This appendix provides information on soil properties that are relevant for structural designers. It includes tables with typical soil properties such as density, elastic modulus, bearing capacity, and friction angles. It also discusses soil testing procedures and classifications. The plasticity index provides an indication of a soil's shrink-swell potential. Deeper soil layers can have longer fundamental periods of vibration, potentially causing resonance with taller buildings and resulting in damage during earthquakes if energy levels are high.
This appendix provides information on soil properties that are relevant for structural designers. It includes tables with typical soil properties such as density, elastic modulus, bearing capacity, and friction angles. It also discusses soil testing procedures and classifications. The plasticity index provides an indication of a soil's shrink-swell potential. Deeper soil layers can have longer fundamental periods of vibration, potentially causing resonance with taller buildings and resulting in damage during earthquakes if energy levels are high.
This appendix provides information on soil properties that are relevant for structural designers. It includes tables with typical soil properties such as density, elastic modulus, bearing capacity, and friction angles. It also discusses soil testing procedures and classifications. The plasticity index provides an indication of a soil's shrink-swell potential. Deeper soil layers can have longer fundamental periods of vibration, potentially causing resonance with taller buildings and resulting in damage during earthquakes if energy levels are high.
This appendix provides information on soil properties that are relevant for structural designers. It includes tables with typical soil properties such as density, elastic modulus, bearing capacity, and friction angles. It also discusses soil testing procedures and classifications. The plasticity index provides an indication of a soil's shrink-swell potential. Deeper soil layers can have longer fundamental periods of vibration, potentially causing resonance with taller buildings and resulting in damage during earthquakes if energy levels are high.
This appendix presents some information and tables containing properties of soils which will be of interest to the structural designer.
C.1 Soil Tests
For low-rise buildings, depth of borings may be specified to be about 6 m below the anticipated foundation level, with at least one boring continuing deeper, to a lesser of 30 m, the least building dimension, or refusal. At least one soil boring should be specified for every 230 square metres of the building area for buildings over 12 m height, or having more than three storeys. For large buildings founded on poor soils, borings should be spaced at less than 15 m intervals. A minimum of five borings, one at the centre and the rest at the corners of the building, is recommended.
C.2 Order of Soil Suitability for Foundation Support
Best : Bed rock Very good : Sand and gravel Good : Medium to hard clay (that is kept dry) Poor : Silts and soft clay Undesirable : Organic silts and organic clay Unsuitable : Peat
C.3 The Plasticity Index (PI)
The plasticity index (PI) of the soil provides an indication of how much clay will shrink or swell. The higher the PI, the greater is the shrink-swell potential. PI of 015% : Low expansion potential PI of 1525% : Medium expansion potential PI of 25% and above : High expansion potential
A.C.2 Design of Steel Structures
Table C.1 Typical mass densities of basic soil types Type of Soil
Poorly graded soil Well-graded soil Range Typical value Range Typical value 1.701.90 1.75 1.752.00 1.85 1.902.10 2.07 2.002.20 2.10 1.601.90 1.75 1.601.90 1.75 1.902.25 2.00 1.902.25 2.07 1.602.00 1.75 1.602.00 1.75 1.902.25 2.07 2.002.30 2.15
*Values are representative of moist sand, gravel, saturated silt, and clay. Table C.2 Typical values of modulus of elasticity (ES) for different types of soils Type of Soil Clay Very soft Soft Medium Hard Sandy Glacial till Loose Dense Very dense Loess Sand Silty Loose Dense Sand and gravel Loose Dense Shale Silt
Table C.3 Typical values of modulus of subgrade reaction (ks) for different types of soils Type of Soil Loose sand Medium dense sand Dense sand Clayey medium dense sand Silty medium dense sand
Table C.4 Typical values of Poissons ratio (m) for soils
Type of soil Clay (saturated) Clay (unsaturated) Sandy clay Silt Sand (dense) Course (void ratio = 0.4 0.7) Fine grained (void ratio = 0.4 0.7) Rock Loess Ice Concrete
0.4 0.5 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.35 0.2 0.4 0.15 0.25 0.10.4 (depends on type of rock) 0.1 0.3 0.36 0.15
Table C.5 Allowable bearing pressures on soils (for preliminary design)
Type of rock/soil
Allowable bearing pressure (kN/m2)
Hard rock without lamination
and defects (e.g., granite, trap, and diorite) Laminated rocks (e.g., sandstone and lime-stone in sound condition) Soft or broken rock, hard shale, cemented material Soft rock Gravel Dense Medium Sand*
Clay+ Peat, silts, made-up ground
Coarse Medium Fine or silt
Standard penetration blow count (N)
Apparent cohesion cu (kPa)
3,200
>30
1,600
>30
900 450 450 96285 Compact and dry 450 250 150
30
>30 >30 Loose and dry 250 48120 100
3050 1530 <15
1530 415 04
100200 25100 025
Very stiff 190450 Medium stiff 200250 Soft 50100 To be determined after investigation
Notes: * Reduce bearing pressures by half below the water table.
+ Alternatively, allow 1.2 times cu for round and square footings, and 1.0 times cu for length/width ratios of more than 4.0. Interpolate for intermediate values.
A.C.4 Design of Steel Structures
Table C.6 Typical interface friction angles (NAVFAC 1982) Interface materials Clean sound rock Clean gravel, gravel-sand mixtures, coarse sand Clean fine to medium sand, silty medium to coarse sand, silty or clayey gravel Clean fine sand, silty or clayey fine to medium sand Fine sandy silt, nonplastic silt Medium-stiff, stiff and silty clay Formed concrete against Clean gravel, gravel-sand mixture, wellgraded rock fill with spalls Clean gravel, silty sand-gravel mixture, single-size hard rock fill Silty sand, gravel, or sand mixed with silt, or clay Fine sandy silt, non-plastic silt Steel sheet piles against Clean gravel, gravel-sand mixture, wellgraded rock fill with spalls Clean sand, silty sand-gravel mixture, single-size hard rock fill Silty sand, gravel, or sand mixed with silt or clay Fine sandy silt, nonplastic silt Mass concrete against
Table C.7 Typical values of fundamental period for soil deposits (for rock motions with amax = 0.4g) (SEAOC 1980) Soil depth (m) 10 30 60 90 150
Dense sand (s)
5 m of fill over normally
consolidated clay* (s) 0.51.0 1.52.3 1.82.8 2.03.0
0.30.5 0.61.2 1.01.8 1.52.3 2.03.5
*Representative of San Francisco bay area.
Table C.8 Mean shear wave velocities (m/s) for the top 30 m of ground (Borcherdt 1994) General description Firm and hard rocks Hard rocks (e.g., metamorphic rocks with very widely spaced fractures)
Mean shearwave velocity
Minimum Average Maximum
1400
1620
(contd)
Properties of Soils
A.C.5
(contd) Firm to hard rocks (e.g., granites, igneous rocks, conglomerates, sandstones, and shales with close to widely spaced fractures) Gravelly soils and soft to firm rocks (e.g., soft igneous sedimentary rocks, sandstones, shales, gravels, and soils with > 20% gravel) Stiff clays and sandy soils (e.g., loose to very dense sands, silt loams, sandy clays, and medium stiff to hard clays and silty clays (N > 5 blows/ 300mm) Soft soils (e.g., loose submerged fills and very soft (N < 5 blows/300 mm) clays and silty clays < 37 m thick) Very soft soils (e.g., loose saturated sand, marshland, recent reclamation)
700
1050
1400
375
540
700
200
290
375
100
150
200
50?
75?
100
Note: The fundamental time period T of soil layer of thickness H, having average shear wave velocity Vs is approximately
T = 4H/Vs If we assume the weighted average shear wave velocity for 30 50 m soil layer as 290 m/s, then the fundamental period of soil layer will range from 0.41 to 0.69 second. The fundamental time period of 4 6 storey buildings, including the soilstructure interaction, should fall in the above range of time period of soil layers, i.e., 0.41 0.69 sec. That is, the seismic waves in this range of time period will be allowed only to pass and filter-out the other frequencies. Therefore, there will be quasi resonance of building and the soil layer. At this point the damaging energy from the seismic waves get into the buildings having similar time period of vibration as the soil layer. If the seismic damaging energy getting into the building is more than the capacity of the structure, then the building will show distress and may collapse. Similarly, if we assume that the weighted average shear wave velocity for 150 300 m soil layer is around 500 m/s, then the fundamental time period will range from 1.2 2.4 s. The fundamental time period of 10 15 storey building, including soil structure interaction, will fall in the above range of time period of vibrations. Therefore, there will be quasi resonance of the buildings and the soil layer and the seismic waves will affect this group of buildings which will result in damage/ collapse of buildings. Hence, it is important to know the depth of soil layers above the bedrock and its properties such as the shear wave velocities, which are related in the microzonation of a region.
The Rudiments Of Practical Bricklaying - In Six Sections: General Principles Of Bricklaying, Arch Drawing, Cutting, And Setting, Different Kinds Of Pointing, Paving, Tiling, Materials, Slating, And Plastering, Practical Geometry Mensuration
The Rudiments Of Practical Bricklaying - In Six Sections: General Principles Of Bricklaying, Arch Drawing, Cutting, And Setting, Different Kinds Of Pointing, Paving, Tiling, Materials, Slating, And Plastering, Practical Geometry Mensuration
