
Bourg-St. -Pierre, in the Val d'Entremont, recorded

the murders committed by a band of Saracens in the
of
St.
These were the Moors
Bernard Pass.
neto,
973,
who for more than half a

commanded the passes of
acting
heavy ransoms from
grims.
of
Frassi-
century, from
906 to
western Alps, ex-
the
travellers,
In 940 they crossed the
St.
especially
Bernard and
pilfell
on the rich monastery of St. Maurice in the Rhone

In 973, a distinguished pilgrim, Maiolus, abbot
Valley.
Cluny, was taken at the bridge of Orsieres, and
compelled to pay a large sum in gold to save his
of
life.
The outlaws
of the
Moors
cruelty with the
vied in rapacity and
Campagna
of
Frassineto
and, although
the popes of a later age succeeded in extirpating the

evil,
as
regards
the
existence
of
regularly organized
bands, yet the lonely roads converging to
not until recently been quite secure.
saw
(at least, I
cross
site
There
exists still
a few years ago) a modest
wooden
bank of the ancient Via Clodia, opposo-called Sepoltura di Nerone, which marks
on the
the
it
Rome have
left
the spot where a
murdered
Toward
young female pilgrim was
atrociously
in 1827. 1
the beginning of
1
Shown
this
troubled
in Fig. 17, p. 93.
period the
THE SACK OP
159
1084
revenue from the contributions of pilgrims was

temporarily offset by an increase from an unexpected
loss of
In the pontificate of Stephen VI. (896-897),

the venerable basilica of St. John Lateran fell in.
Negligently built, with spoils from earlier edifices, as were
source.
the other churches of the time of Constantine,
it
had
The walls
long since begun to show signs of decay.
of the nave rested on columns of various kinds of marble,
differing in height
and strength.
These, yielding under
the pressure of the roof, bulged outward so far that
the ends of the beams of the roof-trusses came out of
and the building collapsed. In the

were untold treasures accumulated in the course
their sockets,
turies
as Gaius
Marius
stole
basilica
of cen-
from the smouldering ruins
of the temple of Jupiter on the Capitol (83 B.C.) several
thousand pounds of gold, and Julius Caesar gathered

large sums of money from the demolition of the temple
Forum
of Pietas, near the
the Apostolic
of
treasures, all
its
See
Holitorium, so the "usurpers
bore
from
the
basilica
all
its
furniture of gold and silver, and
all
the utensils."
The chastisement
that followed
sweeping, and introduced a new

the history of the papacy
of the
fate
is
those evil days was
era, at least so far
concerned
as
and the fortunes
papacy were always closely connected with the

Robert Guiscard, Duke of Apulia,
City.
of the
arrived in sight of the walls of Rome,
May
24, 1084,
160
and established
ducts, probably
his
camp among
the ruins of the aque-
on the same spot
by the Torre del

where the
Fiscale, fourth mile-stone of the Via Latina
Goths had encamped 547 years before.

The Romans
displayed more courage than might have been expected.
Abandoned by
welcomed
as
the
Emperor Henry
a liberator
IV.,
whom
only a few days
they had
previously,
knowing what they had to expect at the hands of the

Normans and Saracens, whom Gregory VII., Pope
Hildebrand, had summoned to his rescue, they pluckily
entered
on
the
unequal
There were
fight.
traitors
among them, however, chief of whom was the consul

Cencio Frangipane. At daybreak of May 28 the Normans and
their infidel allies effected a double entrance
by the Porta Flaminia (now Porta

Porta Tiburtina (now Porta di
S.
del Popolo)
and the
Lorenzo)
fighting
way through the eastern quarter of the city, they

succeeded in releasing the Pope from the Castle of St.
their
Angelo, and conducted him amid fire and carnage to

the Lateran.
The whole of the Campus Martius and of
the Caelian hill was devastated by the flames, and the
unhappy City became the scene of horrors, in comparison with which the sack of the Vandals seems merciful.
On
the third day the citizens tried to rise once more
against their foes, but the attempt was stifled in blood
and
fire.
The
scene
is
well pictured by Gregorovius.
"When
both flames and the tumult of battle had subsided," says
THE SACK OF
the learned author of
Rome
161
1084
in the Middle Ages, 1 "
Rome
smoking ashes before Gregory's eyes
lay a heap of
burnt churches, streets in
ruins,
the
dead bodies
of
Romans, formed a thousand accusers against him. The

Pope must have averted his eyes as the Romans, bound
with cords, were led in troops into their camp by Saracens.
Noble women, men calling themselves senators,
children, and youths were openly sold like cattle into
others,
slavery;
and among them the imperial
prefect,
were carried as prisoners of state to Calabria.

Goths
and Vandals, nevertheless, had been more fortunate than
were the Normans, since Goths and Vandals had found

Rome filled with inexhaustible wealth, while the plunder
of the
Moslems
in
the service of the duke could no
longer have been comparable to that which their predecessors had ravished from St. Peter's 230 years before.
The
city
was now
terribly impoverished,
churches were devoid of ornament.
and even the
Mutilated statues
stood in the ruinous streets or lay in the dust amid the

relics of
baths and temples.
Hideous images of saints

basilicas, which were
remained here and there in the
already falling into decay, and attracted the spoiler by

the gold which was possibly
votaries.
for
The
still
affixed
to
them by
brutal fury of the victors satisfied itself
some days in robbery and murder, until the Romans,

and a cord round their necks, threw them-
a sword
selves
at
the feet of the duke.

1
The grim conqueror
Mrs. Hamilton's translation, Vol. IV. p. 246.
162
compassion, but he
felt
could
not
make good
their
losses."
Even
after the lapse of so
Rome
find in
many
The Caelian quarter
as a
it
The few roads which
27).
we can
still
whole has never recovered from
the state of desolation to which

(Fig.
centuries,
traces of this Norman-Saracenic invasion.
was reduced
in 1084
traverse this
silent
region are practically the same as those through which

Gregory VII. had been hurried from the castle of S.
Angelo to the Lateran

the
layer
of
only their present level
from
debris
the
burnt
is
edifices
higher,
having
We
considerably raised the level of the whole district.
have evidence of
this in the
of S. Clemente,
The lower church shows
one above the other.

of
two churches
the level
the city before, and the upper that after, the
The
fire.
reconstruction of S. Clemente was undertaken, after
the withdrawal of Robert Guiscard, by Cardinal Anastasius,
tion
who
of
died in 1126 or 1128, leaving the
the
work
to
Cardinal
Pietro
Pisano.
comple-
This
information has lately been obtained from the epitaph

of Cardinal
was accidentally discovered

new house in Via Arenula. The
Pisano, which
in the foundations of a
marble slab on which this inscription was cut appears

to have been divided up into small squares, at an un-
known
pave a room in a house two miles disClemente. There is a difference in level
date, to
tant from S.
of thirteen feet
and the
and seven inches between the
later church.
earlier
THE SACK OF
The
fate
another
of
ecclesiastical
the church of the
Caelian,
stroyed by the same
somewhat
II. in
dently rolled
down
This
1111 on the same

fire
had
evi-
the slopes of the knoll on which the
building stood, but
it
the original area.
We
II., still
the
Coronati, de-
different.
the reason that the debris of the
level, for
on
building
SS. Quattro
fire, is
church was rebuilt by Paschal
Paschal
165
1084
occupies only a small portion of

learn from the
extant, that he
inscription
of
made excavations under
the marble floor in search of some holy relics: iussit

cavare sub altare quod prius combustum et confractum
fuerat
et invenit
ex proconesso
duas concas
in
quibus
unam
The work was not completed

the same
Pope is due
S. Adriano
churches of
of S.
of S.
porpkireticam
et
aliam
erant recondita sacra corpora.

till
the
also
in the
January
7,
1116.
reconstruction
Forum Romanum
of
To
the
(1110),
Monti (1113),
Salvatore in Primicerio (1113), and of a chapel
Maria in Monticelli, of
S.
Pantaleo
ai
near the Porta Flaminia, erected to scare away the ghost

of Nero, by which it was believed that belated travellers
were pursued on entering the city.

Much has been written in regard to the extent of the
damage done
and
fire
to the
of 1084.
It
pagan monuments by the pillage

must have been great, especially
in the region of the Caelian, of the Oppian,
valley which runs between these
The
and of the
hills in the direction of
old Porta Asinaria was named, after

the catastrophe, the Porta Perusta, or the " burnt gate."
the Lateran.
166
the abandonment
decay of the City,
In
fact, the final
of
the old level of streets and squares (Fig. 28), the
disappearance of the remains of private houses, and even

dates from this fearful conflaof some public edifices,
The
long since stricken by water famine,

ceased altogether to be inhabited, and the scanty
gration.
now
hills,
population pressed more and more toward the Campus

Martius, where the digging of wells was easier on ac-
count of the alluvial

Tiber.
The
umns
of Trajan
which forms the valley
soil
of the
larger monuments, such as temples, theatres,

and baths, were not much damaged by the fire. The col-
all,
works of
of
and of Marcus Aurelius did not
The
being in the middle of open squares.
suffer at
collection
and that
art in bronze at the Late ran,
of
marble statues on the Quirinal, also went safely through

the ordeal.
Hildebert, Archbishop of Tours,
who
visited
Rome in 1106 or 1107, speaks of great remains which

struck him with admiration, and also of the beautiful
statues in
We
which the City
know one
still
abounded.
of the reasons, at least,
why
the two
massive columns of Trajan and of Marcus Aurelius were

spared in these centuries of wholesale destruction.
They
brought a respectable income to their respective owners,

namely, to the public treasury for the
monks
An
of SS. Dionysius
and Sylvester
inscription in the vestibule of
first,
and to the
for the second.
the present church
of S. Silvestro in Capite, dated 1119, states that both
the column of Marcus Aurelius and the
little
church
THE SACK OF
169
1084
which stood at the foot of
of St. Nicholas
were leased
it
from year to year, on

which could be collected from the
to the highest bidder, probably
account of the fees
tourist or pilgrim that
Rome from
The
a lofty point of observation.
obelisks were less fortunate than the
columns just referred
rative
of
wished to behold the wonders of
commemo-
and the overthrowing
to,
up by Augustus as a sun-dial in
the obelisk set
Campus Martius is commonly attributed to the

Normans.
This shaft was undoubtedly erect on its
the
pedestal in the time
whether, after
sponsible
for
Charlemagne, when the Einbut we are not sure
of
was compiled
siedlen Itinerary
are
to
Were we
destruction.
its
Normans
the
all,
be held
in
re-
possession
of precise records of the discovery of the different obelisks,
indicating the
way
in
which they lay on
their
bed
which the various fragments

were found, the injuries that they had received before,
during, or after the fall, and the nature of the fracof rubbish, the
tures,
depth at
we should probably be
able
agency the giants were laid low.

that the
responsibility of
the
to
tell
But
it
by what
is
throwing down
certain
of
the
monoliths cannot be fixed upon the early barbarian invaders,
because
obelisks were
that
standing
in
some of the principal

and seventh
the sixth
Nor can earthquakes be considered an ade-
centuries.
quate cause
we know
still
why
should the Vatican obelisk have been
the only one to withstand the shocks
Further,
it
has
170
been proved that the columns of the porticoes of public
and private buildings destroyed by the earthquake of

422 all fell in the same direction, toward the norththat
east,
is,
toward the point of the compass from

The obelisks, on the contrary,
which the shock came.
appear to have fallen toward every point on the horizon.

The last statement is corroborated by the evidence
man who investigated the subject, Michele

He states that the obelisks discovered by his
of the first
Mercati.
Sixtus
contemporary,
Maxim us, now
in
V.,
the
the two from
Piazza
del
the
Laterano
Circus
and the
Piazza del Popolo, and the one from the mausoleum

had
of Augustus, now in the Piazza dell' Esquilino
not been overthrown by accidental causes.

retained evidence
them down, by
building
fires
of the efforts
drilling
made by man
holes to
insert
all
They
to bring
levers,
or by
about the pedestal. He says that every

saw come out of the ground was broken
obelisk which he
three
into
intact,
pieces,
the upper and middle pieces being
while the lower portion,
which rested on the
showed the edges rounded off by the violence of

Such operations require more time and
the flames.
base,
patience than would have been devoted to such a pur-
pose by the barbarians.

I
have three documents to present in relation to
interesting subject of
the fate of the obelisks.
this
One
is
an unpublished sketch by Carlo Fontana, showing the

1
See
p.
152 of his book Degli obelischi di
Boma, MDLXXXLg.
THE SACK OF
way the
moment
obelisk
of
171
1084
the gardens of Sallust lay at the
of its discovery.
Another is a sketch by
Maria
Bandini, showing the injuries which the
Angelo
lower portion of the obelisk of the Campus Martius
had suffered before or

lastly,
at
the time
my own
the record of
the obelisk of the temple of
of
fall
its
and
experience in unearthing
Isis,
near the apse of the
church of La Minerva.
FIG.
2i).
The
The obelisk
sketch
(Fig. 29),
is
of the gardens of Sallust, as
of
Carlo
it
Fontana,
lay after
here
dated March 21, 1706, and
the private library of
shows the way
Queen Victoria
which one
in
is
at
it
had
fallen.
reproduced
preserved in
Windsor. 1
It
of the obelisks decorating
the Egyptian casino of the gardens of Sallust had fallen,
having been broken into two pieces, one double the

This division of parts is especially
length of the other.
interesting in the light of Mercati's
i
Volume
1,
sheet 249,
statement that in
172
their
the
fall
would
obelisks
break
generally
into three pieces of about
equal length.
The drawing given by

Bandini 1 to illustrate the
condition
is
the obelisk
of
Campus Martins
the
in
even more significant.

have reproduced it on
a scale a
one third the
than
less
little
size of the
original (Fig. 30).
This
how
the lower portion of
the
monolith
!/:
dMflFEX-MAXlMVS
off
had
been
away and rounded
eaten
fff/STVS
shows
drawing
by
fire
we can
see
also
the holes drilled in
the
upper
insertion
part
levers
of
iron clamps,
for
by those
the
and
who
were endeavouring to hasten the
But the
1
De
fall of
the shaft.
chief importance
Obelisco Ccesaris Augusti,
Campi Martii ruderibus nuper

eruto.
Romae, MDCCL.
e
FIG. 30.
The
obelisk of the
Campus Marti us.
THE SACK OF
in the fact
lies
we
that
173
1084
from the evidence thus afforded
are able to determine the approximate date of the
fall
The reader
itself.
shaft
is
estal
is
will
observe that though the
greatly injured and in part calcined, the pedin
a remarkable
state
of
The
preservation.
the shaft was protruding

meaning of this is clear
above ground and exposed to injury, while the base was
embedded
and protected by the soil and debris which

had accumulated around it. In other words, when the
in
Augustus fell, the level of

Martius had risen some ten or eleven
obelisk
of
about halfway between the

level of
the City.
We
classical
the
feet
Campus
;
it
was
and the modern
may, therefore, assign the
fall
monolith to the tenth or the eleventh century.

In a line with this conclusion was the condition of
of the
the obelisk of Rameses the Great,

to light
of Isis. 1
June
14, 1883,
AVhen
which was brought
among the ruins of the temple

monument was laid on its
this graceful
pavement of the temple in which it was

standing had already been covered with a thick layer
side,
the
of rubbish.
1
Bull.
Com., 1883,
p.
33 sq.
CHAPTER XV
ROME AT THE END OF THE TWELFTH CENTURY
THE ITINERARY OF BENEDICT
THE
state of
Rome
vasion could in no
before and after the
way be more
Norman
in-
clearly indicated than
by comparing the Einsiedlen Itinerary, of the ninth century, with the Itinerary of Benedict, of the twelfth.
last
This
document, better known under the name of Ordo
Romanus, forms a part of the Liber politicus written

by Benedict, who was canon of St. Peter's under the
pontificate of
Innocent
cated to
of Castello, cardinal of St.
Guy
dict himself
II.
(1130-1143).
was dedi-
It
Mark.
Bene-
became Pope in 1143, under the name
of
His Ordo, edited by Mabillon, Urlichs,

1
Jordan, and myself, describes seven routes by which
Caelestinus II.
the popes used to cross the city at the head of public
processions on certain days of the year.

follows
1
are as
Mabillon,
Museum
Italicum, Vol.
dex topogruphicns urbis Romae,
Horn
They
II. p. 143,
p. 79 sq.
in Altertum, Vol. II. p. 664 sq.
siedlen, p. 87 sq.
174
nn. 50, 51
Urlichs, Co-
Jordan, Topographic der Stadt
Lanciani, IS Itinerario di Ein-
175
ROUTE
From
I.
the church of the Resurrection (now S. Anastasia) to
St. Peter's.
II.
From
the church of St. Hadrian to S. Maria Maggiore.
III.
From
the church of
IV.
From
the Lateran to the Vatican, and
Maria Maggiore to the Late ran.
S.
Back from the Vatican
V.
to the Lateran
VI.
From
the Coliseum to St. Peter's.
VII.
From
the church of
mana)
to S.
S.
by a
Maria Nuova (now
different route.
S.
Francesca Ro-
Maria Maggiore.
These seven routes correspond in part with those followed by the Einsiedlen Itinerary, and are specially
important for our study a greater number of landmarks
are mentioned than in the Einsiedlen document, and
;
many changes
are clearly seen to have taken place in
the thoroughfares of the City since the ninth century.
We may
is
ary
fifth
also observe that, while the Einsiedlen Itiner-
based on a
century,
of
map
made
at
the City of the fourth or
when
time
the edifices
still
bore their correct and classic names, the Itinerary of
Benedict has a distinctly mediaeval character, and shows

traces of the influence of that widely used mediaeval
guide-book,
"
The Marvels
of
Rome
"
(Mirabilia Urbis
In fact, Benedict the Canon apparently had

Romae}.
at hand no better source of information for topography,
when
describing
the
City, than this vade

1
There
is
through the
of ignorant pilgrims, which
pontifical
mecum
pageants
an English translation by F. M. Nichols, London.
1889.
176
had gradually made

of the
Roman
its
way among
the
official
documents
curia, as did the Politicus of Benedict
and
the liber Censuum of Cencius Camerarius.
compare the Tenth Route

of the Einsiedlen Itinerary with the First of the Itinerary of Benedict; both conduct the reader over the
It will be
instructive
to
same ground, between the Circus
The
Crypta Balbi.
of interest
first
Maximus and the
mentions the following objects
Scola Graecorum,
now the church of S. Maria in Cosmedin.

now Piazza della Bocca della Verita.
Templum
temple
Ecclesia Graecorum,
Jovis,
Capitoline
Elephantus,
of
Jupiter
Optimus Maximus,
on the
hill.
i.e.
Elephantus Herbarius, on the Via della Bocca della
Verita.
Portions, colonnade
on the west side of the Via della Bocca della
Verita.
Theatrum, theatre of Marcellus.

Sanctus Angelus, the colonnade of Octavia.
Porticus, the colonnade of Philippus.
Theatrum Pompeii, the theatre of Pompey.
These names, we readily
see, all
belong to the
classi-
Ordo
Byzantine periods. But the names
are of an altogether different class, and their relation
of the
cal or
to the
We
names given in the Mirabilia is at once obvious.

from the church of the Anastasis, which has
start
already been transformed

follow Benedict
over
into
Sancta
the same route.
Anastasia,
The
and
Porticus
usque ad Elephantum has become the Porticus
G-alla-
THE ITINERARY OP BENEDICT

torum,
now
177
represented by the church and hospital of
the temples of Pietas and Hope in

Holitorium
the Forum
have the name of Cicero and the
S.
Galla Patricia
Sibyl; the theatre of Marcellus
Porticus Minucia
the Crypta Balbi
A
is
similar shifting
found
to be
now
is
is
is
a Basilica Joins
Portions
the
Templum
the
Crinorum, and
Craticulae.
from ancient to mediaeval names
in every route of the
Ordo ; nevertheless
always remain a document of the
this will
first
rank for
our knowledge of monumental Rome in the twelfth cenTo indicate its value we may take up the part
tury.
dealing with the Burgus, or Vatican district, which is
not covered by the Einsiedlen Itinerary ; the topographical outline, accurate as well as clear, is as follows
:
1.
Pans, templum, castellum Adriani,

S.
2.
3.
now
the bridge and castle of
Augelo.
collina, the gate of St. Peter, in front of the castle,

destroyed by Alexander VI.
Obeliscus Neronis, the familiar Terebinth of the Mirdbilia, one
Porta
of the great mausolea on the border of the Via Triumphalis.

Peter Mallius describes this mausoleum as resembling in
shape and in height the mole of Hadrian. It was demolished

to take advantage of its beautiful marbles for the building of
the steps and of the court of St. Peter's. The name Terebinthus seems to be a corruption of tiburtinum, which in the language of those days meant an edifice built of stone or marble.
Antonio Filarete has represented the monument, in one of

the panels of the bronze gates, as actually having the shape
of a tree 1
!
The name
N
for turpentine-tree in Italian is terebinto.
DESTKUCTION OF ANCIENT ROME
178
4.
Memoria
Tomb
seu sepulcrum Romuli,
This "
Tomb
of
shape, so called to
which we know
S. Paolo.
It
as the
was
represented in
of
Romulus.
Romulus " was a mausoleum of pyramidal

form a pair with the so-called Meta lieini,
pyramid of
Cestius,
also popularly called
Antonio
Meta
by the Porta
di Borgo, and
di
is
Filarete's bronze panel, as well as in
Raphael's fresco of the Vision of Constantiiie. It stood on the

left of the Via Triumphalis, between the church of S. Maria
Transpontina and the palazzo Giraud-Torlonia in the Piazza

Scossa-Cavalli.
Alexander VI. levelled it to the ground to
make room for his Via Alexandriua.
5.
Porticus, Porticus Maior, Via Sacra.
This was a covered way, by means of which the pilgrims

could cross the Borgo under shelter. It started at the Ponte
S. Angelo, and followed the line of the present Borgo Vecchio
to the foot of the steps of St. Peter's.
6.
S.
Laurentius in Porticu Maiore.
The covered way

and
demolished July
donia,
S.
just
shrines, such as S.
13,
now
mentioned was lined with churches
Maria Transpontina de Capite Porticus,
1564
S.
Salvator de Porticu, or de Bor-
Giacomo Scossa-Cavalli
S.
represented by
Laurentius of the Ordo, rebuilt in
its
and the
present shape by the
Cesi d' Acquasparta in 1659.

7.
S.
Maria
in Virgari.
This was a church at the end of the covered way, toward

St. Peter's, so called from the corporation of makers and sellers
of pilgrims' staffs, to
it
8.
in 1568 to
which
it
belonged.
Pius IV. demolished
widen the area mentioned under the next head.
Cortina Beati Petri.
This was a small square at the foot of the steps of
St. Peter's,
ornamented with three fountains, one of which was of porphyry; the other two were of white marble.
Interesting as
it
would be
to follow the
worthy canon
through the other parts of the City, the limits of our task

forbid.
Mediaeval
Rome
has
limit of its greater changes.
City in most places
surface.
metropolis
lies
ten
now almost readied the

The level of the ancient
or twelve feet below the
large portion of the site of the once proud

is
wholly deserted
the great monuments,
moss-grown and crumbling except where the
FIG. 31.
179
typical
Roman house
solidity of
of the twelfth century, built with
odd
fragments.
construction was such as to defy Nature herself, are in

part turned to account as habitations, in part exploited
for such building materials as are of use to the scanty
population
of
degenerate
days (Fig. 31), in part
undisturbed in the midst of the wilderness.
left
CHAPTER XVI
MARBLE-CUTTERS AND LIME-BURNERS OF MEDIAEVAL
AND RENAISSANCE ROME
IN the exploiting of the Roman monuments for valumaterials in mediaeval and early modern times,
able
two
workmen
classes of
in particular wrought the most

These were the Marmorarii, or marble-
serious damage.
cutters,
and the
The Roman
Calcararii, or lime-burners.
marble-cutters, architects, sculptors, and
mosaic-makers, whose work was in a sense a precursor

of the Renaissance,
our
admiration,
whose
are
command
artistic creations still
generally
called
the
" School
of
The Cosmatis, however, are only a branch

great succession of workmen which was founded,
Cosmatis."
of this
about 1150, by the Sons of Paul,
filii
Pauli.
Lawrence,
son of Cosmas, the head of the Cosmati branch, flourished
toward the end of the twelfth century, and was followed

The
by five generations of artists of the same name.
the third branch, which also includes
Vassalecti form
three or four generations, from 1153 to 1275
branch
is
that of Ranuccio
and Nicholas,
son John,
his
who
the last
Romano, with his sons Peter
nephew John Guittone, and
flourished from 1143 to 1209.

180
his grand-
MARBLE-CUTTERS AND LIME-BURNERS

It is not necessary to repeat here
181
what Promis, Reu-
mont, De
Rossi, Frothingham, Richter, Boni, Mazzanti,

and others have written on the origin and progress of
For our purposes
this great school of marble-cutters.

it
is
sufficient
to observe
that for the space of three
centuries the guild lived and prospered and accomplished
work at the expense of the ruins of ancient Rome.

The marble-workers made excavations and destroyed old
monuments with two ends in view, to find models and
its
They were
to secure materials for their work.
especially
fond of epitaphs
whether pagan or Christian it mattered not
because the thin slabs of marble on which
the epitaphs were inscribed could easily be adapted to
their
purpose, being almost ready
and panels
This
is
of
the
for
use in borders
mosaic, ambones, and decorative patterns.
reason
why
the
of
floors
our
mediaeval
churches are so rich in epigraphic documents

about
hundred inscriptions were used in making the
;
two
pavement
of SS. Quattro Coronati after the destruction
of the church
by the Normans, and nearly
were similarly turned to use in the

without the Walls.
The marble-workers
traffic
two and a half
spirit of emulation in building
of
Italy.
Each town
an interprovincial
Roman marbles, which
also inaugurated
and even international

flourished for
a thousand
floor of St. Paul's
felt
in
by the
which had seized the cities
centuries, sustained
impelled to raise a church,
"grand, beautiful, magnificent, whose just proportions
182
and length should so harmonise with

the decoration as to make it decorous and
in height, breadth,
the details of
solemn, and worthy of the worship of Christ in
and
duomo
canticles," like the
of Siena
which should reach "even to the
hymns
and campaniles
stars,"
like
that of
Spoleto.
The
first influential
voice heard in remonstrance against
these practices of the marble-cutters,
donment
of the
Roman monuments,
and the utter abanis
that of Petrarch.
His pungent remarks were addressed especially to the

nobles, whom he describes as following in the path of
destruction, treading in the footsteps of the Goths
the Vandals.
the
middle
However,
and lower
if
and
the patricians were to blame,
classes
closely
followed
their
Temples, baths, theatres, and palaces were

their marble ornaments were
demolished piecemeal
example.
broken to pieces and thrown into the lime-kilns, and

even their walls overthrown and their foundations broken
up
for the sake of the stones or of the bricks
After a time the produce of this indus-
they were faced.

try
in excess of the
grew
with which
demand, and more
spoils
were
accumulated than could be disposed of in the local market.

Some of the facts connected with this new phase in
the history of the destruction of
students
are
known
to
but they have yet to be properly grouped
and compared.
tions,
Rome
shall here offer only a
with the hope that they
investigate the subject
may
few observa-
induce others to
more thoroughly.
The
archives

of our great church buildings
183
have yet to be explored
Fumi
the success achieved by Luigi
in
examining the
documents connected with the building of the duomo at

Orvieto leads us to hope that other records
may be
found,
on both sides of the Alps, by means of which this branch

of trade of mediaeval Rome may be illustrated.
The
earliest instance of the
removal of marbles from
the Eternal City to distant lands dates from the time
King Theoderic.
of
In a letter addressed to Festus
the Patrician, Cassiodorius, the king's secretary, orders

that the columns of the
Domus
possession near the gate of the
Pinciana
same name
an imperial
should be
sent to Ravenna.
The portion
of the cathedral of Aix-la-Chapelle erected
by Charlemagne
in 796-804,
and consecrated by Leo
III.,
an octagon copied from S. Vitale at Ravenna, designed

and built by Roman marmorarii.
The lofty openings
of the upper story are decorated with a double row of
is
columns of unequal length, of rare marbles and breccias,

1
In fact,
brought from Rome, Treves, and Ravenna.
the
desire
to
follow
Roman
traditions
was
so
great
was actually
the one which then
that the fountain in front of the cathedral
decorated with a brazen wolf, like
stood in front of the Lateran, and with a pine cone,
one which stood on the fountain of Symmachus,

in the atrium of St. Peter's.
like the
The most valuable were
restored at the peace of 1815.
stolen
by the French invaders
in 1794, but
184
The
in
cathedral of Pisa, begun in 1063, and consecrated
1118 by Pope Gelasius
taken
from Rome and
the classic
II., is
mostly built of marbles
The workshop in which

remains were transformed into new shapes
Ostia.
by Busketus and Ronald, the architects of the duomo,

Some
has lately been found on the banks of the Arno.
of the marbles actually bear the
mark
of their origin
one near the southwest corner of the transept

scribed
COLOXIAE
GENIO
of Ostia."
OSTIEXSIS,
"
To
the
is
preserved in the
of
also
Camposanto, inscribed with the
Marcus Annius Proculus,
a magistrate
in-
Genius
imported sarcophagi, as that

in
1742
at
the
foot of the high altar, and
covered
They
dis-
now
name
and leading
citizen of Ostia.
The
inexhaustible stores of
Rome were
resorted to for
the construction of the cathedrals of Lucca (1060-1070)
and
of
Monte Cassino (1066)
Salerno (1084
of those of S.
Fig. 32), and of S.
(eleventh century)
in Florence
(begun
Andrea
of the baptistery of S.
in 1100)
Matteo at
at
Amalfi
Giovanni
of the monastery of Nostra
Signora di Tergu, on the north coast of Sardinia, between

Sorso and Castel Sardo, of the church of S. Francesco at
Civita Vecchia, of the cathedral of Orvieto (1321-1360),
and even
of
some parts
Westminster Abbey.
To
some of the buildings
of
this statement in the case of
prove
we need no literary evidence
the shape and quality of
the marbles, and the inscriptions engraved
upon them,
Yet
give unmistakable testimony regarding their origin.
185
Monte Cassino we do have the authority of Alphanus

and of Leo of Ostia, who expressly state that Desiderius
for
FIG. 32.
The
pulpit in the cathedral of S. Matteo at Salerno, built
with marbles from Rome.
"
columns, bases, and capitals, and
purchased in Rome
These spoils were put on
marbles of various colours."
186
board light coasting ships (tartane) like those that still sail
up the Tiber to the wharf of Ripa Grande, and landed
at the
mouth
From
of the Garigliano.
Monte Cassino the work
Garigliario to
was accomplished with teams
the
mouth
of the
of transportation
One
of buffaloes.
conse-
quence of the sack of 1084 was the carrying off of

columns and marbles of various kinds by the retiring
adornment
for the
army
We
of the cathedral at Salerno.
are indebted to Luigi
Fumi
for detailed informa-
Rome
tion concerning the use of materials from
building of the cathedral at Orvieto.
The
loads were shipped up the Tiber, from the
forty years the maestri
intendents of
first
barge-
quay
of the
For the space
Ripetta to Orte, in June, 1316.
in the
deW Opera deC duomo,
of nearly
or " super-
construction," sent their agents through
the country around
Rome
in search of blocks of marble
The ruins of Porto (the Portus

carvings.
near
the
mouth
of the Tiber) were attacked
Augusti,
in May, 1321, with the consent of their owners
those
for
their
of Ostia, then probably not subject to individual
owner-
the
ship, shared the same fate in the following year
centre of devastation being the theatre, the shattered
remains of which I brought to light in 1881.

In process of time the villa of Domitian at Castel
Gandolfo, the
mausoleum
of
Hadrian, the
portico
of
Octavia, the temple of Isis and Serapis, and the ruins

of Veii
1
were
in like
Fumi, II duomo
manner put
di Orvieto ed
to ransom.
suoi restauri,
The docu-
Rome,
1881.
187
by Fumi give us many
this
merits collected
Savelli,
who had placed
details of
Pandolfo and Giovanni
remarkable trade in old marbles.
at the disposal of the builders of
the cathedral the remains of the villa of Domitian, were
remunerated with a
gift
of pepper, wax,
and
saffron.
In 1354, while Andrea di Ugolino was superintending

the work, a block of marble purchased for thirty-five
florins
was taken from the colonnade
cut into the beautiful round
Octavia, and
of
window which
occupies the
Other blocks were brought from

the same source in 1359, under the mastership of Andrea
centre of the fagade.
d'
Orcagna.
When
search was
made
a compensation was paid to the

of the colonnade of Octavia,
in private
grounds
owner, as in the case
and of the temple of
Isis,
which belonged respectively to Alessio Matrice and to

Paolo di Converrone.
If the blocks were considered
res nullius, a fee
was paid to the City
for the license of
exportation.
Giacomo Boni, in a paper read at a meeting of the

and American Society of Rome, March 28,
British
makes an interesting statement regarding the use

materials in Westminster Abbey.
"Among
the most important works of a Roman marble-cutter
1893,
of
Roman
still
is
preserved in Westminster Abbey," he says, "there

tomb bearing no inscription, but believed to
a small
be of the daughter of Henry
The name
of
III.,
who
PETRVS ROMANVS civis
is
died in 1257.
engraved in the
basement of the shrine of Edward the Confessor.
Peter,
188
must have worked
therefore,
which the
year in
.on
relics of the
the place of honour by
Henry
it
toward 1269, the
Confessor were laid in
III.
The tomb
of this
king, the second founder of Westminster Abbey, erected

in 1281, has nothing English about it, save the grey
The
Purbeck marble.
materials of which the
in front of the high altar
Roman-
esque pavement
composed
were certainly imported from Rome by the Abbot Richard
After his election, which took place in 1258,
of Ware.
is
the abbot paid a visit to the Eternal City, and brought

as
back,
a souvenir of his pilgrimage,
porphyry and serpentine.

the following words
Upon
some
his grave
may
slabs
of
be read
HIC
PORTAT LAPIDES QVOS HVC PORTAVIT AB VRBE,
that
is
to say, he lies buried
under the red and green
porphyries (the essential element of a
Romanesque pave-
ment) which he brought himself from the banks

Tiber to those of the Thames."
The attempt
of
Richard of
Ware
to
of the
transplant to
England a style of work which could only find its

proper means of support among the ruins of an ancient
city,
was not successful
but there
is
no doubt
al-
that the Romans

though we yet lack material evidence
found new outlets for their trade to compensate for the
English market.
In presenting this aspect of the destruction of the
Eternal City, I do not wish to cast more blame on the
loss of the

mediaeval
marble -cutters
Much may
189
than
they actually deserve.

be said in extenuation of their treatment of
and many instances of more wanton

destruction might be cited, from the time of Nero to
our own age.
While the army of Vespasian was beancient buildings
sieging the Capitol, and trying to scale
its
walls from
the roofs of the nearest houses, the partisans of Vitellius
hurled bronze and marble statues on their assailants
and the garrison of Hadrian's mausoleum, as we have

seen, defended themselves in a similar manner during
the siege of the Goths.
a legitimate excuse
but
Self-defence
I
may be urged
as
have discovered in the State
archives a petition addressed
on August
20, 1822,
to
Pope Pius VII. by a building contractor, named Matteo

Lovatti, in which he states that, to provide materials
for a house he
would
was raising
in the Piazza del Popolo,
he
like to destroy certain ancient ruins opposite the
church of
Maria in Dominica.
It is astonishing to
think that such a request could have been addressed to
man
S.
like
Pope Pius VII., and more so to know that
the request was granted, on the
favourable report of
Visconti, Fea, Valadier, and Cardinal Pacca.
In 1870, a few months before

of Italy,
Rome became
the capital
Pope Pius IX. determined to raise a monu-
mental column in memory of the Ecumenical Council.

To save time and money, and the trouble of quarrying
travertine from the territory of Tivoli, one of the most
interesting
and best preserved gates
of
the
City, the
190
The
Porta Tiburtina of Honorius, was sacrificed.

of
which
it
was
built
stones
were sunk in the foundations
of
the column, opposite the church of S. Pietro in Montorio

all
to no
purpose, because the events of September
20 of that year
made
monument out
the raising of the
of the question.
We
have already seen that
Roman
legislation at one
time imposed capital punishment on those who destroyed

old tombs for the sake of the marble of which they were
built, and that Constans substituted a fine for the death
and that these and similar provisions for a

time checked the destruction of the tombs lying close
penalty
highways, while those less exposed to view, or

1
standing on private grounds, were ruthlessly sacrificed.
The destruction did not decrease in the Middle Ages,
to the
and waxed even greater
in the Renaissance.
Chryso-
loras, the master of Poggio Bracciolini, says, referring
to
marbles taken from this source
"
:
The
statues
lie
broken in fragments, ready for the lime-kiln,

made use of as building material. I have seen many
used as mounting-steps, or as curbstones, or as mangers
or are
in stables."
Public
not only tolerated this search for sculptured marbles and for limestone, but sometimes claimed
officials
a share in the profits.
From
document
1426, preserved in the Vatican archives,

1
See
p. 92.
of
we
Diversorum, Vol. IX.
July
1,
learn that
p. 245.
MARBLE-CUTTEKS AND LIME-BURNERS

the papal
while giving a free hand to a
authorities,
of lime-burners
company
191
to
destroy the Basilica Julia
on the Sacra Via for the sake of the blocks of travertine of
pillars
and
of the nave
aisles
were
reserved to themselves half the produce of the
built,
kilns
which the
a present was afterward
from
this source to Cardinal
then
engaged
Eustachio.
in
repairing
made
Giacomo
his
of
Isolani,
titular
income
the
who was
church
of
S.
fate similar to that of the Basilica Julia
fell to
the lot of the
Monte
del
Grano
tomb
Alexander Severus at the
of
thus perished also half of the Coliseum,
the arch of Lentulus, the Circus Maximus, the square
basement of the mausoleum of Caecilia Metella, and a

hundred other monuments, the spoils of which served to
build St. Peter's, St. Mark's, the Palazzo di Corneto, the
" In
Palazzo Farnese, the Cancelleria, the Villa Giulia.
the
early
Marchi,
ging
"many
cellars, in
opening new
Paul
of
years
III." (1534-1550),
says
and statues discovered
torsoes
De
in dig-
planting gardens and vineyards, and in
streets,
used to be thrown into the
kilns,
Greek marble, on account

the wonderful lime which they produced.
Paul III.
especially those sculptured in

of
issued most cruel regulations to the effect that no one
should dare thus
to
penalty of
The
the
death.
number and value
logical collections in
1
destroy
ancient
statuary
under
was a steady increase in

public and private archaeo-
result
of
Rome."
See the article by Miintz in Bevue Archeologique for May-June, 1884.
192
As
a matter of fact, however, these " most cruel regu-
lations
We
"
of
Paul
may
Greco-Roman
of
III. did not
produce a lasting
effect.
suppose that the destruction of the masterpieces
being, but
it
art
may have
diminished for the time
was by no means suppressed. The spoliaand stone edifices went on with increasing
tion of marble
activity to the
end of the sixteenth century.
We
must
not forget that another edict of the same Pope, dated

"
"
of
deputies
July 22, 1540, put at the mercy of the
the
Fabbrica di
Forum and
S.
Pietro
Via
of the Sacra
all
;
the
monuments
of
the
and they did not hesitate
by the pontifical grant to the fullest possible
to profit
extent.
Pirro Ligorio, the architect, discussing the best
way
of obtaining a particularly fine plaster, suggests the use

of powdered Parian marble, " obtained from the statues
which are constantly being destroyed." 1 Flaminio Vacca,

after describing a certain marble boat with figures on
it,
found
in the
Baths of Caracalla, remarks that " as
it
now it has been made to steer

He makes a similar observation
once floated on water, so
its way through fire."

with respect to a statue found by Orazio Muti, opposite
the church of S. Vitale, "which had been sent to the
kiln to have the moisture taken off
its
back."
Thou-
sands of inscriptions have perished in the same way.
Fra Giocondo da Verona, adducing testimony from

1
Codex Bodleianus, p. 17.

Flaminio Vacca, Memorie, edited by Fea,
Ligorio,
n. 23, 116.
his
own
experience, says that some
Roman
193
citizens boasted
of having had the foundations of their houses and palaces
constructed with ancient statues.
The headquarters
of these destroyers of ancient
at the " Botteghe Oscure," that
was
is,
the Circus Flaminius facing the street of

the arcades were then
Rome
in the
wing
that name
of
in
good state of preservaas a matter of fact,

and
above
but,
tion,
ground;
high
there was no great ruin of marble or stone that did
not have
of
this
its
own
kiln.
of
industry
lime-burning at the
whole
minius that the
So important was the exercise

Circus Fla-
district received the
Lime-pit (calcarario, calcararia).
name
The extent
of
area covered by this designation can be determined
of
the
by
the site of the churches of S. Nicolaus in Calcaria retro

Cesarinos,
Calcarario,
now
now
S.
Nicola
S.
Lucia de Calcarario,
was
also a
dell'
Olmo.
ai
Francesco delle
now
spring named
S.
Quaranta de
Stimmate, and S.
Cesarini, SS.
Lucia dei Ginnasi
there
II Calcarario, in the Piazza
Other famous kilns were those of
S.
Adriano, for the
burning of the marbles of the Imperial Forums of the

Ayosta, fed with the spoils of the mausoleum of Augustus
and of La Pigna, supplied with materials from the
;
Baths of Agrippa and the temple of Isis. Then there

were temporary establishments opened near this or that
which were abandoned as soon as the supply was

exhausted.
We must class among these the kilns by
edifice,
194
by Flaminio Vacca
Prima Porta, mentioned
the Baths of Diocletian, mentioned

those of the villa of Livia at
by Pirro Ligorio those of the necropolis between the

Via Latina and the Via Appia, seen by Marini those
of the Regia, described by Panvinio, and those of the
;
Basilica Julia,
and
Venus and Rome,
of the temple of
discovered by Nibby and by myself.
Outside the City the burning of lime was practised

for
many
among
years
Ostia and Porto.
the ruins of
The oldest record bearing upon the matter, that is

known to me, is a document of Celestine III., dated
March 30, 1191, where mention is made of a " locus qui
vocatur
calcaria
civitate"
The
extra
portam
non
ab
longe
Hostiensi
exercise of this trade continued without
interruption and with the tacit,
down
the papal authorities,
Fea
if
not open, approval of
to the pontificate of Pius VII.

" To the insatiable
incident
relates the following

"
greed of Giuseppe Vitelli, tenant of the
:
farm at Ostia
the year 1816, "is due the disappearance of some
in
miles of the paving of the ancient Ostian way, which
was
in a
most excellent
as the destruction of
nice from
large pieces of
many
He
Flaminio Vacca, Memorie, 104
Marini, Inscriptiones alb. X.;
well
carved cor-
broke the latter into frag-
Ligorio,
Pauvinio, see
Bull, del lust., 1871, p. 244.

2
preservation, as
the temple of Vulcan, a masterpiece of the
time of Hadrian.
state of
Bullarium Vaticanum, Vol.
III. p. 75.
Codex Neapolitanus, 29
C.
I.
L. Vol.
I.
p.
415;

ments
to
make
liine
in
a kiln close by
195
but
suc-
ceeded in stopping him before the fagots were set on

The fragments thus rescued from the flames are
fire."
shown on the spot (Fig.
still
exquisite entablature had
33).
Other pieces'of
this
been destroyed in 1427, before
the eyes of Poggio Bracciolini and Cosimo de' Medici.

Similar kilns were discovered in 1796 by Robert Fagan,
not far from the temple.
FIG. 33.
Fragments of cornice from the temple of Vulcan, at

rescued from a lime-kiln by Fea.
Ostia,
have myself had no small experience in tracing the
results
of
the operations of the lime-burners
in fact,
none of the important excavations with which I have

been connected, either in Rome or on neighbouring sites,
has failed to bring to light remains of one or more limekilns.
mention two examples as specially worthy of
note.
lime-kiln
was found
in the palace of Tiberius
on
196
the Palatine
brim with
Among
was
It
calcined,
Terme
delle
nero antico
atides, in
an ephebus in black
a head of Nero
the exquisite
basalt, published
Mittheilungen for 1895, p. 97-119, pi. 1
little
the
filled to
some
intact.
the latter were the veiled bust of Claudius,
Museo
in the
by Rosa, in 1869.
works of art, some
hill
fine
now
three cary-
statuette
of
by Hauser in the
a head of Har;
pocrates, and other minor fragments.
In February, 1883, in the excavations on the south

side of the
Atrium
of Vesta, a pile of marble
was found
about 14 feet long, 9 feet wide, and 7 feet high.
It
was wholly made up of statues of the Vestales maximae,

some unbroken, others in fragments.
The statues and
fragments had been carefully packed together, leaving
as few interstices as possible between them, and the
spaces formed by the curves of the bodies were filled in
There were eight nearly perfect
with chips.
we were
agreeably surprised to find
among
statues,
and
the broken
ones the lower part of the lovely seated Vesta with the
footstool,
which
number
to the
alas
is
now
hardly recognisable, owing

been left exposed in the
of years it has
dampest corner of the Atrium. There were present at

remarkable discovery, which took place at 6.30 A.M.
this
on February
the
in
only four people besides the workmen,
Crown Prince
Frederick
myself
9,
II.,
and
of Prussia, afterward the
Dr. Henzen, one of
I distinctly
my
Emperor
colleagues, and
remember how the
prince, then
the full vigour of health and strength, helped the
workmen
to raise the masses of marble
the golden age of

as
if
and to
it
Roman
were a dream
excavation, and
set the
That was
up against the wall of the atrium.
statues
197
we
recall
it
These beautiful statues had
been piled into a regular oblong, like a cord of wood,
by some diggers
of
marbles,
who had
carefully filled
the spaces between the statues as they lay side by side,
no empty spaces might be left. By what

fortunate accident these sculptures were preserved it is
but one thing at least is certain
difficult to guess
in order that
great
House
kilns
quantity of
of the Vestals
other marbles belonging to
and two deposits
found in the course of the same excavations. 1

1
the
Two
must have perished by

of lime and of charcoal were
fire.
See Notizie degli Scavi, December, 1883,
p. 54.
CHAPTER XVII
THE BEGINNINGS OF THE MODERN CITY
IN the fourteenth century Rome was
in the fifteenth
a
at
modern
it
city.
still
mediaeval
began
While the
seat
of
the
Avignon (1305-1377), three-quarters
the
their
prehistoric ancestors
roofs,
and quenched their

are
space
The
in-
with fever and poverty, lived like

in mud huts with thatched
habitants, stricken
We
was
papacy
of
within the walls was put under cultivation.
Tiber.
to be slowly transformed into
told
thirst
that
in
with the waters of the

on the
the year 1377,
return of Gregory XI. from Avignon, there were only

17,000 people in the entire area.
is
exact or not, the
Whether
men who remained
the figure
faithful to their
native soil deserve the gratitude of mankind.
Without
them the site of Rome, completely deserted, might now

have to be pointed out to the inquiring stranger as that
of Veii, of Fidenae, of Ostia, and of Tusculum.
In the abandoned parts of the City a remnant of life
could be found in the churches and fortified monasteries
as
of
that
character
the
of
S.
until
Caelian,
Esquiline,
and Aventine
Balbina, which retained

its
" modernisation "

198
in
its
hills,
mediaeval
1884.
Vines

and
199
in the halls of the imperial palace
olive trees
grew
on the Palatine, and
grazed again on the
cattle
site
of
Here and there
the Forum, as in the days of Evander.
stood the dismantled ruins of baronial houses destroyed
by the victor
of the
day
other quarters
towers,
loopholed
and bloodshed.
proof of perpetual warfare

holds
the
of
Campo
were bristling with square

and battlemented, obtrusive
Torrecchiano, for instance

brick
the
Normanni,
Papi,
Romani,
The
strong-
Stefaneschi,
Anicii,
and Anguillara dominated the region of Tras-
tevere,
while
entrance
those
the
Ponte
the
to
of
di
commanded
Pierleoni
Santa
Maria (the ancient
Pons Aemilius, now Ponte Rotto), and those

Frangipani the island of
The
ruins
S.
of
the
Bartolomeo (Fig. 34).
the amphitheatre of
of
the
Statilius
Taurus
(Monte Giordano), and of Pompey's theatre (Campo di

The Savelli
Fiori), were in the hands of the Orsini.
had supplanted the Pierleoni
theatre
of
Marcellus
(Monte
in
the possession of the
The Colonna
Savello).
family occupied a fortified enclosure in the abandoned

quarter about Trajan's Forum, with the centre of their
stronghold at the temple of the Sun on the Quirinal
Augustus and
strongly garrisoned, were util-
(Villa Colonna), while the
the hill of
ised
Monte
by them
Citorio,
as detached forts.
at the corner of the

is
still
mausoleum
standing
One
of
of their towers,
Via Tre Cannelli and Via Nazionale,
there are also towers of the Mellini
and Sanguigni near the Stadium,
of the Sinibaldi
and
200
Crescenzi near the Pantheon.
These ugly square struc-
tures were raised to protect the residences of the barons,
which had not the aspect
FIG. 34.
of a palace, but of a cluster
House and tower
of the Margani.
TEE BEGINNINGS OF THE MODERN CITY

of
201
narrow dwellings, enclosed by a battlemented

lived the vassals and partisans,
low,
Around them
wall.
who every night barred with

The great fortress of
lanes.
chains
the
surrounding
Frangipani covered
the
the southern half of the Palatine, the core of the forti-
being the Septizonium
fication
and
posts also at the Coliseum, at the
the Janus Quadrifrons of the
this family
Turns
had out-
Cartularia, at
Forum Boarium, and
the arches of Titus and Constantino
at
The
great Torre de' Conti, erected by Nicholas I.

about 858, and rebuilt by Innocent III. in 1216, was
by Petrarch Turris toto orbe unica from its proIt commanded the district
digious height and strength.
called
The upper
and of the Subura.
of the Carinae
part
having collapsed during the earthquake of 1348, Pope
Urban VIII. pulled down the

the lowest of the three stories.
is
rest, as far as
Much
the top of
better preserved
the Torre delle Milizie, the construction of which was
popularly attributed to Nero. It was very likely built

by Pandolfo della Suburra in 1210. In the second half
same century it became the property of the

Annibaldi, and later passed into the possession of the
of the
Caetani.
The
aspect of
with that of
S.
Rome
may be compared
In many parts there
in those days
Geminiano to-day.
were towers crowned with battlements and with iron

brackets for signal
fires
(Fig. 35).
so great that a district of the City
Their number was
on the slopes and
202
at the foot of the
hill
was
actually called the
Torrecchiano.
Campo
All
Oppian
sense
FIG, 35.
of
the
beautiful, all
lane of mediaeval
Rome
in 1877.
appreciation
of
art,
Via della Lungarina, demolished
203
seems to have been lost for a time among the Romans.

While other cities in Italy were raising churches, town
exchanges, fountains, palaces, and splendid private
houses which command admiration at the present day
halls,
on account of the graceful simplicity of their proportions and the finish of their work, the builders at Rome
did little more than pile up and jumble together fragments of older structures, without regard to form or
fitness.
Tivoli, Viterbo, and even Corneto, were in this
Rome
period far superior to

architecture.
They can
in their public
and domestic
point to splendid examples of
the skill and taste of their master masons of the four-
teenth century, while

to
show that
is
influence of the
we Romans have
absolutely nothing
Every trace
comparable.
of the local
Cosmatesque School seems to have
dis-
appeared before the beginning of the fifteenth century.
When,
therefore, interest in artistic construction
of art
no longer existed
began
which form the
auxiliaries
in the City, artisans
from other
to revive, as the handicrafts
from Tuscany, Umbria, and the

region of the lakes of Como and Lugano, had to be
parts of Italy, especially
summoned to Rome.
The first impulse toward
the rebuilding of the City
was given by Eugene IV., who occupied the chair

St.
Peter from 1431 to 1447.
Paul
II.
(1464-1471)
called Palazzo Venezia.
is
splendid memorial
the palace of St. Mark,
Under the
of
of
now
pontificates of Paul's
successors, Sixtus IV., Innocent VIII. (1484-1492),
and
204
Alexander VI. (1492-1503), Baccio Pontelli carried to

Rome the artistic traditions of Brunelleschi, and erected
successively the churches of S. Maria del Popolo, S. Pietro in Montorio, S. Agostino, S.
Sistine chapel, the facades of
SS.
the
of
Apostoli,
the
Maria della Pace, the

and
S. Pietro in Vincoli
hospital
of
S.
the
Spirito,
palace of the Governo Vecchio, and the great court of
the pontifical palace, near the church of S. Maria

giore,
owe
Damaso
the beautiful court of S.
Mag-
To B ram ante we
which was recently destroyed.
the Vatican,
in
the Belvedere, the galleries connecting this last with the

pontifical residence, the
round temple in the cloisters

and the palaces of the Riario
of S. Pietro in Montorio,
(now the
now
Cancelleria) and of Cardinal di Corneto,
Torlonia-Giraud.
The
aspect of the City was considerably changed
the erection of these buildings.
by
Early in the fifteenth
century the modern spirit, so methodical in all things

and so fond of straight lines, began to manifest itself
in the cutting of spacious streets through the ruins
rambling habitations
March
30, 1425,
of
the
City.
By
Martin V. reestablished the
bull
and
dated
office of
the
Eugene IV.
in the
and
the
lanes
of
several
straightened
paved
Campus Martius Nicholas V. the Via di S. Celso (now
commissioners of streets (magistri viaruni).
Via
Banchi); and Paul II. paved the Corso between

the Arco di Portogallo near S. Lorenzo in Lucina, and
de'
the Piazza Venezia.
Sixtus IV, was
named "the
great

builder
"
205
{gran fablricatore), on account of the
many
improvements made under his rule and Alexander VI.

carried the Via Alexandrina through the Borgo.
;
It
cannot be denied that these improvements in the
material aspect and welfare of the City involved great

losses
on the archaeological and historical
With-
side.
out entering into particulars
regarding the extent of

be fully given in my
volumes on the Storia degli Scavi di Roma, it will be
the transformation,
for our purpose
sufficient
in
his
election
which
will
to
follow Poggio Bracciolini
ride through the City in 1447, the year of the
Nicholas V.
of
describes
Poggio
where the
the
Beginning with the Capitol,
southern
Caffarelli palace
now
platform
of
the
the colossal remains of the temple of Jupiter
few decades
later
hill,
stands, as covered with
columns, capitals,
and
frieze
but a
had
dis-
appeared so completely that archaeologists since then

have found serious difficulty in determining which of
the
two summits
of the hill
was occupied by the Capito-
lium and which by the Citadel. Speaking of the temple

of Isis and Serapis, near the church of La Minerva,
Poggio mentions two interesting particulars.
He
says
that a local gardener in planting a tree had lately dis-
covered a head of one of the colossal river-gods, which,

together with other recumbent figures, once lined the
dromos
but being annoyed by the curiosity of the people, who rushed to see his find, at once
covered it up again. He also speaks of the remains of
of the temple,
206
a
with
portico
many
columns,
either
Some
-the
1451, to the Loggia of the Benediction at St.
'under
the
skilful
the
temple.
removed in December,
columns were
these
of
on
lying
ground or half buried under the ruins of
of
management
the
Peter's,
engineer
from
Bologna, Maestro Aristotile di Fioravante degli Alberti.
Of the temple
visited
first
Poggio says that when he

1431 the front portico, facing the
of Concord,
Rome
in
Forum, was almost intact; but that later the whole

temple with a part of the portico was destroyed. Similar instances of
in the case of
wanton destruction are recorded by him

portions of the Coliseum, as well as of
the remains at Ostia and other suburban places.
The general
practice followed
tury builders, whether
was
this:
popes,
by these
cardinals,
fifteenth cenpatricians,
or
Before commencing their work
simple citizens,
they would secure the possession of a petraia, that
is,
an ancient structure or part of a structure, from which

they could obtain materials of construction, lime and
ornamental marbles. There is no edifice in Rome dating
from the fifteenth century the erection of which did not

simultaneously carry with it the destruction or the
I add a few
mutilation of some ancient structure.
instances.
When
of
the
Martin V., in July, 1425, undertook the laying

beautiful
cosmatesque
pavement
of
St.
John
Lateran, Antonio Picardi and Nicolao Bellini, contractors
for
the work,
received
the
Pope's permission to

of their
strip
marbles
and without the City,"
the churches, "both within
all
in
207
which divine service was no
Apparently the contractors gave to

the grant a very broad interpretation, and laid hands not
only on abandoned places of worship, but on the very
longer celebrated.
tomb
In a brief of March
of the prince of the apostles.
Eugene IV. complains that some precious slabs

porphyry and serpentine had been wrenched off from
29, 1436,
of
the pontifical chair, which was, as
most blessed
the
Peter
"
!
it
were, "the altar of
The same Pope
issued a
second brief for the protection of the Coliseum against

the "diggers of marbles"; and yet I find that stones
from the Coliseum were used by him in the restoration

of the apse of St. John Lateran, and marbles from the
Curia and the
Forum Julium
in the restoration of the
Apostolic palace.
The monuments which

rule of Nicholas
suffered the most under the
V. are the Coliseum, the Circus MaxiVenus and Home.
mus, the Curia, and the temple of
document
of 1452
certifies that
one contractor alone,
Giovanni Paglia Lombardo, was allowed to remove from

the Coliseum 2522 cartloads of travertine in the space
of only nine months.
The temple of Venus and Rome
was worked
as a quarry
columns of both
cellae
from 1450 to 1454, the porphyry

being used as lining for the lime-
kilns on account of their refractory qualities.
Pope
1
The same
destroyed the triumphal arch of Gratian, Valen-
Published by Miiiitz in Revue Archeologique, September, 1876.
208
and Theodosius, by the church of S. Celso in

Banchi, in order to widen the Piazza di Ponte S. Angelo
and he built also the foundations of the two expiatory
tinian,
chapels at the entrance to the same bridge with statues
and ornamental marbles from the mausoleum of Hadrian.

In 1456 twenty blocks of rare marble were removed from
Ostia to Orvieto and made use of in the decoration of
the facade of the
The building
Duomo.
of the
Loggia of the Benediction at
St.
Peter's, the masterpiece of the time of Pius II., caused
more damage
vasion.
to ancient
monuments than
Materials were
extracted
a barbaric in-
and lime obtained
from the Coliseum, the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus,

the
Forum Julium,
the Senate-house, the bridge of Nero,
the Palatiolum on the hill of S. Spirito, the temple of the
Dea Dia on the Via Campana, the

the
Baths
(SS.
of
Cosma
Caracalla,
the
portico of Octavia,
templum
Urbis
Sacrae
Damiano), the ruins of Ostia, the Mil-
vian bridge, and the massive tombs of the Via Flaminia

near the farmhouses of Valca and Valchetta. The next
Pope, Paul
II., built
the palace of St.
Mark with
the
temple of Claudius on the Caelian, of the

Coliseum, of a temple near S. Maria in Cosmedin, of
spoils of the
the tombs of the Via Flaminia, of the Septa Julia, and

of an
unknown
travertine building (the
the vineyard of the banker

raised
the beautiful
Tommaso
Castello
taken from the Amphitheatre.
at
Gaianum
Spinelli
?) in
and he
Tivoli with materials
Nevertheless, the genial

Aeneas Silvio
April
28,
209
Piccolomini issued his famous brief
1462,
commencing,
which
Cum almam
of
nostrum
threatened heavy penalties and

urbem^
the pontifical wrath against the destroyers of ancient
in
he
remains.
Of Sixtus IV. we have two

for
it
our subject.
One
is
briefs that are important
dated
December
17,
1471
authorises "the architects of the Vatican library to
make excavations anywhere
FIG. 36.
The Porta
in order to secure the stone
del Popolo of the time of Sixtus IV.
M. Heemskerk
needed
"
for the work. 1
The
From
a sketch by
(1536).
other, dated April
7,
1474,
"the greater excommunication" on those who

remove marbles from " the patriarchal and other churches
and basilicas." The beautiful round temple of Hercules
inflicts
Victor, the tutelary
god of the charioteers of the circus,

which stood near the Ara Maxima and the Forum Bo*
monuments destroyed under the

The two square towers on either
arium, was one of the

rule of this pontiff.
side of the Porta del Popolo (Fig. 36)

1
were built
Miintz, Les Arts a la cour des Popes, Vol. III. p. 15.
in the
210
from the tombs
pontificate with marbles
same
of Aelius
Gutta Calpurnianus, the famous charioteer (Fig. 37);

of Valerius
of Lucius Nonius Asprenas, consul A.D. 6
;
Nicias
of a patrician
lady named Postuma, and from
an unknown tomb of pyramidal shape which stood on

the site of the present church of S. Maria de' Miracoli.
Altogether 250 large marble blocks were used in the
1
building of the two bastions.
Fier37.
The
list
Reliefs
from the tomb of Calpurniaiius, the charioteer.
for this century closes
with the destruction
of a triumphal arch (called arcus novus) near S.
in
Via Lata, the materials
cent VIII. in the
of
restoration
Maria
which were used by Innoof this church, and the
removal of the great pyramid of the Borgo

the socalled Meta Romuli 2
which was accomplished by Alexander VI. in the widening and straightening of the
Via Alexandrina.
The same Pope
round tower
built a
near the gate of the castle of S. Angelo with the marble

frieze
1
and veneering
of Hadrian's
Visconti in Bull. Com., 1877,
p.
185
mausoleum.
sq.
See
p. 178.
Among
211
the palaces built by private individuals during
the palace
century I shall mention only two,
of Cardinal Adriano di Corneto, now Torlonia-Giraud,
this
which was built with the
spoils of
and of the four-faced temple
the
of Janus;
Basilica
Julia
and the Palazzo
built by Cardinal Riario with stone

from the Coliseum and with marbles from the triumphal
della Cancelleria,
arch of Gordianus, near the Praetorian camp.

Before passing to the disastrous sack of Rome by the
army of Charles of Bourbon, I must remark that the
first
quarter of the sixteenth century showed a decided
improvement
in the increasing appreciation of the value
of certain classes of ancient
such popes as Julius
II.
monuments on
the part of
and Leo X., and such private
individuals as Raphael and his archaeological advisers,

Fabio Calvo da Ravenna and Andrea Fulvio. Statuary
and inscriptions were especially prized. The finding of
the Laocoon
among
the ruins of the house of Titus on
the Oppian seems to have struck with amazement the
Pope, the court, the
artists, in fact
general search for works
instituted, in the course
of
was afterward
which the remains
buildings suffered great damage.
raphy was
the whole population.
of sculpture
The
of
old
science of topog-
infancy, and the importance of preserving ancient buildings was slow to be recognised.
The last years of Alexander VI., who died in 1503,
in its
were marked by the destruction of a portion of the Baths

of Diocletian, of an unknown temple on the Sacra Via,
212
and
Forum
of the
Transitorium. 1
Julius II., his suc-
cessor (1503-1513),
was too much absorbed in military
operations to give
much
ancient Rome.
attention
to
However, he took up
the remains of
in earnest the re-
construction of the Constantinian Basilica of St. Peter's.
Since the time of Nicholas V. fears had been entertained

for the safety of the building,
and Leon Battista Alberti
and Bernardo Rossellino had been commissioned

pare plans for
its
reconstruction.
gressing
very slowly when
impulse,
placing
who
it
Julius
to pre-
The work was
pro-
new
II.
gave
under the direction of
entered upon his duties in 1503.
it
Bramante,
Bramante's design was to substitute for the old church,

of a pure basilica type, an edifice in the form of a Greek
with a hexastyle portico in front, and an immense
cupola over the centre supported by four great piers.
cross,
Julius II. laid the foundations of the Greek cross in 1506
under the pier now called della Veronica. The four piers
and the arches which spring from them were the only
parts of the structure completed at the time of the Pope's
death.
The
loss occasioned to art, history,
and Christian
by the destruction of the venerable basilica

The west half of the greatest
is simply incalculable.
temple of Christendom was levelled to the ground with
antiquities
all
its
precious decorations in mosaic, fresco, sculpture,
Jahrbuch fur Kunst und Wiss., Vol. IV.
Curiously enough, the old
ramic View
of
(Frontispiece).
St.
p. 70.
Peter's appears in Jenichen's Pano-
Rome, engraved more than
half
century
later

in marble
and
and
its
IX.
Cj-1404),
in
wood, with
its
213
historical inscriptions
pontifical tombs, among which were those of

Celestine IV. (f 1243), Gregory IX. (f 1241), Boniface
Innocent
VII.
(f 1406),
(|1447), and Nicholas V. (f 1455).

Three other churches also disappeared
of Julius II.:
Eugene
IV.
in the pontificate
the old titulus Marcelli, which collapsed
on the night of May 23, 1509 the church of S. Donatus,

demolished for the opening of the Via Giulia and the
;
church of SS. Celso e Giuliano in Banchi, which was

destroyed to widen the Piazza di Ponte.
No great losses are recorded under the rule of Leo X.,
who, on September
2,
1517, issued a bull, written in
language, for the encouragement of those who

be
willing to raise new edifices, "to the end that
might
classic
the City of
Rome might
increase in size
and
in dignity
by reason of additions to its buildings and its populaThe Via di Ripetta and the Via d' Aracoeli were
tion."
opened by the 'same pontiff. The only act of vandalism
which can be brought home to him is the destruction of
a certain part of the Via Tiburtina, called La Quadrata,
the
embankment of which was supported by

The stones were removed to
of travertine.
great walls
St. Peter's.
CHAPTER
XVIII
THE SACKING OF ROME BY THE ARMY OF CHARLES

OF BOURBON IN 1527
THE
sacking of Rome in 1527 was a calamity comparable only with the burning of the City by the
Gauls in 390 B.C., and the destruction caused by the
Normans
One
in
of
1084.
the familiar lullabies sung to-day over the
" Fatti
cradles of restless children begins with the words
"
la ninna, e passa via Barbone
Go to sleep, Barbone
"
is gone," the name Barbone,
the man with the long
:
beard," having usurped that of
the hated conqueror.
So persistent
is the memory of those days of terror

Charles of Bourbon, the remorseless leader of a cruel
!
army, appeared before the crumbling walls of the Leonine City
May
5,
1527, and placed his headquarters in
the convent of S. Onofrio, opposite the gate of S. Spirito

(Fig.
38).
Although he himself
fell
the victim of a
stray shot early on the following day, his forces, comprising

Italians,
twenty thousand Germans, fourteen thousand

and six thousand Spaniards, succeeded in
storming the Borgo while the Pope was seeking shelter

in the
castle of
S.
Angelo.
214
The
pillage of
the
City,
SACK OF
217
1527
with unspeakable horrors, lasted eight days, from the

In so short a time the treas6th to the 14th of May.
Roman
ures collected in the
and con-
palaces, churches,
vents, during the lapse of centuries, were dispersed.
The
the
sacred precincts of
hands
of
Catholic
the
Peter's
St.
fared worse at
and
Spaniards
than they had at the hands of the
Saracens in 846.
The Spaniards searched every tomb.

Julius
the corpse of
II.
of
its
Lombards
They
stripped
vestments
pontifical
they gambled with their booty, and rested themselves

by lying stretched out on the venerable altars; they
used
the chalices of
ship
as
drinking
cups,
women; and they
in
stabled
company
their
of the sanctuary, preparing their
manuscripts collected by Pius

stained glass
broken into
windows
bits,
workman-
marvellous mediaeval
of
II.
horses
profligate
in
the
aisles
with precious
and Sixtus IV. The
litters
Guillaume de Marcillat were
and the Flemish
by Raphael were stolen
with
for
the
tapestries
sake
of
designed
their
gold
threads.
The
fate
of
these world-famous tapestries
connected with
on
the
that
vicissitudes
of
to
the
City,
which
Rome have been exposed
in
and
is
throws
relics
of
these
later
closely
light
antiquity in
centuries.
Pope Leo X., thirteen years before these events, had

given Raphael a commission to draw cartoons illustrating scenes
from
the
New
Testament.
were copied in tapestry by Bernhard
The
cartoons
van Orlay and
218
Michael Coxie, and the priceless fabrics thus produced

were exhibited in the Sistine chapel on certain church
The tapestries were stolen by the lansquenets,
festivals.
and were carried off with other spoils from the VatiIn 1553, however, they came into the possession of Anne de Montmorency, who restored them to
can.
their
legitimate
owner
but some of them were lost
forever.
Even the tapestries that had been preserved to this

time were not to be spared further vicissitudes.
They
experienced perhaps a worse treatment in 1798 at the
hands of the French invaders, when they were sold
a nominal sum to a Genoese Jew.
He burnt one
them
for
the sake
of
of
the gold and silver threads, of
which Van Orlay had made use
weaving the bright

did not meet his expectations.
in
but the profits

Pius VII. bought the rest back in 1808.
lights,
siege of
for
Rome
in 1849 they
During the
were exposed to injury for
the third time from General Oudinot's artillery.
Two
cannon-balls entered the gallery where the tapestries

were hung one fell on the floor, and the other burst
;
directly in front of the one portraying the Miraculous
Draught
If
we
of Fishes.
recall the vast collections
which the piety
of
Roman
sacristies
of
centuries,
we can
of
May, 1527.
the faithful
churches
appreciate
of objects of value
had heaped up
during
the
preceding
the losses of the
Sacred vessels of small
size
in the
month
were packed
SACK OF
sacks and carried off
in
219
1527
others which could not be
removed were destroyed, and the most precious relics

were treated with contumely. The busts of St. Peter
Andrew, 1 and that

of John the Presbyter were stolen respectively from
their shrines in the Lateran, in the Vatican, and in
and of
Paul, the
St.
church
the
of
S.
head of
Silvestro
St.
in
Capite.
German
on the point of his lance the spear

which was believed to be the one with which Longinus
hoisted
soldier
had pierced the side of the Redeemer on the cross it

had been presented to Pope Innocent VII. by Bayazed II., and was preserved in the famous shrine of the
;
Santa Lancia, a masterpiece of the school of Mino da

The vail, said
Fiesole, destroyed by Paul V. in 1606.
have belonged
to
to
Veronica, and
St.
to
bear
the
impression of the Saviour's features, was dragged from
among the jeerings and taunts of the

drunken soldiery. 2
The cross of Constantine, which
hung over the Apostle's tomb in St. Peter's, was tossed
tavern to tavern
mud
in the
The head
of the
of St.
Via
Borgo and trampled under
di
Andrew was
stolen again in 1848
and hidden
recess of the city walls between the Porta Cavalleggeri

S.
Pancrazio.
where the
2
This
limina,
relic
relic,
marble statue erected by Pius IX. marks the spot
was re-discovered
the
was kept
first
in a shrine built
of the Virgin alone

it
in 1850.
one which the pilgrims sought on their
stroyed in 1606, together with
of
in a
and the Porta
its
by John VII.
It is
family in the church of S. Marco.
shrine
priceless mosaic pictures.
was saved by Cardinal
to the Ricci of Florence.
The
now
visit ad
was de-
The image
who made a
present
preserved in the chapel of that
Pallotta,
220
Even
foot.
the chapel of St. Lawrence in the Lateran
most august shrine of the Catholic world,

was profaned and stripped of all its contents.
palace, the
Furniture, pictures, and works of art of every description
were
destroyed in
private
and
houses
palaces
pearls and precious stones were apportioned among the
German mercenaries by
spoonfuls, the share of an ordi-
nary soldier in the booty being

sand
ducats.
Exquisite
devised to extort
ing concealed
it.
from three to four thou-
refinements
of
cruelty were
money from persons suspected of havThe old Cardinal Ponzetta, although
a partisan of the Emperor,
was held
for a
ransom
of
twenty thousand ducats, and afterward dragged through

the streets of the City with his hands tied behind him
;
he died soon after in great destitution.

nal,
Cristoforo Numalio,
he was lying
cession
and
in
profligate
cardi-
was torn from the bed where
placed on a hearse, and dragged in pro-
ill,
ecclesiastical
his
Another
robes.
women surrounded
Drunken
soldiers
the bier, brandishing
torches and vociferating infamous songs in imitation of
Thus
priestly canticles.
carried into the
the unfortunate old
man was
church of the Aracoeli and lowered
into a crypt, to be buried alive unless a fresh
should be paid.
last
his
ransom
rescue at
the
moment.
Still
more unhappy was the
name ought
of
Friends came to
drunken
fate of
a priest whose
to be enrolled in the list of heroes.

soldiers
group
had dressed a donkey in sacerdotal
SACK OF
robes and
made
it
221
1527
kneel before a street shrine.
Having
caught hold of a priest, they tried to force him to adThe good

minister the holy communion to the brute.
old man, to save the Host from such profanation, swal-
lowed
it
before they could prevent him, and suffered
from those demons in human

rible
martyrdoms recorded
flesh
one of the most hor-
in the history of persecutions.
The loss sustained by the City in those eventful days

has been valued at seven or eight million of ducats by
Como
Scaramuccia Trivulzio, cardinal of

Ulloa, the biographer of Charles
in estimating this loss,
V.
dollars.
In the light of these barbarities,

that
assert that
chisels,
by
while Gregorovius,
mentions a sum of twenty millions
between seven and eight millions of

find
at fifteen
nearly a million and a half pounds sterling, or
of florins
to
Giovio,
many
were
Cappella,
mutilated
or
not surprising
Brantome, and
ancient statues,
frescoes in the Stanze
is
it
the
destroyed
work
that
of
others
Greek
Raphael's
and those of Pinturicchio
in the
Sale Borgia of the Vatican were deliberately injured
by
the smoke of bonfires lighted in the middle of the halls

that the very
the
tomb
under the apse of

was broken into, and the
of St. Peter, deep
Constantinian Basilica,
remains of the Apostle scattered to the four winds ;

but these statements, if not altogether incorrect, are at
least exaggerated.
We
have quite definite information regarding the num-
ber and the quality of the statues discovered and ex-
222
hibited in
Roman
among them were
palaces and villas before 1527.
Chief
the recumbent colossal figures of the
Nile and of the Tiber, found at the time of Leo X.
the ruins of the temple of Isis
the
and Telephos), found

Campo di Fiori and
attributes of Hercules (Heracles
on
among
Commodus with the
15, 1507, in the Piazza di
May
removed
to the Belvedere gardens
by Julius
of Heracles in the possession of the Colonnas
the torso of the Belvedere
II.;
;
a torso
another
discovered in 1513 under
Ciampolini house at the Campo di Fiori, and removed to the Vatican by Clement VII.; the Sleeping
the
Ariadne, whose place of discovery is not known
the
Belvedere Apollo, found, not at Antium, as is usually

stated, but on a farm of Cardinal Giuliano della Rovere,
near Grotta Ferrata
and the Laocoon group, found on
January 14, 1506, by Felice de Fredis in his vineyard

on the Oppian hill. There were also the bronze works
of
art
Sixtus IV. and
the
people by
exhibited in the Palazzo dei Conservatori
the statue of Marcus Aurelius,

hill;
Roman
presented to the Senate and
now on
the Capitoline
marble horse-tamers, the three Constantines,
and the two river-gods of the Quirinal.

All these marbles and bronzes have come down to us
uninjured except one, the Heracles of the Colonna palace,
which has disappeared; and the frescoes of Raphael, as
well as those of Pinturicchio, are
examining these
three years ago
last,
when
by order
of
still
to be seen.
In
the Sale Borgia were reopened
Leo XIII.
observed German
SACK OF
223
1527
names scratched with a pointed instrument, whether a

sword or knife I could not tell, on the lower surface of
the wall
but whether they are names of the mercenaries
of Charles
I
am
V. or of more peaceful
visitors of later times
unable to say (Fig. 39).
FIG. 39.
One
of the Sale Borgia
that of the "Vita della
Madonna"
in
the Vatican.
Reissner asserts that the right arm of the central figure
Laocoon group must have been broken off after

was discovered but it is a fact quite generally known
that the arm was missing at the time of discover}^.
of the
it
The
assertion of a letter published
some years ago by
224
I.
Mayerhofer
that the
of
1527,
The
tomb
of St. Peter
751)
p.
was violated during the sack
been distinctly contradicted by Grisar. 1

was written by Theodoric Vafer (alias Ge-
has
letter
scheid),
Jahrbuch (1891,
in the Historisches
and bears the date
of
June
17,
"
1527.
The
" have
soldiers," the writer says,
profaned every church
in
Rome, and have slaughtered
altars of the apostles; they
their
victims
have broken the
on the
coffins,
or
urns, containing the relics of St.
Peter and St. Paul,
and dispersed the precious dust
they have stolen the
sacred vessels used in the divine service," etc.
Professor
we ought not to take too literally the

man writing under the excitement of
Grisar thinks that

expressions of a
the appalling disaster

of
descriptions
certainly not one of the hundreds
by eye-witnesses
of the
events agrees
with this statement.

Interesting discoveries have from time to time been
made
in connexion with this sack of the City.

diarist of the last century,
that
in
named
Cecconi, relates
1705 a treasure of sixty thousand scudi was

cellars of the Palazzo Verospi on the
found in the
Corso,
where
it
had been concealed in 1527.
Again,
an
1, 1879,
apprentice mason
in
the
drain
of
a
house
at No. 23,
engaged
repairing
Via della Stelletta, found a shiny piece of metal, and
on the morning of June
put
it
in his pocket waiting for a chance to
a connoisseur.
1
show
it
to
In the meanwhile the dirt from the drain
See Le tombe Apostoliche di Roma, Roina, 1892, p. 27,
n. 40.
SACK OF
225
1627
was carted away in the direction of the Porta Angelica.

The lad was caught in the act of receiving twenty francs
Search was
from a goldsmith opposite.
once on the spot, and 142 gold coins were found
for his
made
piece
at
Policemen were sent after the
and near the drain.
in
They overtook
carts.
these outside the Porta Angelica,
examined the contents, and found forty-two more pieces,

to the great amazement of the drivers, who had no idea
that they were removing gold from such an unexpected
One hundred and
mine.
eighty-four gold pieces had
therefore been concealed in the drain of the house during
The date
or immediately before the pillage of 1527.

certain
is
the coins bear the effigy, the coat of arms, and
the legend of Pius II.,
who
who
died in 1464
of Innocent
Alexander VI., who died

VIII.,
in 1503; and of other predecessors of Clement VII.,
under whose pontificate the pillage took place.
The
died in 1492;
Clement VII. himself amount to one-third
coins of
the whole number.
The
Tiber
of
hiding-place of chief importance

;
for,
by the invaders, the Romans threw
is
the bed of the
rather than allow their treasures to be seized
the arms of Father Tiber,
muddy
of
treasury,
their valuables into
who gathered them
in his
and has preserved them to our day.
At the time of the discovery it was asserted that a coin with the
and name of Paul III. had been seen in the treasure-trove, a fact
effigy
that, if substantiated,
period than the sack.
would place the concealment of this gold at a later

I have not been able to see the coin in question.
226
When,
in 1877, the
tion of the
works connected with the construc-
embankments along the
ing and deepening
of its
river
bed began,
and the widen-
made
it
a point
to ascertain the comparative depth of the various finds
with a view to determining the
stratification
objects of every description at the bottom.
of
the
The task
more dredgers were kept at work

and more compressed-air caissons were sunk at the same
was not
easy, because
time than one could watch personally, and, in such

cate inquiries, personal observation is necessary.
deli-
Comparing the notes taken from 1878 to 1889, I have

come to the following result that if we leave out of ac:
count the miscellaneous objects which may pertain to any

age and hence are not conclusive, the archaeological strata
of the Tiber correspond with considerable regularity to
the leading catastrophes in the history of

objects with which the dredgers
first
recall the revolution of 1848-1849,
Rome.
The
came into contact
and bear witness to
the haste with which compromising objects, as republican
symbols and weapons of every kind, were made to disappear as soon as General Oudinot had become the master
The next important
layer seems to correspond with the French invasion of 1798-1799; and the
of the City.
third
from the top yields
mementoes
as
its
harvest innumerable
of the sack of Charles of Bourbon.
CHAPTER XIX
THE MONUMENTS IX THE LATTER PART OF THE
SIXTEENTH CENTURY
THE
wretched state of
Rome
in
the latter part of
hardly concealed beneath the

The following
superficial brilliancy of the Renaissance.
facts, which I have gathered at random from contem-
the sixteenth century
is
porary records, cast light upon the condition of things.

In April, 1566, Pius V. directed the cardinals Crispo,
and Sforza "to
di Montepulciano,
of
Rome
of
summer comes
for years.
when
the heat
the air shall not be tainted."
Ap-
had
been
parently, no attempt to clean
made
see that the streets
are promptly cleaned, so that
As
the
streets
the country roads were only re-
paired four times each century, in the years of Jubilee,

so the streets were only cleaned on great occasions, as
when
a newly elected pope rode in state to the Lateran
to take possession of his
chair.
aspect of the administration, I
To
illustrate
may mention
another
the curious
means adopted by Pius IV. and the City government

diminish vagrancy.
They determined that "the
to
magistrates at the head of the

City,
accompanied
by
thirteen
wards
thirteen gentlemen
227
of the
chosen
by
228
the Council
one for each region

should go around
month with the almsbox " (July 8,
their parishes once a
The
1562).
feast of the Birth-day of
Rome, the gloriApril, was no longer
ous Palilia, on the twenty-first of

celebrated, for lack of money, but in 1549 a revival
was proposed on the ground that "some gentlemen

had said that they were willing to contribute from
"
their
private
purse
defray the
to
expenses
of
the
celebration.
In justice to the City magistrates of this period, we

must acknowledge that, so far as relates to the preservation of the ancient monuments, their behaviour was
different
very
from
that
the
and
of
the
authorities
had
popes
While the papal
Chamber.
Apostolic
of
officially sanctioned and encouraged the destruction of
classic
remains, particularly
by a bull
dated July 22, 1540, the municipal

to
raise
and
their
voice
in
to protest against
missioners
for
the
and reverence
of
officials
favour of
their
Paul
III.
never ceased
preservation,
the shameful deeds of the com-
"Fabbrica
di
S.
Pietro."
Their
alma parens was never

crushed by untoward events.
This attitude of mind
was so consistent and unvarying that in the many hunlove
for
the
dred volumes of Records which
have consulted in the
municipal archives, I have found no trace of any opposition
to projects
connected with the safeguarding of
the classic remains, or with the increase of the archaeological collections of the
Capitoline
Museum.
On
the
FIG. 40.
Bas-reliefs
church of
S.
from the arch of Marcus Aurelius, removed from the

Martina in 1525, now in the Conservator! Palace.
THE MONUMENTS
for
regard
contrary,
THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY
IN
the
the glories of
past
was
times carried to an extreme, and the City Council
and then transformed
it
Even allowing
humanists.
of
itself, as
were, into an
that
this
231
at
now
academy
overzealous
devotion to antiquity might justly be criticised, we are

compelled to admire the patriotism of the City officials,
for
in
trials,
also,
the cause
gloomy
we must
S.
they forgot
all
confess, the sense of justice
away from the
rector
else
present
and sometimes,
prospects for the future,
1525, they took

of
of art
thus in March,
of
the church
Martina the bas-reliefs from the arch of Marcus
Aurelius,
now on
Conservatori
the landing of the staircase of the
without allowing him any com-
Palace,
pensation (Fig. 40).
In 1538, after 320 scudi had been laboriously collected from the Cerrini and other defaulters and criminals in the district of Cori, the City Council voted that
"of the said sum of 320 scudi a portion should be

devoted to the setting up of the equestrian statue of
M. Antonius
(sz'c), according to the design of Master

Michael Angelo, sculptor, and another portion to the
building of
the substruction walls
of
the
Piazza del
Campidoglio." The equestrian statue referred to is the

bronze Marcus Aurelius which was then set up in the
square of the Capitol, where
In the Middle Ages

(Fig. 42);
and
its
it
it
preservation
i
C.
/.
has remained ever since.
had stood near the Lateran

is
thought to have been
L. VI. 1014.
232
due to the
the
first
The
was a statue
belief that it
of Constantino,
Christian Emperor.
interest of the municipal authorities in the pres-
ervation of statuary
is
illustrated also
by the following
When
Pius IV., in 1561, urged the Municipality to complete in timber the unfinished portion of
the bridge of Santa Maria (now called the Ponte Rotto),
incident.
the suggestion until

"
Monsignor Rufino guaranteed to reimburse the Municipality in the sum of 2000 scudi if the plan should not
Council hesitated to
the
succeed."
It
accept
happened that the repairs were not suc-
City commenced proceedings against

Rutino for reimbursement of the money.
and the
cessful,
Monsignor
After paying 640 scudi, he asked the City to accept in

settlement of the balance due them "two beautiful
statues," to be valued
by experts, for the decoration of

The proposal was acthe new Capitoline buildings.
and
Tommaso de' Cavaand
Mario
cepted,
Frangipani
were appointed appraisers with power to choose a
The statues are still
third appraiser to assist them.
lieri
to
be seen, on either side of the vestibule of the Con-
servatori
found,
in the
Julius
Palace.
according
to
Forum Julium.
Caesar
are
They
that
colossal
somewhat
The one on
on the
left,
in
size,
doubtful
both
tradition,
the right represents
a victorious
Roman
admiral.
In December,
statues
of
1584,
the
restoration
of
the
colossal
Castor and Pollux came to a standstill on
THE MONUMENTS
IN
account of the lack of funds.
means
office of
FIG. 41.
complete the
to
233
In order to provide the
work the Council farmed out the
public notary for two of the wards of the City,
The statues
of Castor
and Pollux on the Capitoline
hill,
restored in
1584.
the Rione di Ripa and the
Curia Capitolina, and the
statues were set in the places which they
now occupy
(Fig. 41).
In 1576, in spite of the emptying of the treasury to
234
defray the expenses of the Jubilee of 1575, the
City
fathers voted a large sum, for those days, to bring the
Lex Regia to a
famous document is a
dispute regarding the possession of the

satisfactory
This
conclusion.
copy, engraved in bronze, of the decree by which the

"
" Senate and the Roman
conferred the imperial
people
The
power on Vespasian.
Boniface
St.
VIII.
in
the
John Lateran, and

its
where, showing
set so
awkwardly that
it
could
Cola di Rienzi, in 1346, caused
hardly be read.
be taken from
had been used by

construction of an altar in
tablet
it
it
to
hiding-place and set up in the nave,

to his fellow-citizens, he
was wont to
speak fiery words on the right of the people to choose
own form
their
of
government.
The
efforts
of
the
document had always

the opposition of the Canons of the
municipality to secure the valuable

failed,
owing
Lateran.
to
Compelled
at last
by a decree
of the
Pope
to
take some action, the Canons voted to commit the precious tablet to the guardian care of " the
and
as they
Roman
people,"
begged that they might receive something
gave them 200

gold scudi on condition that they purchase a silver ewer
in return, the Council, out of gratitude,
and basin and a pair of candelabra for use in the basilica.

The 200 scudi were secured by pawning certain objects
of value belonging to the City.
In the minutes of the City Council for May 17, 1580,

" It is
I find the following statement
clearly seen that
:
the antiquities of
Rome
are disappearing every day, on
THE MONUMENTS
THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY 235
IN
account of the search for marbles, which
is
carried on
in the most reckless manner, with no regard
ruins
the
of
preservation
recent instance of this in the
undermined so
to
as
tion
was sent
him
to revoke all grants given
ber "for
to
Pope
the procuring of
Pietro
Apostles."
and
The
deputa-
Gregory XIII., instructed to ask
the ancient ruins of the

di S.
new founda-
require
and buttresses to be kept standing."
tions
the
have
Palazzo Maggiore (the

where the most beautiful halls
palace of the Caesars)
have been
to
We
themselves.
City, even for
church
the
by the Apostolic Cham-
marble and travertine from
of
the
result of this interview
the
Fabbrica
Prince
may
of
the
be inferred
from the fact that by another apostolic brief the destructive powers of the Fabbrica di S. Pietro were extended
to the ruins of Ostia
and Porto.
In the Autobiography of Cardinal Giovanni Antonio

1
by Professor Cugnoni, a
Santori, edited
instance
is
given of the
way
characteristic
that Sixtus V. dealt with
"
Seeing that the Pope was quite

bent on the destruction of the antiquities of Rome," says
ancient monuments.
the Cardinal,
"many Roman noblemen came
to
beg
me
to try to persuade his Holiness to abandon his strange

purpose, particularly as he cherished the intention of
destroying the Septizonium (as he afterward did), the
Velabrum (that
i
See Vol. XII.
p.
is,
the
372,
four-faced arch of the
and Vol. XIII.
Societa reale di Storia patria.
p. 151, of
Forum
the Archivio della
DESTRUCTION OF ANCIENT HOME
236
Boarium), and the Capo di Bove," which we know as

the tomb of Caecilia Metella, that rare and splendid
monument
" I
of the Republic.
made
this request
in
company with Cardinal Colonna, and received the reply

that he wished to remove the unsightly ruins in order
And
to repair those that required it."
indeed, in
May,
1589, Giovanni Battista Mottino and Girolamo Leni and

his
brothers
had no
from Cardinal
down
the
difficulty in
obtaining permission
di Montalto, the Pope's Camarlingo, to pull
mausoleum
The
of Caecilia Metella.
however, contained a provision
"
rescript,
Our Sovereign Lord
and Master grants the concession, provided that the
Roman
people
monument,
are
to give here the
This
content."
as I will
show
but
clause
think
it
saved
exact words of the request

of the
the
worth while
made
to
of
the
age
"Gio. Battista Mottino, and Girolamo Leni and
his
the
Pope,
:
so
characteristic
is
it
spirit
brothers, are the owners
the farm-lands of
Capo di
Bove, where there is a tomb, or tower, which it would
be very advantageous to them to dismantle. They
therefore
of
humbly pray your Holiness that they may
be granted permission in such a way that the gentlemen of the City Council (Signori Conservator!) cannot
oppose it by saying it is an antiquity, which they
ought not to say, as it is out of Rome and not in a

public place, and others have been dismantled, one on
the road to Tivoli, another of marble at Ponte
dell'
THE MONUMENTS
IN
Arco, yet another at Casal
Rotonno, and
your Holiness will make
If
likewise
be
favour
unceasingly pray
a
that
(popolo
people
special
and
long
many others. 1
concession we think
this
please him, and
to
the
by
will
Roman
the
that
God
happy
237
thus
Romano) will do
we receive will
all
our Master,
of
for
his
be
life
we
and
and
preservation,
to
granted
your
Excellency."
The "popolo Romano," on whom Cardinal
di
Mont-
had sought to lay the responsibility, at first hesidemolition began, but so

tated, and the work of
alto
numerous and serious were the remonstrances

the motion of Paolo
Lancellotti,
Ottavio Gabrielli, and
leagues,
that,
on
seconded by his colAlessandro Gottifredi,
the Municipal Council cancelled the permission, and so
tomb
the
of
others
Metella was saved.
This occurrence, and
same nature, possibly account for the

feeling among the people toward Sixtus V.
the
of
change of
Those same magistrates who had ordered the erection
a statue to him,
of
return
rate
the
the
death
August
1
24,
of
1590
26, 1585, to
commemo-
and plenty, thus announce

the Council on Monday,
Pope
"
To-day, our most Holy Lord, Pope
of
the
November
peace
to
cannot quite make out which tomb on Via Tiburtina is alluded to

Mottino and his friends perhaps it is that described in
in this petition of
Cod. Vat. 3439, f. 35. The antiquita al ponte delV Arco is the tomb of
M. Antonius Antius Lupus, about which see Bull. Com., 1891, p. 221.
The mausoleum of Aurelius Cotta still bears the characteristic name
given
it
in the
memorial (Casal Rotondo).
238
Sixtus V., has departed this
life,
amidst the rejoicings
and mutual congratulations of all classes of

But Sixtus V. was great in everything, in
ship and in
his
in
enmity,
magnificence, in the benefits

nal
City,
citizens." 1
his friend-
modesty and in his

he conferred on the Eterhis
and in the contempt he professed toward

It would, perhaps, be more correct
the classic ruins.

to say
toward some
that, in
spite of
him the
classic
so
ruins, for
we cannot forget
we owe
acts of destruction,
many
columns of Trajan and

of Marcus Aurelius, and of the Horse-tamers of the
to
the
restoration of
Quirinal, the discovery
and reerection of three
obelisks,
the removal of the Vatican obelisk to a more suitable

place,
and the renovation
The demolition
of the
whole City.
the
Septizonium of Septimius
Severus took place in the winter of 1588-1589, under
the direction
of
menico Fontana.
of
the
Pope's
Some 905
favourite
scudi were
Do-
architect,
expended
in
the work, but the valuable materials recovered, blocks

of
and
peperino
marbles,
teresting
travertine,
more than
to
see
and
columns
the expenditure.
offset
what became
of
the
rare
of
It
spoils
is
of
in-
this
famous building, the loss of which archaeologists have

regretted more than of almost any other in Rome.
"Thirty-three blocks of stone," I have stated else" were used in the foundation of the
where,
pedestal of
1
Hodie sanctissimus dominus
congratulantibus
et
noster, Syxtus
maxima omnium
laetitia,
papa qtdntus, omnibtis
diem suum clausit extremum.
THE MONUMENTS IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY
239
the obelisk in the Piazza del Popolo; 104 of marble in

the restoration of the column of Marcus Aurelius, in-
cluding the base of the bronze statue of
Paul
St.
15
tomb of the Pope in the Cappella del Presepio,

Maria Maggiore, and an equal number in that of
Pius V. The staircase of the Casa dei Mendicanti, or
in the
at S.
workhouse, by the Ponte Sisto, and that of the Trinita

de' Monti, the wash-house (lavatore) in the Baths of
Diocletian, the door of the
Palazzo della Cancelleria;
the north facade of St. John Lateran, the court and

palace, the
staircases of the adjoining
Moses
on
the
Quirinal,
and
Girolamo degli Schiavoni,
S.
spoils of the Septizonium."
The Baths
treated
the
of
all
had
one of the
(February 12, 1588).
church
their share of
not more mercifully
Pope's
"We
admirers,
a portion
of
sings
them
of
had," he says, "this large
tract of land," the present Piazza di Termini,
was
of
the
the destruction of
praises of
the
lastly,
Diocletian were
Gualtieri,
fountain of the
"which
no use because uneven and covered with the
ruins of the baths";

"it has been cleared
but now, thanks to Sixtus V.,
and levelled up."
Not
2,660,000 cubic feet of masonry were broken
course of the work.
The
that the destruction lasted from
up
than
in the
figures can be verified in
the pontifical Books of Account, from which
15 of the following year.
less
The
May
we
16, 1586, to
learn
May
materials were carted
Euins and Excavations,
p. 183.
240
away and put
to use in raising the level of the Vicus
Bambino Gesu),
Patricius (Via del
of the
Vicus Portae
Viminalis (Via Strozzi), and other adjacent streets.

Next in importance come the damages inflicted in
upon the Claudian aqueduct, the
the time of Sixtus V.
arches
which, seven
of
miles
reached in places
long,
the height of one hundred and twenty feet above the

level of the Campagna.
Many of them were demolished that the materials might be used in the construction
of
the
new
Felice
Aqueduct, which received
its
Pope, Felice Peretti. As we

have seen, the Claudian, the Marcian, the Alexandrine,
name from
that of the
and other aqueducts, had suffered
little
at the hands
of the barbarians, who merely attempted to create a

water famine in the besieged city by removing a few
The Marcian and Claudian
stones from the channels.
aqueducts at any rate were practically intact till near

end of the sixteenth century.
Upon Matteo da
the
Castello
and
Domenico
Fontana,
the
architects
of
Sixtus V., and upon the trustees of the hospital of S.
Giovanni, rests the main part of the responsibility for

their
Whenever the
disappearance.
hospital
was
in
need of money or building materials, a certain number

of arches were sold by public auction, and demolished
by the purchaser.
have found several grants
in the
archives of this charitable institution, conveying the right
and even
to destroy one, two,

1
See
p.
1
four, pilasters at one time.
85 and Fig. 20.
THE MONUMENTS
IN
241
which are now the pride of the

City, escaped destruction by a hair's breadth under the
rule of this energetic Pope.
One, as I have already inti-
Some
mated,
of the ruins,
is
Boarium.
the so-called Janus Quadrifrons of the
Forum
In a letter addressed to his architect, Fon-
tana, dated January
1588, Sixtus says:
4,
"I give you
permission to destroy that ancient arch by S. Giorgio

in Velabro, that you may use its marbles for the
pedestal of the obelisk which I have resolved to erect
in
the Piazza del
Laterano, and also for the coat of
arms and the inscription which belong to the same

I grant you also the three columns of portapedestal.
santa which support the portico of a canon's residence,
near the Loggia of the Benediction, and the pieces of a

fourth,
which are lying there on the ground.
you are to use for

S. Maria Maggiore."
the ciborium of
These
our chapel
in
Fontana did not avail himself fully of the permission,

being perhaps afraid to engage in acts, the vandalism of
which was too obvious
and he took the precaution to

provide himself with a safe-conduct from the Pope, which
;
he could use in case the "

him.
In another
letter,
Roman
"
People
should arrest
dated February 5, 1589, the

authorised to excavate, seize,
Pope says: "You are

and remove from any place
you think it expedient,

columns, marbles, travertine, and any other material
necessary for the building and ornamentation of the
chapel, which our sister, Donna Camilla, is adding to
242
We
the church of S. Susanna.

a present to her, and
interfere with
you
it
is
our will that no one shall
in the execution of our
The aim which Sixtus had

extenuation of his
We
give these materials as
commands."
view may be urged in

treatment of the ancient monuments.
in
should not forget that while destroying with one

to his mind, had no value, he was
hand ruins which,
with the other raising structures which to this day com-
mand
the admiration of the world.
We
may
freely
concede that the loss of portions of the ancient aque-
compensated by the conAcqua Felice, by means of which the

higher parts of the Esquiline, Quirinal, and Pincian
hills, almost entirely abandoned for eleven centuries on
ducts, for example,
is
fully
struction of the
account of the dearth of water, were again made habitable.
There
is,
one act
however,
archium, or pontifical residence

historic
halls,
we
at
the
Lateran, with
chapels, oratories, banqueting rooms,
loggias, colonnades, mosaic

It
vandalism that
the destruction of the old Patri-
can never forgive,
its
of
pictures,
was the most wonderful museum
that ever existed.
No
and
of
inscriptions.
mediaeval art
one can read the accounts of
Pompeo Ugonio and of Giacomo Grimaldi, without profound regret that so much of priceless value has been
lost.
The oratories of the Virgin Mary, dating from
(858-867), of St. Sylvester and
St. Sebastian, dating from the time of Theodore I. (642-
the time of Nicholas
I.
THE MONUMENTS
IN
243
church and monastery of St. Pancras, the

shrines of S. Caesarius, of Michael the Archangel, of
649), the
S. Apollinaris,
dating from the time of Hadrian
I.
(772-
795), the Leonine triclinium, the Loggia of the Benediction, built
by Boniface VIII. (1300), the Council
hall,
View of the Lateran buildings before their destruction by Sixtus V.

In the foreground (6) , the bronze statue of Marcus Aurelius. From a sketch
FIG. 42.
by Ciampini.
were razed to the ground in a few months.

The
loss most lamented, not only by cultivated men of the
all
day but
of
also
by the populace, was that
of the Oratory
the
Holy Cross (Oratorium Sanctae Crucis), the

shape and location of which are shown in the sketch
by Ciampini (Fig. 42).

This Oratory was in the form
of a
Greek
cross,
with
a small atrium in front, surrounded on three sides by
244
columns and presenting the type of a classic nymphaeum.

There were three fountains of rare marble, one occupying
the centre of the vestibule, the others at the sides, each
with water trickling down into it from the capital of

The three doors were cast in bronze and
a column.
inlaid
with
Three of the four arms of the cross
silver.
contained altars, while in the fourth stood the baptismal

Exquisite mosaics adorned the ceiling, and the
walls were covered with the finest marble veneering, of
font.
the sort called opus
sectile.
The
destruction of this
of early Christian architecture is recorded
the following words
torn
down amid
gem
by Ugonio
in
" This most

splendid oratory was
the groans of the City, and
its
destruc-
tion has left a sense of loss in the hearts of all."
The
closing years of the sixteenth century fall in the
pontificate of
1605).
He
transept of
Pope Clement VIII., Aldobrandini (1592undertook, in 1597, the renovation of the
St.
John Lateran, which was
him, the Nave Clementina.
He
called, after
also raised the magnifi-
cent Altar of the Sacrament at the south end of the
same transept.
architect
The names
of Cav. di
marancie,
painters
of
Pietro Paolo
Arpino and Cristof oro dalle Poof Antonio Valsoldo, Francesco
Landini, and Silla Longhi, sculptors;
goldsmith
Olivieri,
of Curzio
of Orazio Censori, founder
and
Vanni,
of Giulio
Lanciani, goldbeater, are associated with this important
work.
But what a destruction
of
old
marbles and
THE MONUMENTS
THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY 245
IN
bronzes the completion of
involved
it
It is clear
from
the account-book of the clerk of the works, Giovanni
Vaccarone, that for three consecutive years Rome, the

suburbs, and even parts of Etruria were ransacked to
Damages were caused not so much

private speculators who provided, one
secure materials.
by the
small
a column, another a bit of frieze, or a tombstone, or

plain blocks
marble, as by the contractors
of
with the Pope's
official
permission to carry
off
any antique monument that would
to pieces
armed
or pull
suit their
purpose.
Among
rials
mentioned
those
those
who
destroyed
own account are Muzio

who sold the marbles of
Piazza di Sciarra
as
having provided matemonuments on their
old
del Bufalo
Flaminio Vacca,
the arch of Claudius in the
the nuns of S. Silvestro,
who
furnished
marbles from the temple of Mithras at S. Giovannino

Loreto Facciolo, who thus dis(Via della Mercede)
;
posed of the remains of the temple of
Venus
in Calca-
the canons of the Pantheon, who sold the marbles

from the Baths of Agrippa; the monks of La Minerva,
who apparently furnished marbles from the temple of
rario
Isis
Arco
I
the nuns of S. Marta,

di
know
Camigliano
who
sold the remains of the
who
The monks of
and the Duchess
not what splendid remains.
Savelli,
sold
SS.
Apostoli contributed a column of porphyry and a block

of giallo antico
the nuns of S. Lorenzo in Panisperna,
;
many
blocks of travertine from some ruins which occu-
246
pied the slope of the Viminal, in the neighbourhood of

the priests of S. Agnese, in the Piazza
S. Pudenziana
;
Navona, furnished stone and marble from the Alexandrine Stadium
and there were a hundred others that
I cannot take the space to mention.
Meanwhile the papal board of works on its own account undertook excavations and the demolition of ruins,
granting two-thirds of the proceeds to those who did
the work.
Under these conditions Alessandro Senzolino
carried on systematic operations in the
Marmorata
Borrella,
Forum and
Petruccio Bettania, at Ostia ;
Ponte Salario
at
at
La
Gioacchino
Ottaviano da Gubbio, at
the Torre Pignattara and S. Maria Nuova, that
is,
the
Empress Helena and the temple of

Venus and Rome.
They took columns wherever they
mausoleum
of the
could find them, not only from sacred
edifices, like
the
old Lateran, S. Croce in Gerusalemme, and S. Pudenziana,
but even from the street corners.
On
April 25, 1599,
a Pietro Savia, a mason, sold "the shaft of a column of

giallo taken
linare."
On
similar shaft
from the corner of a house near
S.
Apol-
the same day a certain Ippolito conveyed a
"removed from the corner
at the Sette Sale,"
and on
sold a piece of portasanta,
May
2,
of his vineyard
Simon the apothecary
which had served as a curb-
stone at the entrance to the Ponte Sisto.
The worst deeds
of destruction at this time, however,
must be brought home
to Orazio Censori, the builder of
the Altar of the Sacrament.
This masterpiece
is
orna-
THE MONUMENTS
IN
247
merited with four large bronze-gilt columns, which supThe guide-books

port a pediment of the same metal.
relate
fantastic
columns.
Jupiter
stories
as
to
the origin of these four
One account assigns them to the temple of

Optimus Maximus according to another, the
;
Emperor Vespasian brought them from Judaea; and a

third version says that they were cast
by Augustus from
the beaks of the ships captured at the battle of Actium.
probably true that the columns, or at least two of

them, were placed in the Lateran by Constantine, to
It is
serve as light-bearers (Pharo-cantharoi) on each side of
the high altar.
As
the necessary metal was
lacking
to
adapt the
columns to the design of the new altar, and to crown

them with capitals and a pediment, Censori made a tour
in Etruria, in the district of Tarquinii and Falerii.
He
brought back to Rome hundreds upon hundreds of
pounds of works of art in bronze, collected from the
tombs
of Corneto
and Civita Castellana, which were
all
melted up in the furnace, together with pieces of the

bronze beams of the Pantheon. An entry dated July,
1599, records the payment of 5089.55 scudi to Censori
"for mending a broken bronze column; for the manufacture of three new capitals with foliage, flowers,
rosettes,
and ovules
cornice, consisting
of
for
the decorations of the entire
16 doves, 16
stars,
and 2 large
angels; and for the expenses of his journey to Corneto
and Civita Castellana,
to bring metal to
Rome."
The
248
commune
pounds
Corneto
of
of bronze
received
59.85
scudi
665
for
have not found the account
rela-
tive to Civita Castellana.
In
opposition
to
Apostolic
chamber,
FIG. 43.
The Loggia
permission
to
use
this
the
shameful behaviour
City
Council
never
of
the
granted
of Pietro Squarcialupi, Palazzo del Senators.
materials
from
ancient
structures
without restrictions designed to protect the structures

themselves.
On
September, 1520, Pietro Squarcialupi,
Senator, wishing to complete the Loggia in front of the
Palazzo
del
permission to
on the Capitol (Fig. 43), asked

obtain stones from the neighbourhood of
Senatore
the triumphal arch of Septimius Severus.
The decree
of the Council granting the authorisation is a
model
of
THE MONUMENTS
IN
The Senator must excavate on
prudence.
responsibility
excavation
and at
has
his
reached
own
the
expense
desired
his
251
own
and when the
depth
he
must
notify the magistrate, who, with a committee of ten

" shall visit the
citizens,
place, and satisfy himself that
no harm
is
or of other
done to the standing remains of the arch,
monuments
similar instance
in the
may
Forum."
be quoted from the Records
On
of the latter half of the century.
October 15, 1574,
City Council, pressed by Pope Gregory XIII. to

restore the Ponte Rotto (the Pons Aemilius of classic
the
times, Fig.
44), three
arches of which had been car-
away by the inundation
ried
of
September 27, 1557,

accepted the suggestion of Giovanni Battista Cecchini,
the chairman of the Council, to make use of blocks of
The
travertine from the Coliseum for the work.
decree
was worded with the greatest

"
care
It is agreed that the marbles and stones required for the work shall be excavated and removed
from the belt of ruins around the amphitheatre, comof the Council, however,
:
monly called il Coliseo, provided that the said marbles

and stones are found loose, and in no way attached to
any standing part
of the
be extended to other
monument.
The
search can
1
belonging to the S. P. Q. R.,

done to standing ruins
Matteo
sites
provided no harm is
da Castello, our architect, to carry out the instructions
1
an
Senatus Populusque Romanics,
official
designation of the
ancient city.
"The
government
Senate and People of
of the
modern
Rome,"
as well as of the
252
of the Council
all statues,
or movable antiquities,
which
eventually come to light, shall be the property of
may
the S. P. Q. R."
In this connexion
founders
the
Smetius,
and
Pighius,
of
their
expound
is
worth while to remark that
science
with such matters
all
Fulvio
Ursino,
and to investigate and

concerned
they
Metello,
epigraphy,
copy the greatest pos-
to
inscriptions,
meaning
of
Panvinio,
Ligorio,
aimed simply
number
not at
the
of
Cittadini,
sible
it
as
themselves
the place in which
an inscription was discovered, or its subsequent fate.

They did not seem to think it important to notice
whether a block containing an inscription had been
found in
the
situ, or loose in a
Forum
matter of
stone
Campus Martius.
copied and made known,
was
inscription
indifference
was
Once
the
in
or
mass of rubbish, whether in
removed
to
to
museums, or burnt into
the
Farnese,
or
Cesi,
sawed
was a
it
them whether the
an
original
or
into
Carpi
slabs
to
recognition
of
the importance of recording the minutest details in
all
pave the
branches
floor
of
of
St.
lime,
Peter's.
study having
to
do with
come only with the development

in our
own
days.
full
of
antiquity has
scientific
method
CHAPTER XX
THE MODERNISATION OF MEDIAEVAL BUILDINGS IN
THE SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES
THE
systematic demolition of the remains of ancient
Rome ends with

which
period,
but the next
the sixteenth century,
from
extends
the
beginning
of
the
seventeenth to the end of the eighteenth century, adds

another chapter to the record of loss and disappearance
Under the
the destruction of mediaeval buildings.
pretext
dinals,
of
restoration
patricians,
and embellishment, popes,
and heads of monastic
orders,
car-
laid
hands upon the most noted and the most venerable churches, which had, until then, preserved their
their
beautiful basilica type in
all
its
simplicity
and majesty.
Paul V., as we have seen, inaugurated the movement
by pulling down the east half

St.
Peter's, 1606-1615.
nessed,
also,
of
other modernisations
Hadrian and
the
old basilica of
The seventeenth century

;
wit-
the twin churches
Martina were disfigured by Piero

da Cortona, under Urban VIII., and by Alfonzo Sotomayor and Borromini, under Alexander VII. In 1651,
of St.
S.
Onorio Longhi destroyed the church of S. Ambrogio

with its marvellous frescoes by Pierino del Vaga, to
253
254
build in
place the
its
structure of S.
tasteless
Carlo
al Corso.
In
the
tended.
by
S.
century the list is rapidly exThe old church of S. Alessio was modernised
eighteenth
Tommaso
Anastasia,
urement
Marchis
de
of
S.
Cosma
1750,
was
Apollinare
Fuga, of SS. Apostoli to

SS.
in
by Carlo
in 1722,
Damiano
the .church
The
Gimach.
due
of
disfig-
Ferdinando
to
Francesco Fontana, and
The
to Arrigucci.
basilica
of
of
Croce in Gerusalemme was profaned and reduced

to its present form in 1744 by Passalacqua and GregS.
orini, a restoration classed
of "nefarious" architects.
by Milizia among the works

The same title of dishonour
was given by Fea to Paolo

dict XIV., profaned the attic
Posi,
of
who, under Bene-
the Pantheon, substi-
tuting chiaroscuro daubs for the exquisite marble incrustations
of
the
time
of
Septimius
"nefarious," might most
epithet
Severus.
The
appropriately be
ap-
plied also to Borromini on account of the disfigurement

of
the
Lateran,
to
Antonio
Canevari
for
that
of
SS. Giovanni e Paolo, to Francesco Ferrari for that of
Gregorio on the Caelian, and so on to wearisome

length for the restoration of churches became a general
S.
practice,
and was carried out
in accordance
with a uni-
form plan.
This plan
may
be easily outlined.
"The columns
of
the nave were walled up, and concealed in thick pilasters of
whitewashed masonry
the inscribed, or sculp-
MODERNISATION OF MEDIAEVAL BUILDINGS

marble
tured
255
and the
cosmatesque pavements,
the winwere taken up and replaced by brick floors
dows were enlarged out of all proportion, that floods
of light might enter and illuminate every remote, peaceslabs,
ful recess of the sacred edifice.
made
of
For the beautiful roofs
cedar wood, vaults or lacunaria were substi-
The simple but precious frescoes of the fourteenth century were whitewashed, and the fresh surface
was covered with the insignificant productions of Frantuted.
Gerolamo Troppa, Giacinto Brandi, and

other painters equally obscure." 1 But the most surcesco
Cozza,
that all these profanations could be

not
accomplished,
only without opposition, but amid
general applause; such was the perverted taste of the
prising
fact
is
time.
In this period, however,

cle
we
are called
upon to chroni-
only a few instances of the destruction of classical

Paul V., in 1610, demolished the Baths of
monuments.
Constantino and four churches to
make room
palace of his kinsman, Scipione Borghese,
He
now
for the
the Ros-
ground the
beautiful remains of the temple of Minerva in the
Forum Transitorium (1606) the columns and frieze
pigliosi
palace.
also levelled to the
were cut into slabs and
utilised for the
decoration of
the Borghese Chapel in S. Maria Maggiore, and of the
fountain of the
Acqua Paola on the Janiculum.
The
blocks of stone belonging to the cella of the temple

1
Ancient Some,
p. xix.
256
and
the
Forum were given
to the enclosing wall of the
monks
to
of S. Adriano.
In 1632 Urban VIII. damaged the
Templum
Sacrae
and the Heroon Romuli, which are united in

the church of SS. Cosma e Damiano. He raised the
Urbis
level
both buildings twenty-four
of
stones from
presented
church of
from
veneering
Urban
is
of
marble
Senatus
mausoleum
S.
and sold or
Jesuits
for
their
out
reset
of place
the
were obliterated, and the beautiful
responsible
Secretarium
of the
and
fastenings
historic inscriptions
feet,
to the
The bronze doors were wrenched
S. Ignazio.
their
them
of
in
also
(S.
was
sectile
opus
for the
destroyed.
destruction of
Martina),
of
the
some portions
Hadrian, of the old churches of
Maria
in
and
S.
Vibiana,
S.
Salvatore in Campo, and lastly of the bronze roof
Anastasia,
S.
Pallara,
which covered the portico of the Pantheon. The weight

of the metal removed to the apostolic foundry from the
Pantheon was 450,251 pounds.
The last incident we have
nexion
is
to
mention
in
this con-
the demolition of the triumphal arch which
stood at the corner of the Corso (Via Flaminia) and

the Via in Lucina (Ara Pacis), accomplished by Pope
Alexander VII. in 1662.
removed
to
to the Capitoline
Maria Peretti
Savelli.
Two
Museum
Two
were
of the bas-reliefs
;
a third
was given
columns of verde antico
were bought by the Pamphili and placed on either side

of their altar at S. Agnese in the Piazza Navona
two
;
MODERNISATION OF MEDIAEVAL BUILDINGS

others
the
found a resting-place
Lateran.
The key
of
in the
the arch
the vestibule of the University of
257
Corsini Chapel at
is
to
be
found
in
Rome, and the group
dancing Hours, discovered in 1740 at the

foot of the arch, has been removed to the Galleria delle
of the three
Statue in the Vatican
Museum.
CHAPTER XXI
MODERN USE OF AXCIEXT MARBLES
IF
we could only wrest
the secret of their origin
from the marbles, stones, and bricks with which our

palaces, our houses, and our churches were built and
decorated
in
the
period
of
the
Renaissance,
if
the
marble-dust with which the ceilings and the walls were

plastered, and their stucco ornamentation modelled, by
the cinquecento artists, could be again moulded into the
statues
and
bas-reliefs
from which
of the ancient City
it
and
knowledge
art would be wonderfully enhanced.
was obtained, our

of
its
We
treasures of
cannot follow
the record of this practice without a feeling of melan-
we
upon the irreparable loss to culture

and progress which the modern world has experienced in
the disappearance of so many masterpieces in which were
choly as
reflect
embodied the highest
ideals of antiquity.
Nothing would
better illustrate the strange turns of fortune than the
varied uses to which the marbles from ancient structures have been put in
modern times; and
may, perby relating a few

out of the almost numberless instances that have come
haps, fittingly close this brief sketch
to
my
notice.
258
MODERN USE OF ANCIENT MARBLES

The
259
beautiful slabs of portasanta, with which the doors
church of S. Maria
of the
dell'
Anima
are veneered, were
from a marble-cutter's shop, discovered in the

foundations of the same church.
The tombstone of Inigo
taken
Piccolomini, Duke of Amalfi, Marquis of Capistrano,

Chief Justice of the kingdom of Naples, buried August
29, 1566, in S. Maria del Popolo, was cut out of a cornice
from the Baths of Agrippa.

We know from the Memoirs of Flaminio Vacca that
arms of Pius IV. on the Porta Pia was
the coat of
carved out of the capital of a column of the Porticus
Eventus Boni near the Stagnum Agrippae. 1 In the same

connexion Vacca says: " I remember also that while the
Theatine Fathers were laying the foundations of the
church of S. Andrea della Valle they found a part of a
column
palms long. This was sawn

and one of them was turned into the
of grey granite forty
into several pieces,
threshold of the main door of the church."
Vacca further throws light on the disappearance of

the last
remains
"
Maximus.
of
the
temple
of
Jupiter
Optimus
Tarpeian rock behind the

Palazzo dei Conservatori," he says, "several columns of
Pentelic
large
which
the
the
marble were found.
that
is
Upon
now
garden.
was able
to
Their capitals were so
carve out of one
the lion
in the loggia of the Villa Medici facing
The
others
were used by Vincenzo de
Rossi for the statues of the prophets and other figures

1
See
p. 3.
260
which adorn the chapel of Cardinal Cesi in the church

of S. Maria della Pace (Fig. 45).
No fragment of the
G. 4".
The
Cesi chapel in the church of S. Maria della Pace, built with
Peutelic marble from the temple of Jupiter
Optimus Maximus.
entablature was found, but as the building was close to

the edge of the Tarpeian rock I suspect that
must have
fallen over the precipice
"
(Mem.
its
marbles
64).

The
correctness of this surmise
261
was proved
in
1780,
one hundred and eighty years after the publication of

" In that
Vacca's Memoirs.
year," says Montagnani,
"
great blocks of entablature of beautiful workmanship
were found under the house at No. 13 Via Montanara,

belonging to Duke Lante della Rovere. The frieze was
ornamented with festoons fastened to the heads of bulls.
They were destroyed on the

make a sketch of them. As
spot before any one could

this
house of
stands at the foot of the Capitoline
Duke Lante
have no
hill,
doubt that the marbles belong to the temple mentioned

by Vacca."
Toward
num-
the middle of the fifteenth century a
ber of fluted columns of giallo antico thirteen feet long
were discovered among the ruins of the temple of Venus

Cardinal Ricci di Montein the gardens of Sallust.
pulciano bought them and used them for the balustrade
He
in his chapel in S. Pietro in Montorio.

also
some alabaster columns found
which he had sawed into slabs for tables

other valuable
present to the
objects
King
were shipped
to
purchased
same
at the
;
place,
these
and
Lisbon as a
of Portugal, but the vessel
which
bore them foundered in a gale.

When the tepidarium or central hall of the Baths of
Diocletian was adapted for Christian worship
the capital of one of the eight granite pillars
Michel Angelo replaced

dentally
among
it
the ruins of
by Pius IV.
was missing;
by another discovered accithe temple of Claudius on the
262
The stadium
Caelian.
of Domitian,
now
represented by
the Piazza Navona, has supplied materials for the erection
modern
of several
among them the palace

Madama, the church of
buildings,
Beneinbene in the Piazza

Nicola dei Lorenesi in
with marbles from the mausoleum
of
Giovanni Alberti, who happened to be in

time of
its
in
sketch-book,
his
S.
Borgo
bulls'
erection, has left the following
Sepolcro
now in
" The
heads, sketched
S.
the Via dell' Anima, and the
Casino of Pius IV. in the Vatican gardens.

The chapel of Gregory XIII. in St. Peter's
built
of
on these
with
sheets,
mostly
Hadrian.
Rome at the
memorandum
the Collacchioni
frieze
is
library,
wreaths
and
together with
the architrave and base, was taken from the river-front
mausoleum
of the
of
The marbles
XIII.
Hadrian by order of Pope Gregory

will be used in building the Gre-
gorian Chapel in St. Peter's.
made
these drawings
July 20, 1579." A similar fate befell the marbles discovered in the Augusteum of the Fratres Arvales, near
The Augusteum was an oblong hall, supcolumns

of Greek marble twenty-two feet
ported by
La Magliana.
It
high.
contained statues of imperial members of the
brotherhood, standing on pedestals inscribed with their
The
were saved and were dispersed

among several collections the columns and pedestals
were cut up for the decoration of the same chapel.
praises.
statues
Up
to about the middle of the sixteenth century there
were considerable remains of the Baths of Titus standing

east of the Coliseum,
between
S.
263
Pietro in Vincoli and
the Baths of Trajan. 1 Here were found sections of "the

most beautiful cornices," which, according to the prevailing custom, were
sawed up into
slabs,
and were sold
to the Jesuits to be used in their church of Gesu.
mention of
this
church brings to
incident of the same sort.
From
my memory
The
another
the beautiful volume
2
lately published by Plon in Paris, we learn that in or
about 1541, the head of the Roman house of the Jesuits,
Father Condatius, unearthed in the piazza then called

degli Altieri, now del Gesu, some great blocks of marble
which he sold for one hundred ducats.
ment which
Another docu-
have discovered in the state archives
us that the marbles were bought by a lime-burner

and consumed in a kiln close to the church.
tells
The columns
of
verde
antico which
ornament the
balcony of the Farnese palace, and those of the villa

of Julius III. on the Via Flaminia, come from the Baths
Acque Albule, or sulphur springs, in the plain

below Tivoli. The columns of rare breccia on the high
of the
altar of
the church of S. Rocco are from an ancient
building on the
two
site of
the present Orto Botanico.
SS. Apostoli were found in 1728 in the palace of

1
They
chita di
2
The
alabaster columns of the Odescalchi Chapel in the
La
are represented on sheets 17
Roma
of
du Perac
vie de Saint
and 18
of the Vestigi
deW
Auanti-
(edition of 1575).
Ignace de Loyola d'apres Pierre Bibadeneira, son

le P. Charles Clair, S.J., p. 278.
premier historien, par
264
gustus on the Palatine.

of S.
Teodoro
The
vestibule of the church
paved with pieces of porphyry found
is
The uppermost steps of the Porto di

in
removed
1888, were paved with blocks of
Ripetta,
The piazza and the
serpentine from the same place.
at
La Marmorata.
inclined
travertine
The columns
theon.
of S.
approach of the Capitol were paved

slabs from the area in front of the
with
Pan-
of breccia corallina in the chapel
Sebastiano on the Palatine come from the house

those of the chapel of the Morti in S.
of the Vestals
Lorenzo fuori
le
Mura from
the police barracks on the
Caelian (castra Peregrinorum).
The
Ginetti chapel in S.
Andrea
della Valle
with slabs of Africano discovered at Porto

in S.
nieri
is
inlaid
the Falco-
Giovanni dei Fiorentini, with marbles
Chapel
the Borghese
from the great temple of Juno at Veii
Chapel in S. Maria Maggiore, with the spoils of the
;
temples and palaces on the Aventine; and the Bernini

palace at S. Andrea delle Fratte, modernised by the
present owner in 1868, with the spoils of the Baths of
Licinius Sura.
the left
built
bank
The terminal tower

of the Tiber
of the city wall
on
below Monte Testaccio was
by Honorius or Narses with blocks
of
alabaster
from the neighbouring marble-Avharf at the beginning

of the last century the tower was pulled down and the
;
blocks were used again for the
chapel of Raphael in
the Pantheon.
When we
think of the Avealth of marbles displayed
265
the public and private buildings of Rome, and at

the same time consider that every cubic foot has been
in
obtained from the

gain a
new
monuments
of the ancient City,
insight into the
operations of the ancient
we
of the building
magnitude
Romans. We must remember,
marbles used by
and marble-workers were found either
too, that the greater part of the ancient
modern
architects
shapeless or in a form unsuited to the use for which they
were needed, so that at
least
from a third to a half of the
gross cubic content has been lost.
In 1845 Faustino Corsi made a
list
the
of
marble
columns dispersed over the fourteen wards of the city

the total
number recorded by him
is
7012.
Since the
publication of this catalogue fifty-four years have elapsed,
and we may calculate that the number has been increased
by
at least
one-tenth, so that to-day the
sum
total is
probably not far from 8000. This is truly a surprising

number, but it is far from incredible, if we recall that
the City once possessed 3000 statues of bronze alone.
INDEXES
I.
INDEX OF SUBJECTS
ABBEY, Westminster, 184, 187 fol.

Auguillara, 199.
Anicii, 199.
Aequa Paola, fountain of, 255.
Anicius Acilins Aginatius, 37; PauAcque Albule, baths of, 263.
linus, 36.
Adalbert, Count, gives warning of the
Aunia Comificia Faustina, house of, 57.
approach of the Saracens, 127.
S. Adriano. See Church, under Ha- Annibaldi, 201.
drian.
Aesculapius, statue of, 29.
St. Agatha, poster ula of,
S.
139
fol.;
memorandum
church
of, 145, 147.

Agilulf, 88.
S. Agnese f uori le Mura,
church
S.
Antonius and
garden
of,
20
S. Apollinare,
of,
246,256.
Agostiuo, church of, 204.

Agrippa, improvement of Rome, 11
S.
Pantheon of, 110; statue

head of (?), 112.
Agrippae Staguum, 259.
of,
111;
Albinus, Lucius, 112.

Aldobraudini gardens, 24.
church
umns
of, 253.
delle Frate,264; at the

della Valle, 4, 259, 264.
Manger, 118;
SS. Andreae et Gregorii ad
Scaurum, church,
S.
Angelo, castle
8,
Appia, 82
Claudia, 80, 85, 240

Felice, 82, 85, 240, 242 Marcia, 80,
85, 240 Virgo, 82.
Aqueducts, water supply of, cut off by
Goths, 79; channels of, neglected,
80 fol.; used for fortifications, 83.
;
Ara Maxima,
17, 209.
Aracoeli, church of the, 220.
Arcadius, inscription relating to, 50;

restored city walls, 53 with Honorius repaired theatre of Pompey,
Clivum
152.
Arcadius, Honorius, and Theodosius.

See Arch.
Arch, of Arcadius, Houorius, and Theoof M. Aurelius,

on the Corso, 118, 231, 256 fol. di
of Claudius, 148,
Camigliauo, 245
dosius, 52, 53, 151
121.
of,
of, 246, 254.
(S. Anastasia). See Church.

Andrea at Amalfi, church of, 184:
Anastasis
S.
church
Also, see Aqua.
of, 247.
Ambrogio, church
of,
Apoxyomenos, copy of, 69.

Appian Way. See Via Appia.
Apusii, tomb of the, 103.
Aqua Alexandrina, 240 Auio Vetus,
of, 254.
See Pope.
Altar of the Sacrament, bronze colS.
temple
Faustina,
VI., VII.
younger,
of, 32.
Apollo Belvedere, 222.

SS. Apostoli. See Church.
82
Aix-la-Chapelle, cathedral of, 183.

Alaric, 53, 91, 115; advance on Rome
in 408, 56 enters the city in 410, 57.
S. Alessio,
of, 57.
111.
of, 20, 32.
Agnese (Piazza Navona), church
Alexander
Anselmo, garden
Antiochia, statue of, 104.

Antonio da Saugallo, the
88, 128, 133,
156, 160, 177, 214.
267
INDEX OF SUBJECTS
268
of
of Constantine, 19, 30, 201
Gratianus, Valentinianus, and Theoof Gordianus,
dosius, 52, 151, 207
211; of Janus Quadrifrons (of the
245
Forum Boarium),
241
34, 125, 201, 235,
arcus novus
Via Lata), 210; of
of Lentulus, 191
Maria
in
(near S.
Septimius Severus, 145, 147, 148, 251
of Titus, 121, 151, 201 of Trajan, 31
of Valentinian and Valens, 53.
Architectus publicorum, 77.
;
Arcus Caelimontani,
78.
See Church.
Bathing establishment discovered on
the Esquiline, 28.
Baths, of the Acque Albule, 263 of the
;
Julii Akarii, 152; of Licinius Sura,

204; of Livia on the Palatine, 23.
See Thermae.
Bath-tubs, pagan, used for holding the
relics of martyrs, 117.
Belisarius, 75, 79.
Belvedere, 204 torso of, 222.
Argiletum, 147, 153.

Ariadne, statue of the sleeping, 222.
Benedict V., VI., VIII.,

See Pope.
Ariulf, 88.
Arruutii, tomb of the, 31.
Art(orius?) Gernianianus, house
Jovis, 177 Julia, 22, 36, 91, 157, 191,

194, 211 Salvatoris in Laterano, 33.
IX.,
Bernini, Lorenzo, discovery

of,
made
by,
41.
Boniface IV., VI., VIII.
24.
XIV.
See Pope.
Augusteum, 110; of the Fratres Ar- Borgia. See Pope.

Bove, Capo di, 236.
vales, 262.
See Caecilia Metella.

Augustus, transformation of the city
during the administration of, 10 Bramante, buildings erected by, 204
fol. places images of the gods in the
designs for St. Peter's, 212.
Compital shrines, 38 statue of, 111
Bridge, Aemilian
(Pons Aemilius,
mausoleum of, 170, 176, 199; palace
Ponte Rotto), 199, 232, 251; of S.
on
fol.
the
263
of,
Palatine,
Angelo (Aelian), 41, 142 fol., 177,
;
Aurelian, walls of, 15.

Aurelius, Marcus, 58 column of, 109,
125, 166, 238, 239 bronze equestrian
statue of, 222, 231 fol. See Arch.
Aurelius Avianius Symmachus, L.,
;
house of, 45, 77.

Aventine, finds on the, 61 fol.
Avidius Quietus, house of, 24.
Avignon, seat of papacy
at, 198.
178; of Cestius (S. Bartolomeo),

34; Milvian, 208; of Valentinian
(Ponte Sisto), 34, 246; Vatican
(Pons Vaticauus or Neronianus), 53,
151, 208.
Burgus, the quarter, 128;

132
walls
of,
fol., 136, 177.
See Tombs.
Byzantine colony about the Palatine,
Burial-places.
122.
Bacchus, statue of the Indian, 29.

Baccio Pontelli, buildings erected by,
204.
S. Balbina, church of, 198.
Balbus, L. Cornelius, 11 capacity of
theatre of, 5; cryptus of, 157, 176,
;
177.
Barbarians not accountable for the

disappearance of Roman monuments,
7.
from the memoirs of

Pietro Santo, 40, (i2, 90.
Basilica of Junius Bassus, 118; of
Bartoli, extracts
Constantino, 110;
Eudoxiana, 75;
S. Caecilia, church of, 116.

Caecilia Metella, tomb of, 92, 96, 191,
236 fol.
Caelestinus II. See Pope.
Caelian, market hall on (S. Stefano
Rotondo), 34, 37; suffered from
Norman-Saracenic invasion, 162.

Caesar, Julius, statue of, 232; statue
of a young, 104.
Caetani, the, 201.
Calcararii, 180 fol.; headquarters of,
193.
Cameos.
See Gems.
INDEX OP SUBJECTS
153; outlaws of 158
desolation of, 101.
Campagna,
Campo
Scaurnm, 121; S. Apollinare, 24(5,

254; SS. Apostoli, 116, 204, 245, 254,
263; of the Aracoeli, 220; S. Balbina,
198; S. Caecilia, 116; S. Carlo al
Corso, 254; S. Celso in Banchi, 151,
208; SS. Celso e Giuliano, 213; S.
Cesario in Palatio, 106, 120; S. Ciriaco (S. Cyriacus), 91, 137, 147; S.
SS. Cosma e
Clemente, 33, 162
Damiano, 37, 110, 118 (Subiaco),137,
final
di Fieri, 5.
Canale di Fiumicino,
33.
Capitolium, 12, 143, 145, 153, 189, 248,

264.
See Museum.
Caracalla, 22. See Thermae.
Carinae, 201.
S. Carlo al Corso, church
of, 254.
Cartularia, Turris, 121, 201.

Caryatides of Diogenes, 111.
Casal Rotondo, 237.

Casino dei Quattro Venti,
Cassino, Monte, cathedral
254, 2.~6
Euphemia
Cathedrals, partially built of Roman

marbles Aix-la-Chapelle, 183 Pisa,
and others, 184 fol. Westminster
Abbey, 187 fol.
Celer, Nero's architect, 19 his mauso;
leum and epitaph, 20.

Celestine IV. See Pope.
S. Celso in Banchi, church of, 151, 208.
SS. Celso and Giuliauo, church of, 213.
Cemeteries, ancient, covered over,
10; cameos and gems found
sites of Christian, 94 fol.
120;
monasterium
church
15,
on the
of, 106,
of, 120.
hill, 40.
Cestius, Gaius,
tomb
256; S. Agostino, 204; S. Alessio,

254 S. Ambrogio, 253 S. Anastasia
(Anastasis, the Resurrection), 122,
175, 176, 254, 256; S. Andrea at
Amalfi, 184 S. Andrea della Frate,
264 St. Andrew at the Manger, 118
;
Andrea della Valle, 4, 259, 264;

SS. Andreae et Gregorii ad Clivum
S.
Vico Patricii, 145, 148;

191
S. Francesca
Romana, 175; Gesii, 263; S. Galla
S.
in
Eustachio,
Patricia,
osseo, 89
S. Giacomo del ColGiacomo Scossa-Cavalli,
177;
;
S.
178; S. Giorgio in Velabro, 122, 125,

241 S. Giovanni dei Fiorentini, 264
S. Giovanni e Paolo,
(see St. John)
:
254; S. Girolamo degli Sehiavoni,

239; S. Gregorio, 254; St. Hadrian
(S.
Adriano), 110, 123, 145, 147, 165,

S. Ignazio, 256;
175, 253, 256;
St.
John Lateran,
123, 159, 206, 207, 234,

239, 244, 246, 251 (see Lateran); St.
110
S. Laurentius in
Lawrence,
;
Porticu Maiore, 178; of the Ordo,

178; S. Laurentius in Damaso, 145;
S. Laurentius in Pensilis, 147; S.
Laurentius in Formoso, 145, 148: S.
Laurentius in Prasino, 145, 146; S.
Lorenzo fuori le Mura (St. Lawrence

on the Via Tiburtina), 33, 40, 132,
136, 264; S. Lorenzo in Panisperna,
246 S. Lucia de Calcarario (S. Lucia
dei Ginnasi), 193; S. Lucia in Selce,
;
of, 96, 178.
Cestius (S. Bartolomeo), bridge of, 34.

Christopher. See Pope.
Church, of S. Agatha, 145, 147; S.
Agnese, 20, 32 (Piazza Navoua), 246,
;
Gerusalemme,
of, 184 fol.
Cespian
in
16.
S. Cesario in Palatio,
Croce
S.
246, 254; S. Dionysius, 110, 139; S.

Donatus, 213; S. Euplos, 122; S.
Cassiodorius, 38, 77 fol., 183.

Castor and Pollux, statues of, 232 fol.
Catacombs, abandoned after the Gothic
invasion, 70, 91 devasted by the barbaria ns, 70 f ol who encamped about
the entrance to, 71 restorations of,
relics of martyrs transferred
71
from, 106, 115 fol.
.
269
142, 147; S. Marcello, 90; Marcelli,

213; S. Maria dell' Anima, 25!); S.
S. Maria in
Maria Antiqua, 110
;
Maria in CosmeS. Maria delle

din, 34, 176, 208
S. Maria Liberatrice,
Grazie, 91
120; S. Maria Maggiore, 175, 204,
239, 241, 255, 264; S. Maria ad
Martyres (Pantheon), 90, 110 fol.,
115; S. Maria in Monticelli, 165; S.
Maria Nova, 103; S. Maria Nuova,
91, 175, 246; S. Maria della Pace,
Campitelli, 91
S.
INDEX OF SUBJECTS
270
204, 260; S. Maria in Pallara, 25(5;

S. Maria del Popolo, 204, 259; S.
Maria in Schola Greca, 122 ; S. Maria
del Sole, 12 S. Maria Transpontina,

178; S. Maria in Trastevere, 152;
S. Maria in Via Lata, 139, 210; S.
;
Maria
110,
in Virgari, 178; S. Martina,
118, 231, 253
S.
Martino
ai
Monti, 79; S. Michele in Borgo,

117; La Minerva, 171, 205, 245; St.
Nicholas, 169 St. Nicolaus in Calcaria (S. Nicolo ai Cesarini), 193;
S. Nicolo in Calcarario, 90; S. Nicolo
;
dei Lorenesi, 262; S. Orso, 151; St.
Pancras, 79, 243; S. Pantaleo ai

Monti, 165; (see Pantheon = Rotonda ;) St. Paul's without the walls (S.
Paolo fuori le Mura), 33, (50, 117, 128,
132, 135 fol., 143, 181
St. Peter's. 8,
52, 60, 72, 117, 122, 128, 151, 175, 177,
178, 191, 208, 212, 213, 217, 219, 253,

S. Phocas, 122; S. Pietro in
262;
Montorio, 190, 204, 261
S. Pietro in
Vincoli, 75, 148, 204; S. Prisca, HI

S.
11(5; S.
Praesede,
Pudens
Vico
Pudenziana,
in
S.
Patricio, 145, 148
246: SS. Quaranta de Calcarario (S.
Francesco delle Stimulate), 193; SS.
Quatro Coronati, 165, 181 SS. Quirico e Giolitta, 147
S. Rocco, 263
;
Saba, 122; S. Sabina, 61; S. Salvatore in Campo, 256; S. Salvator

de Porticu, 178 S. Salvatore in Primicerio, 1(55 of the Saviour, 110; S.
Sebastiano in Pallara, 91 S. Sebastiano alia Polveriera, 121 SS. SerS.
gius et Bacchus, 110, 145, 14(5 S. Sil""^vestro in Capite (St. Sylvester) 139,
166,219,245; Sistine Chapel, 204; S.
Stefano delle Carozze, 12
S. Ste;
fano Rotondo,
34, 37
S.
Susanna,
242; S. Teodoro, 117, 122, 264; S.

"Vibiana, 116, 25(5; S. Vitalis in Vico
Longo, 145, 148, 192.

Churches outside the walls abandoned,
126.
See Cathedrals.
Circus Maximns, 4, 17, 19, 48, 66, 143,
151, 170, 176, 191,207; Flaminius, 66,
145, 14(5, 147, 157, 193 of Nero, 32.
S. Ciriaco (S. Cyriacus).
See Church.
;
Civita Castellana, 13, 247.

Civitas Leonina. See Burgus.
Claudia Vera, house of, 24.

Claudius (Caelian) temple of, 208, 261
bust of, 196.
Claudius Claudianus, house of, 24.
Clement VII, VIII. See Pope.
S. Clemente, church of, 33, 162.
,
Clergy, ignorance of the

Clivus Argentarius, 147
Roman,
117.
Capitolinus,
34; Sacer, 22, 3(5; Scauri, 19; Suburauus, 63, 147 Victoriae, 120.
;
Clodius Hermogenianus, 36.

Coliseum (Flavian Amphitheatre),
28, 34, 48, 77, 89, 125, 175, 191, 201,
20(5, 207, 208, 211, 251.
Collegium Fortnuae
Felicis, offices of,
27.
Colonna family,
199.
Comes formarum urbis, 78.

Comes port'its urbis Romae,7B.
Commodus, bust of, 222.
Compital shrines, adorned by Augustus, 38.
Concord, temple of, 110, 20(5.

Conflagrations, described by Livy, 16
under the Emperor Nero, in 64 A.D.,
traces of this fire, 19 in the

21 fol.; in the
reign of Titus, 80 A.D., 22, 28; in
the reign of Commodus, 191 A.D.,
22; in the reign of Carinus in 283
A.D., 22; in 1084 A.D., 160 fol.
Constans II., visit to Rome in 663 A.D.,
8, 92, 111, 123 fol.
17 fol.
Forum Romanum,
Constantia, mausoleum of, 32.

Constantine, 29; dismantled earlier
buildings, 31 and erected the basilica of St. Peter's, 31 fol. regionary
catalogue compiled in the time of,
48; equestrian statues of, 145, 153;
statues of, 222. See Arch, Basilica,
;
Thermae.
Constantius
II., 34,
47
fol.
Corneto, treasures from, 247.

Cornificius, Lucius, 11.
Corridojo cli Castello, 133.
Cortile di Belvedere, 90.
Cortina beati Petri, 178.
SS. Cosma e Damiano. See Church.
INDEX OF SUBJECTS
271
Cosmatis, school
Eventus Bonus, colonnade
Cosmus, house
Excavations, in the time of Pope Eugenius IV., 112 of Sixtus IV., 66 of

Innocent VIII., 103; of Pius IV., 5,
61; in 1724 (Palatine), 119; in 1762
(Villa Quintiliorum), 103; in 1780
(Appian Way), 105; in time of Pope
Pius VI., 104 by Carlo Torlonia, 104
of, 34, 180 fol., 203.

of, 58.
Craticulae Templum, 177.
Crescenzi, the, 200.

S.
Croce in Gerusalemme, church

2445,
of, 4.
of,
254.
Curator Statuarum, 34.

Curia. See Senate-house.
Cybele, statue of, 70, 112.

Cypress, the, 145 fol.
in 1849, 69; in 1855, 105; in 1862, 5;

in 1864, 66; in 1867-68 (at Ostia),
127; in 1869 (Palatine), 119, 196, (Via
S. Damaso, court of, 204.

Damasns. See Pope.
Severiana), 93; in 1873 (Esquiline),

28; in 1875 (Esquiline), 94; in 1876,
5; in 1877 (near the Coliseum), 19,
(Via Xazionale), 23; in 1879 (Thermae of Constantine), 24 in 1880
(Site of the English Church), 69; in
1883 (House of the Vestals), 121,
Dea
Dia, temple of, 208.
See Thermae.
Decius Albinus, Caecina, Gl
Marius
Venantius Basilius, 77
Trajauus,
Decii.
28.
"
" Destruction " and "
Disappearance
Roman monuments,
of
meaning,
distinction in
4.
Roman
Destruction of
villas,
causes
of monuments in Roman and

in modern times, 189 fol.
Destruction of Rome, three facts
of, 101
prominent in the history of, 13 fol.

Diocletian, 29; repairs buildings in
the Forum, 22; triumph of, 49 fol.
statue of, 104. See Thermae.
;
St. Dionysius, church of, 110, 139.

Domitian. house of, on the Palatine,
119; villa of, 186.

120
Domus Gaiana,
St.
196; by Boccanera in 1883-84, 105;

1885 (Teatro Drammatico) 66;
in 1886, 13, (Piazza Bocca della Verin
ita), 17, (Esquiline), 42; in 1887, 14;

in 1888 (Temple of Isis), 42; in 1891,
4; in 1892 (garden of S. Sabina),

58; in 1895 (near the Coliseum), 89;
in 1896 (Piazza Bocca della Verita), 39; in the Vigna Torlonia and
Vigna Maciocchi,
Fabbrica di
Fabii,
tomb
57.
S. Pietro, 228, 235.

of the, 31.
Fabius Felix Passifilus Paulinns, 36;

Pinciana, 38, 183.
Donatus, church
of, 213.
Titianus, 36.
Factionis Prasinae Stabula, 146.
Falerii, 13.
Elephantus Herbarius, 176.

Ephebus, statuette of, 196.
Equestrian group, pedestal
in
Forum,
Esquiline
of,
found
50.
hill,
covered over and raised
Fates, group of the Three, 87.

Ficoroni, Francesco di, 41, 91 fol.
Flavinus Philippus, 151.
Fontana, Domenico (architect of Sixtus
V.), 85, 238, 240, 241.
by Augustus, 14 the event com- Formosus. See Pope.

memorated by Horace, 15 market- Forum of Augustus, 112.
Forum Boarium, 12, 16 arch
place on, 34 gate of, 147.
;
Eugenius, defeat of, 35.

Eugenius IV. See Pope.
S. Euphemia in Vico Patricii, church
of, 145, 148.
S. Euplos, church of, 122.

S. Eustachio, church of, 191.
Euterpe, statue
of, 104.
of the,
34, 125, 201, 209, 235, 241.

Forum Holitorium, 159, 177.
Forum Julium, 22, 207, 208.

Forum Romanum, 21 fol., 34,
110, 120,
143, 145, 147, 153, 165, 199, 246.
47, 145, 152, 199.
Forum of Trajan, 15,

Forum Transitorium,
157, 212, 255.
INDEX OF SUBJECTS
272
Francesca Romana, church of, 175.

Francesco delle Stimulate, church
S.
S.
of, 193.
Frangipani, the, 121, 199, 201.
Hadrian
See Pope.
I., III.
Harpocrates, head of, 196.
Hathor, replica of the sacred cow, 43,
44.
St.
Gabinius Vettius Probianus,
Gaianum,
of, 177.
Gallienus, 32.
Ganymede, statue of, 104.
Gardens, Licinian, 15; of Maecenas,
12 of Sallust, 171.
;
See Pope.
Gems and cameos, engraved, usually
found near the sites of cemeteries,
Gelssius
II.
94fol.
fol., 119,
of, 72.
Emperor,
100.
Heracles, torso of, 222.

Heraclius, 118, 119, 122.
Hercules, Farnese, 44; Invictus, statue
of, 66 Magnus Gustos, bronze statue
of, 66; Olivarius, statue of, 39; Vic;
tor, 209.
Honorius, 50, 53, 55, 72. See Arch.

Honorius. See Pope.
Horse, bronze, of the Palazzo dei ConHorse-tamers, group
of, 145, 147, 222,
238.
455.
Gesii, church of, 263.
S. Giacomo del Colosseo,
church
of,
89; Scossa-Cavalli, 178.

Gildo, Count, 50.
See Church.
S. Giorgio in Velabro.
of, 240.
S.
Giovanni, hospital
S.
Giovanni dei Fiorentini, church

;
S. Ignazio,
Innocent
church
of, 256.
III.,
II.,
e Paolo, 254.
Inscriptions, of the Einsiedlen Itinerary, 151 fol. of Benedict, 174 fol.
See Temple.
Isis.
Itinerary, Einsiedlen, 142

of Benedict, 174 fol.
Girolamo degli Schiavoni, church Janus, bronze statue
fol.,
of, 87;
174
fol.
temple
of, 110.
of, 239.
Gladiator, bronze statue of,

Golden House of Nero, 23.
Gordian, the younger, villa
Via Praenestina,
Janus Quadrifrons, arch
66.
of,
spoils
from the temple
Goths, signs of the pillage of
Rome by
the, 58.
et Schola, 176.
Johannipolis, 136.
St. John Lateran. See Church, Lateran
John VH., VIII., IX., X., XL, XII. See
.
Pope.
Julia
34.
Domna,
22, 104.
Gratianus, 34, 35. See Arch.

Gregorian Chapel, in St. Peter's. 262.
S. Gregorio, church of, 254.
Julian, the Apostate, 48.

Julii Akarii, baths of, 152.
Julius II., III. See Pope.
Gregoriopolis, 120 fol.

Gregory the Great, Gregory III., IV.,
VI., VII., IX., XL, XIII., XVI. See
Juno, temple
Pope.
Guiscard, Robert, 159
of,
57.
6.
Graecorum Ecclesia
of, 125, 201,
211.
on the Jerusalem,
Gothic wars, monument relating to, 50.
Grain Exchange,
See
VIII.
VII.,
Pope.
;
of,
S. Giovanni, in Florence, baptistery

of, 184.
S.
IV.,
servatori, 69.
Genseric and the Vandals, 74
264
Helena, tomb
Henry
87.
Galla Patricia, church
S.
36.
fol.
Hadrian, bust of, 32. See Mausoleum.

St. Hadrian.
See Church.
of, 61, 265.
Maxim us, see

Stator, temple of, 18, 121.
Jupiter Optimus
ple
Kilns.
Tem-
See Lime-kilns.
Laocoon, replica
211, 222, 223.
of,
41;
finding of,
INDEX OF SUBJECTS
in
Lateran, the, 106, 160, 166, 175, 219,

231, 242 fol., 254. See Church, under
St.. John Lateran.
I .:t
lit
in
Pope.
Leonine wall, 133 fol.
Level of the city, rise
celli,
165;
in
Monti-
Nova, 103; Nuova (see
Church); della Pace, 204, 260; in

Pallara, 256; del Popolo, 204, 259;
in Schola Graeca, 122; del Sole, 12;
Transpontiua, 178;
in
Trastevere,
152; in Via Lata, 139, 210; in Virgari, 178.
Marinus I., II. See Pope.

Market hall of theCaelian (S. Stefano
Rotondo), 34, 37; on the Esquiline,
in, 53, 54.
35.
234.
Marmorarii, 180
Liber Politicus of Benedict, 174.

Liber Censuum, 176.
Licinian gardens, 15.
Ligorio, Pirro, 192, 194.
Lime-burners, 180 fol.
Lime-kilns, of Rome, 193 fol. Palace
of Tiberius, 195 fol.; Atrium of
of Ostia and Porto, 194
Vesta, 196
;
of, 152.
264.
Martina. See Church.

Martino ai Monti, church of, 79.
Mater Matuta, temple of, 12, 39.
Matteo da Castello, architect of Pius
S.
S.
IV., 61
S.
Li via, baths of, on the Palatine, 23;

villa of, at Prima Porta, 194 market
fol.
Marmorata, La, 33, 246,

Martin V. See Pope.
fol.
of Sixtus V., 85, 240, 252.

Matte"o at Salerno, cathedral of,
;
184.
Mauritius, 106.
Mausoleum, of Augustus, 170, 17C, 199
of Constantia, 32; of Hadrian, 8, 87,
151, 186, 189, 208, 210, 256, 262; of
the Empress Helena, 246.
;
Loggia of Squarcialupi, 248.

S. Lorenzo fuori le Mura. See Church.
S. Lorenzo, in Pauisperna, church of,
246.
Lucca, cathedral of, 184.

S. Lucia de Calcarario (S. Lucia dei
Ginnasi), 193; in Selce, 142, 147.
Lucilius Paetus, tomb of, 92.
Magna Mater,
of, 75.
fol.
plan of the
city, 18.
by public
fol.;
officials, 190 fol.
Marcella, house of, 58 fate of, 59, 60.

Marcelli, church of the, 213.
;
Marcello, church of, 90.

Marcellus. See Theatre.
S.
dell'
Auima, church
110;
(so called),
temple
of,
95.
Marbles, traffic in Roman, 181
Antiqua,
30.
Minerva Medica
of, 12.
Marble-cutters, 180
tolerated
of, 178 fol.
Mellini, 199.
Meta di Borgo, 178.
S. Michele in Borgo, church of, 117.
Minerva, statue of, 29; temple of, 255.
117.
Maioranus, edict
Maxentius, 22, 31.

Mediaeval Rome, desolation
Meta Sudans,
8, 87.
Maecenas, gardens
Maria,
delle
Ordo, 178; in Pensilis, 147; in Porticu Maiore, 178; in Prasino, 145,

146; on the Via Tiburtiua (S. Lorenzo fuori le Mura). See Church.
Leo II., UI., IV., V., X., XIII. See
S.
Church)
(see
(Pantheon) (see Church)
S. Laurentius, in Damaso, church of,

145; in Formoso, 145, 148; of the
Lysippus,
Cosmedin
Grazie, 91; Liberatrice, 120; Magad Martyres

giore (see Church)
niac, 16.
Lex Regia,
273
in
of, 25!)
Campitelli,
91;
Minerva, La. See Church.

Mirabilia Urbis Romae, 175.
Mithras, temple of, 245.
Mole. See Mausoleum.
Moletta, La, 17.
Monte Giordano, 5 de' Cenci,
;
Moon, temple of the,

Moors of Frassineto,
5.
17.
158.
Moses, fountain of, 239.

Mosileos, the imperial mausoleum of
the Decadence, 72.
INDEX OF SUBJECTS
274
Municipal authorities favor the preservation of monuments, 228
fol.
Orvieto, cathedral of, 184 fol.

Ostia, 19, 33, 93, 126, 137, 184, 186, 194,
Museum,
206, 208, 235, 246.
Capitoline, 18, 228, 256; al

Celio, 13, 90; villa di Giulio III., 13;
Torlonia, 105; Vatican, 90, 104, 257;

See Palazzo del Conservator!.
Myron, cow
Pactumeii, palace of the, 58.
Pagan edifices converted
of, 87.
into Christian
churches, 37.
cults, representation of, 'in
Christian churches, 117 fol.
Palace, of Septimius Severus, 3; of
the Caesars in the seventh century,
119, 235; of Augustus on the Palatine, 263 fol.
Pagan
Naevius, Lucius Clemens, house
of.
24.
Natural agencies in the demolition of

ancient buildings, 7.
Nero, 4 thermae of, 14 set the city
on fire, 17 fol. traces of this fire, 19
Golden House of, 23 Circus of, 32
bust of, 19G.
;
Neroue, Sepoltura di, 158.

Neronis Obeliscus, 177.
St. Nicholas, church of, 169.
Nicolas I., V. See Pope.
S. Nicolaus in Calcaria (S. Nicolo ai
Cesarini) church of, 193,
S. Nicolo, in Calcarario, church of, 90
,
dei Lorenesi, 262.
Normanni, 199.
Norman-Saracenic invasion, 159
Nymphaeum,
Rome by
151.
removed
III.
Constantino
II.,
239.
Obeliscus Neronis, 177.

Octavia. See Porticus.
5, 48.
Oppian, 165.
Oratories of the Lateran destroyed by
Sixtus V., 242 fol.
Oratorium Sacrae Crucis, 243 fol.
Ordo Romanus, 174 fol.
Orsini, the, 199.
Orso, church
Palladium, monastery called, 121.

St. Pancras, church of, 79, 243.
S. Pantaleo ai Monti, church of, 165.
Pantheon, 4, 9, 37, 41, 48, 90, 106, 110
fol., 119, 124, 125, 145, 146, 200, 245,
254, 256, 264.
S.
to
48 of the
Vatican, 148, 169, 238; in the Campus Martius, 169, 171 fol. from the
Circus Maximus, 170; from the Mausoleum of Augustus, 170 of the gardens of Sallust, 171 of the temple
of Isis, 173; manner of the fall of,
169 fol. of the Piazza del Popolo,
Odeum,
Pallacinae, 147.
fol.
fol.
Thothmes
Obelisk, of
Frangipani, 201.
Palatiolum, 208.
Palazzo, della Cancelleria, 191, 204,
211, 239; dei Conservatori, 13, 222,
231, 232 di Corneto, 191 Farnese,
191, 263; Giraud-Torlonia, 178, 204,
211 del Governo Vecchio, 204 Rospigliosi, 255.
Palilia, 228.
Nile, figure of, 222.
traces of, 162
Palatine, remains of private houses on

the, 23; late occupancy of, 119 fol.;
desolation of, 199 possessed by the
Paolo fuori le Mura.

Papi, the, 199.
S.
Paschal
See Pope.
I., II.
Patriarchium, pontifical residence at
the Lateran, 242 fol.
St. Paul, tomb of, 129 fol.
St. Paul's without the walls.
See
Church.
Paul II., III., V.
See Pope.
Peace, temple of, 57.
Penates, temple of, 110, 223.
Peregrinorum Castra, 264.
St. Peter,
129
tomb of,
of, 145, 177
224; chapel to, 110.
gate
fol., 221,
St. Peter's, church of.

Petrarch, 182.
Petronilla,
of, 151.
See Church.
Phidias,
tomb
8, 87.
of, 72.
See Church.
INDEX OF SUBJECTS
201, 242 Nicolas V., 204, 206, 207,

212, 213; Paschal I., 116; Paschal II.,
Philippus, Marcius, 11.

Phocas, 37, 106 fol., 120.
S. Phocas, church of, 122.
Piazza Navona. See Stadium.
I.,
165
II.,
203, 204, 208; Paul III.,
219, 253, 255; Pius
II.,
Paul V., 122,

217, 225; Pius
See
IV., 5, 55, 178, 232, 259, 261 ; Pius V.,

227, 239: Pius VI., 104; Pius VII.,
See
Pius IX., 55, 189, 219 ;

155; Sergius I., 123; Sergiusll., 127, 130; Sergius III., 155;
Silverius, 70; Sixtus IV., 55, 203, 204,
209, 217, 222; Sixtus V., 82, 148, 170,
235, 237 fol.; Stephen II., 72, 118;
Church.
189, 194, 218;
"
Romanus,
Pilgrim's Pence," 157.

Pinturicchio, frescoes of, 221, 222.
Pisa, cathedral of, 184.
Pisidius Romulus, 52.
II..
Paul
33, 96, 191, 225, 228;
Pierleoni, the, 199.

Pietas, shrine of, 10, 159, 177.
S. Pietro, in Montorio in Vincoli.
Pius
275
IV., V., VI., VII., IX.
Pope.
Stephen V., 116; Stephen VI., 155, 159;

Poggio Bracciolini, 205 fol.
Sylvester III., 155; Symmachus, 20;
Theodore I., 242; Theodore II., 154;
Pompey. See Theatre.
Urban VIII., 55, 111, 201, 253, 256;
Pope Alexander VI., 55, 177, 178, 204,
205, 210, 211, 225 Alexander VII., 96,
Vigilius, 71 Vitalianus, 112, 124.
123, 253, 256; Benedict III., 131, 139; Popes destroy ancient monuments to
Benedict V., 154; Benedict VI., 155;
rebuild Christian churches, 206 fol.
Benedict VIII., 154; Benedict IX., Porta Appia, 143 Asinaria, 143, 165
155; Benedict XIV., 111,254; BoniAurelia, 143, 145 Capena, 31 Colface IV., 37, 110, 112, 115; Boniface
lina, 177
Flaminia, 54, 143, 160, 165
VI., 154 Boniface VIII., 98, 234, 243
Furba, 86; Metroni, 143; NomenBoniface IX., 213; Borgia, 133; Caetana, 143; Ostiensis, 54 Portuensis,
;
Celestine IV.,
213; Christopher I., 155; Clement
VII., 133, 222, 225 Clement VIII., 244
fol.; Damasus, 146; Eugenius IV.,
Formosus,
112, 203, 204, 207, 213
154, 155; Gelasius II., 184; Gregory
the Great, 88, 101; Gregory III.,
112 Gregory IV., 126 fol.; Gregory
VI., 155 Gregory VII., 154, 160, 162;
lestinus
II.,
174, 194
54; Praenestina, 53, 54, 143;

Salaria, 142; Septimiana, 54; Tiburtina, 53, 54, 143, 160, 190 Vimina-
53,
;'
Gregory XL,
198;
Gregory IX., 213;
Gregory XIII., 151, 235, 251, 262;
Hadrian
I., 243;
Gregory XVI., 155;
Hadrian III., 155 Honorius I., 8, 122,
lis,
143.
Porticus, in the Via Bocca della Verita,

176; Crinorum, 177; Eventus Boni,
259; Gallatorum, 176; Maior (Via
Sacra), 178 Maximae, of Gratian, 34
Minucia, 177; of Octavia, 28, 176,
186, 187, 208; of Philippus, 176.
;
Porto. 128, 137, 186, 195, 235, 264.
Portus Licini, 78.

Postumius, M. Festus, house
147; Innocent II., 174; Innocent III., Praedia Aemiliaua, 18.
201; Innocent VII., 213, 219; Inno- S. Praesede, church of, 116.
cent VIII., 103, 203, 210, 225; John Praetorian camp, 89.
VII., 120, 219 John VIII., 135 fol., Principia, house of, 58.
154 John IX., 155; John X., 154, 155
S. Prisca, church of, 61.
;
of, 24.
John
John
XII., 155; Julius

II., 211, 212, 217, 222; Julius III., 36;
Leo
XI., 156;
II.,
116;
Leo
183;
V., 155
III., 131,
Leo
Leo
IV., 131, 133, 136 fol. Leo

X., 211, 213, 217, 222 Leo XIII., 135,
222; Marinus I., 154, 160; Marinus
Martin V., 204, 206 Nicolas
II., 121
;
Prothi Ascesa, 147.

S.
Pudens
in Vico Patricio, church of,
145, 148.
S.
Pudenziana, church
of, 246.
SS. Quaranta de Calcarario (S. Francesco delle Stimmate), church of,

193.
INDEX OF SUBJECTS
276
SS. Quatro Coronati, church of, 165, S. Sebastiano, in Pallara, 91

181.
SS.
alia Pol-
veriera, 121.
Quirico
church
Giolitta,
of,
Secretarium Seuatus,
110, 118, 256.
147.
Senate-house, 22, 110, 123, 147, 207, 208.

Quirinal, called Monte Cavallo,' 147; Sentius Saturninus, G., shrine rebuilt
marble statues on, 166; river gods
by, 27.
of, 222.
Sepolcro degli Stucchi, 96.
'
Ranncci Romano,
Septa Julia, 208.

Septimius Severus,
180.
Raphael, tapestries of, 217 foi. frescoes

;
18, 28
restorations of, 22, 28.
palace of, 3
See Arch.
of, 221, 222.
Septizonium, 121, 152, 201, 235, 239.

Serapeum of Alexandria, (55.
Regia, 18, 194.
Sergius I., II., III. See Pope.
Regiouary Catalogue of the time of SS. Sergius and Bacchus. See Church.
Sette Sale, 246.
Constantino, 48.
Remi Meta, 178.
Severus, architect of Nero, 19.
Severus, Alexander, 28, 191.
Rhadagaisus, 50.
Silverius.
See Pope.
Rienzi, Cola di, 234.
S. Rocco, church of, 263.
Silverware, finds of, 63.
Roma Vecchia, 104.
S. Silvestro in Capite (St. Sylvester).
See Church.
Romani, the, 199.
Romanus. See Pope.
Sinibaldi, the, 199.
Record
office, 37.
Romuli, Sepulcrum, 178, 210.
Romulus, Heroon
of, 110, 123, 256.
Rospigliosi gardens, 24.

De Rossi's account, 83, 84.
Rotondo, church of the. See Pantheon.
Ruins of Romau villas, stratification
of, 101.
S.
S.
Saba, church of, 122.

Sabina, church of, 61
garden
of,
58.
Sistine Chapel, 204, 218.

Sixtus IV., V. See Pope.
S. Spirito, hospital of, 204.
Stadium, where now is the Piazza Na-
vona,
5, 48, 146, 19!), 246, 262.
Statilian family, Columbaria of, 94.

Statilius Taurus, 11, 199.
Static Marmorum, 33.
Statuary, removed from pagan places

of worship, 36
used as rubble, 41
fol.; condition of, when discovered,
;
45.
Sacra Via. See Via.
Sacrae Urbis Templum, 208, 256.
Statues, hiding of bronze, in times of
Sallust, gardens of, 58, 89, 261.
panic, 64 fol. concealed by magisS. Salvator de Porticu, church of, 178.
trates, 65.
S. Salvatore in Campo, church of, 256. Stefaneschi, the 199.
S. Salvatore in Primicerio, church of, S. Stefano, delle Carozze, 12; Ro;
165.
tondo, 34, 37.
Sanctus Angelus, 176.

Sanguigni, the, 199.
Saracens, traces of the
Stephen
camp
Bernard Pass,
of, 137
II.,
V., VI.
See Pope.
Stilicho, 50, 53, 56.

Stratification of ruins, 101.
Streets, condition of, 227.

Sarcophagi, used to hold relics of mar- Studio of Greek sculptors on the Esin the St.
158.
tyrs, 117.
Saturn, temple of, 34, 110.

Savelli, the, 199.
Saviour, church of the, 110.

Schola Graeca, 143.
quiline, 42.
Subura, 143, 145, 147, 201.

Sun, temple of, 199.
S. Susanna, church of, 242.
Sylvester III. See Pope.
INDEX OF SUBJECTS
See Church.
See Pope.
St. Sylvester.
Symrnachus.
Tabernola, 15.
Tapestries of Raphael, 217
Tarpeian rock, 259.
house
Titus, 57;
Thermae.
Tombs, fate
of,
See Arch,
of, 211.
91
entrances con-
cealed, 95 fol. destruction of, 190.

Tombs, of the Apusii, 103; Arruntii,
;
fol.
Casal Rotondo, 237

Caecilia
Metella, 92, 96, 191, 236 fol. Gaius
Cestius,96, (Meta Remi), 178; Fabii,
31 on the Via Flaminia, 208
Lucilius Paetus, 92; at the Ponte de41'
Arco, 236, 237 Romulus, 178 Alex-
31
Temple, of Antoninus and Faustina,

111; Claudius (Caelian), 208, 201;
Concord, 110, 206; Craticulae, 177;
Dea
Dia, 208; Hercules Victor,

Hope, 177; Isis, 42, 112, 171,
186, 193, 205, 222, 245; Janus,
Juno Regina, 61; Juno (Veii),
Jupiter Optimus Maximus,
209;
173,
110;
265;
8, 13,48,
52, 74, 159, 176, 205, 208, 247, 259 fol.

Mater MaJupiter Stator, 18, 121
;
ander Severus, 191 Vergilius Eurysaces, 92 Vibius Marianns, 92. See

;
Sepolcro.
Torre, de' Conti, 201 Fiscale, 82, 162
delle Milizie, 201; di Nona, 41;
Pignatarra, 72, 246; dei Schiavi, 7.
;
Minerva
Medica (so called) 95 Mithras, 245 Torrecchiano Campo, 199, 202.
Moon, 17; Peace, 57; Penates, 18; Totila, 119, 151.
Pietas, 10, 159, 177
Romulus, 110, Trajan, arch of, 31; channel of, 33;
house of, 57 column of, 109, 125,
123, 256; Saturn, 34, 110; Sacrae
See Forum,
145, 146, 148, 166, 238.
Urbis, 208, 256 Sun, 199; Venus and
Thermae.
Rome, 8, 22, 48, 110, 122, 194, 207,
246 Venus in Calcarario, 245 Venus Treasures, concealed at the sack of
tuta, 12, 39; Minerva, 255;
,
(gardens of Sallust) 261

,
Vulcan (Ostia), 194.

Temples closed, 35.
S. Teodoro, church of,
Vesta, 18
264.
Pompey,
Turris Chartularia, 121, 201.
5, 48, 77, 145,
152, 176, 199.
14(5,
Theoderic, 38, 77
78.
of Diocletian, 49 fol.
Tulliola, 103.
Turcius Asterius Secundus, 63.
Triumph
Terebinthus, 177.
Theatre, of Balbus, 5; Marcellus, 101,
176, 177, 199;
1527, 224 fol.
Tribunus Volnptatum,
Ugolini house,
fol., 89, 90, 183.
Theodore
See Pope.
I., II.
Theodosius, 35, 50. See Arch.
Thermae (see Baths) areas closed for,
14 their building an important factor in the transformation of Rome,
22 fol. of Agrippa (Commodianae),
,
145, 146, 193, 245, 259; of Caracalla,
722, 23, 33, 90, 116, 192, 208; of

Constantine, 14, 24, 145, 147, 255 of
the Decii, 14, 36, 57, 60 of Diocletian,
;
5.
Umbilicus Romae, 145.

Urban VIII. See Pope.
Vacca, Flaminio, extracts from memoirs of, 5, 39, 90, 192, 194, 259.
Valens. See Arch.
Valentinian I., 33; bridge of (Ponte
Sisto) , 34, 246
prohibited sacrifices,
See Arch.
Valentinian III., 74 fol.
Valerius Severus, 59.
;
35.
14, 22, 27, 116, 153, 194, 211, 239, 261

of Nero, 14 of Titus, 14, 23, 32, 36,
262 of Trajan, 14, 23, 32, 36, 145, 148.
Tiber, 33; inundations of, 139 fol.;
figure of, 222 treasures thrown into,
225 fol.
Vassalecti, 180.
Tigellinus, 4, 18.
Venantius Fortunatus, 109.
Vatican, the, 128, 133, 175.
seum, St Peter's.
Vatican district included
See Mu-
in the city
proper, 132.
Veii, 186.
INDEX OF PASSAGES
278
Venus, Venus and Rome. See Temple.

Vergilius Eurysaces, tomb of, 92.
Verus, Lucius, statue of, 104.
Vespasian, Lex Regia of, 234.
Vesta, temple of, 18 statue of, 196.
Vestals, house of, 121, 122, 196, 264.
Via Appia, 31, 103, 105, 137, 194;
;
Aurelia, 16; Clodia, 158; Collatina,

16; Cornelia, 32; Labicana, 16, 72;
Latina, 96, 160, 194; Nomentana, 20,
32 Nova, 31 Praenestina, 6 Sacra,
34, 36, 52, 110, 120, 153, 178, 191, 211;
Salaria
Salaria Vetus, 15, 65, 151
Nova, 15; Tiburtina, 33 TriumphaSee Clivus, Vicus.
lis, 177, 178.
S. Vibiana, church of, 116, 256.
;
Vibius Marianus, tomb of, 92.

Victory, statue of, 48.
Vicus Capitis Africae, 151 Patricius,
240 Portae Viminalis, 240 Tuscus,
;
See Pope.
Vigilius.
Barberini19, 121
Spithoever, 89 Ceccarelli, 116 Grimani (Barberini), 90; Maciocchi,57;
Moroni, 95 Torlonia, 57.
Villa Corsmi-Pamfili, 16 Giulia, 191,
263; diGiulioIII. (museo),13; Gor-
Vigna Barberini,
dianorum (Via Praenestina),
6, 7;
Livia, 194
fol.
Quintiliorum, 103
Voconiorum,
Vitalianus. See Pope.

S. Vitalis in Vico Longo, church of,
145, 148, 192.
Vitiges, siege of, 79, 89, 115.
Volusianus, Rufus, 33.

Vulcan, temple of (at Ostia), 194.
Wall, Leonine, 133
fol.
of Aurelian,
15.
153.
Zmaragdus,
II.
109.
INDEX OF PASS\GES AND INSCRIPTIONS CITED

HORACE
A. AUTHORS
AMMIANUS MARCELLINUS
Satires
PAGE
PAGE
XVI.
47
10,
ST.
8 fol.,
I. viii.
AUGUSTINE
CASSIODORIUS
iii.
xcvi.,
LIBER PONTIFICALIS
38
38
10,
CL AUDI ANUS
De
VI. Consulatu Honorii
65
42,
CODEX BARBERINIANUS
xxx. 25,
Vol.
II.,
Vol.
Vol.
Vol.
II.,
iv. 38,
145, xxii.,
145,xxiii.,
II.,
225, 235, 240, 248, 270, 275,
II.,
258,
xx vi.
92
DION CASSIUS
11
xliii. 49,
FRONTINUS
80
126
131
139
155
156
LIVY
xxiv. 46,
x. Tit. 17,
13,
Gregorius,
152
CODEX THEODOSIANUS
i.
59
59
xlviii.,
Variae
vii. 13,
JEROME
Letters
65
13,
15
ST.
Serrno cv de verbis Evang. Luc.
X.
105.
27,
16
16
MON. GERM. SCR. LANG.

Vol. I., p. 53,
Vol. I., p. 483,
Vol. VI., p. 358,
155
156
157
INDEX OF INSCRIPTIONS
PRUDENTIUS
Contra Sym.
i.
501-505,
PLINY THE ELDER

Historia Naturalis
vii. 36, 121,
PROCOPIUS
de Bello Gothico
i.
19,
ii.
3,
iv. 22,
SUETONIUS
Octav. 29,
TACITUS
Annales
xv. 43,
VENANTIUS FORTUNATUS
Carmina
iii.
23,
ZOSIMUS
v. 45,
B.
INSCRIPTIONS
Benevento, inscription found

Brick stamp of Theoderic,
Capua, inscription found
at,
at,
Corjms Inscriptionum Latinarum

i.
285,
p. 415,
vi. 472,
562,
773,
279
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DESTRUCTION OF ANCIENT ROME. A Sketch of the History
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&rd)3cologtj ano Antiquities

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

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THE GETTY RESEARCH

This book sums up briefly the results of researches,

Professor Lanciani has searched hundreds of volumes of

municipal and ecclesiastical records, besides examining

sacked the principal libraries of Europe for prints and

material thus collected

a forerunner of the larger work.

lin College, for

Walter Dennison of Ober-

kind assistance in reading the proofs, and

for the compilation of the Indexes.

THE DESTROYERS OF ANCIENT ROME

THE SACK OF THE GOTHS

THE SACK OF ROME BY THE VANDALS

THE SIXTH CENTURY

BURIAL PLACES WITHIN AND WITHOUT THE WALLS

THE DEVASTATION AND DESERTION OF THE CABIPAGNA

THE SEVENTH CENTURY

INCURSION OF THE SARACENS IN 846, AND THE EXTEN-

SION OF THE FORTIFICATIONS OF THE CITY

THE ROME OF THE EINSIEDLEN ITINERARY

THE USURPERS OF THE HOLY SEE AND THE SACK OF

ROME AT THE END OF THE TWELFTH CENTURY

THE ASPECT OF THE CITY AT THE BEGINNING OF THE

THE USE OF EARLIER MATERIALS, PARTICULARLY MARBLES,

THE TRANSFORMATION OF REPUBLICAN ROME BY THE EMPERORS

MARBLE-CUTTERS AND LIME-BURNERS OF MEDIAEVAL AND

THE BEGINNINGS or THE MODERN CITY

THE MODERNISATION OF MEDIAEVAL BUILDINGS

MODERN USE OF ANCIENT MATERIALS

THE SACKING OF ROME BY THE ARMY OF CHARLES OF

Substructions of the palace of Septimius Severus.

Section of steps of the round temple of the

of painted terra cotta antefix

Jupiter Optimus Maximus.

from the temple of

From Tav. xiii. of the

Section of the channel of the

The remains of the Claudian aqueduct

The monument of Stilicho in the Forum. From a photograph

Marcia, at Monte Arcese,

showing deposits on the bottom and sides

at the Porta Furba.

of P. Vibius Marianus, so-called "Tomb of Nero," on

The column of Phocas in the Forum. From a photograph

Mura, after the fire of 1823. From a print

showing the hole made by plun-

View of the Caelian hill, looking southeast. From a photograph

The lower end