Introduction To Boundary Layer
Introduction To Boundary Layer
The concept of boundary layer was first introduced by a German engineer, Prandtl in 1904.
According to Prandtl theory, when a real fluid flows past a stationary solid boundary, the
flow will be divided into two regions.
i)
A thin layer adjoining the solid boundary where the viscous force and rotation cannot
be neglected.
ii)
An outer region where the viscous force is very small and can be neglected. The flow
behaviour is similar to the upstream flow.
Due to the present of velocity gradient inside the boundary layer region, the fluid particle
begins to distort as at the top of particle has a larger speed than its bottom. This force causes
the fluid particle begins to rotate as it enters the boundary layer region (See Fig. 1.2).
Therefore, this layer of fluid is also known as rotational flow.
ii)
y Outer flow region where the viscous force is very small and can be neglected.
There is no velocity gradient in this layer and the fluid particle will not rotate as it enters the
outer region of flow. Therefore, the flow is also known as irrotational flow.
As shown by Fig. 1.2, the boundary layer conditions are that the fluid sticks to the solid
boundary
u v 0 on y 0
(1.1)
And at the outside of the boundary layer, the flow velocity is equal to the free stream
velocity, that is
u U
on y
(1.2)
The following boundary condition is also true for boundary layer flow
u
0 when y
y
(1.3)
indicates that the velocity distribution is uniform in y-direction outside the boundary layer.
Figure 1.3 Flow over a horizontal solid surface for the case of (a) Ideal fluid (b) Real fluid.
The velocity deficits through the element strip of cross section b-b is U u . Then the
reduction of mass flow rate is obtained as
U u bdy
(1.4)
where b is the plate width. The total mass reduction due to the presence of viscosity
compared to the case of ideal fluid
U u bdy
(1.5)
However, if we displace the plate upward by a distance * at section a-a to give mass
reduction of Ub * , then the deficit of flowrates for the both cases will be identical if
U u bdy Ub
(1.6)
and
* 1
0
u
dy
U
(1.7)
(1.8)
uU u bdy
(1.9)
However, if we displace the plate upward by a distance at section a-a to give momentum
reduction of U 2b , then the momentum deficit for the both cases will be identical if
uU u bdy U
(1.10)
and
U 1 U dy
(1.11)
Question:
1.
If the velocity distribution in laminar boundary layer over flat plate is assumed to be
given by first order polynomial u a by , where a and b are constant, determine
a)
The ratio of displacement thickness to boundary layer thickness
b)
The ratio of momentum thickness to boundary layer thickness
2.
Show that, if the velocity distribution in laminar boundary layer over flat plate is
assumed to be given by second order polynomial, the velocity distribution can be expressed
as follow
u
y y
2
U
3.
By assuming that the velocity gradient in laminar boundary layer over flat plate is in
the form of second order polynomial, calculate
a)
The displacement thickness
b)
The momentum thickness
4.
If the velocity distribution in laminar boundary layer over flat plate is assumed to be
given by
u
y
sin
, determine
U
2
a)
b)
5.
u y
U
6.
The velocity distribution in the boundary layer over the surface of highway was
observed to be
u y
U
0.22
The free stream velocity is 20m/s and boundary layer thickness of 5cm at a certain section.
Calculate the displacement thickness and momentum thickness at the section under
consideration.
Expression for * and using various types of velocity profiles in the boundary layer is
tabulated in Tab. 1.1
Tab. 1.1 * and for various types of velocity profiles in the boundary layer
Types of velocity
distribution
Linear profile ,
Boundary layer
displacement thickness, *
u y
Parabolic profile,
2
u
y
y
2
U
Cubic profile,
u 3 y 1 y
U 2 2
u
y
Turbulent profile,
U
6
2
15
39
280
Sin-Cos profile,
u
y
sin
U
2
2 1
2
72
(1.12)
x
y
(1.13)
u
u
1 p
2u
v
2
x
y
x
y
(1.14)
U
x
(1.15)
u
u
U
2u
v
U
2
x
y
x
y
(1.16)
For the flow specifically over the flat surface, we can assume uniform horizontal velocity and
therefore U x 0 , thus
u
u
2u
v
2
x
y
y
(1.17)
,v
y
x
(1.18)
y xy x y 2
y 3
(1.19)
Blassius then introduced the dimensionless similarity variable U x 1 2 y and the stream
function xU 1 2 f , where f is an unknown function.
By using the rules of differentiation, we obtain as the following
1
1 U 2
f f
x 2 x
Uf
y
2
1
Uf
xy
2x
(1.20)
U 2
U f
2
y
x
3
y 3
U2
f
x
2
where f f , f 2 f , f 3 f
1
ff 0
2
(1.21)
Eq. (1.21) can be solved numerically by taking the boundary conditions as follow
f 0 0
f 0
0
f
0 when
(1.22)
0
0.4
0.8
1.2
1.6
2.0
2.4
2.8
3.2
f u U
0
0.1328
0.2647
0.3938
0.5168
0.6298
0.7290
0.8115
0.8767
3.6
4.0
4.4
4.8
5.0
5.2
5.6
6.0
0.9233
0.9555
0.9759
0.9878
0.9916
0.9943
0.9975
0.9990
1.0000
From the solution, it is found that u U 0.99 when 5 , thus, from the similarity variables
1
U 2
5
x
(1.23)
or
5x
Re1x 2
where Re x U x
(1.24)
Using some manipulations of algebra, the displacement and momentum thickness can be
expressed as
*
1.721x
(1.25)
Re1x 2
and
0.664 x
(1.26)
Re1x 2
(1.27)
layer flow covers from laminar to turbulent regions. His equation contributes advancementin
the prediction of drag caused by shear forces on a body.
To see the formulation, consider a uniform flow past a flat plate and the fixed control volume
as shown in Fig. 1.5
Figure 1.5 Control volume for the derivation of Von Karmann momentum integral equation
We apply the horizontal component of the momentum equation gives
uV ndA uV ndA
(1.28)
or
U U dA u 2 dA
(1.29)
U bh b u 2 dy
2
(1.30)
Since there is no cross flow through streamline, the mass flow rate must be equal through
section (1) and (2)
Ubh ubdy
(1.31)
U 2bh b Uudy
(1.32)
Fx b Uudy b u 2 dy
0
(1.33)
or
Fx b u U u dy
(1.34)
We can see that Eq. (1.34) can be written in terms of the momentum thickness as follow
bU 2
(1.35)
However, we know that the change of momentum contributes to the development of drag
force on the solid surface such as
w dA b
surface
w dx
surface
(1.36)
This gives
b w dx bU 2
(1.37)
d
dx
(1.38)
Now, we obtained the Von-Karmann momentum integral equation for the boundary layer
flow over a flat plate
w U 2
d
dx
(1.39)
(1.40)
Then the total drag force on one side of plate with length L
FD dFD wbdx
0
(1.41)
It is also often convenient to use the dimensionless local friction coefficient c f and friction
drag coefficient c D which are
cf
and
w
1
U 2
2
(1.42)
cD
FD
1
U 2 A
2
(1.43)
Respectively.
The Blassius solution for these two coefficients is
cf
0.664
Re1x 2
(1.44)
1.328
Re1L 2
(1.45)
and
cD
where ReL UL
Next we demonstrate the derivation of the equations of boundary layer thickness, boundary
layer displacement thickness, boundary layer momentum thickness, local friction coefficient
and total drag coefficient based on the following velocity distributions using the Vonkarmann momentum integral equation;
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
Since
U 2
d
u
and w
dx
y
u
y
y 0
u y
(1.46)
y 0
therefore
d
U
dx
dx
(1.47)
, therefore
6
(1.48)
or
d
6
dx
U
(1.49)
2
2
6
xC
U
(1.50)
At x 0, 0 and therefore C 0
12x
U
12xx
Ux
12 x 2
Ux
(1.51)
12 x 2
Re x
3.464 x
(1.52)
Re x
The boundary layer displacement and momentum thickness are calculated as follow
*
1.732 x
(1.53)
Re x
0.5773x
(1.54)
Re x
0.2887
U
x
Re x
(1.55)
cf
1
U 2
2
U
0.2887
Re x
x
1
U 2
2
0.5774
0.5774
Ux
Re x
(1.56)
Re x
Re x
0.5774
Re x
FD
1
U 2 A
2
where
(1.57)
FD
wbdx
0.2887
U Ux
0.2887
bdx
x
Re x bdx
0.2887 U
(1.58a)
1
2 bdx
x 2
U
FD b 0.2887 U
1 2
(1.58b)
U 1 2
b 0.5774 U
L b 0.5774U Re L
Therefore
cD
b 0.5774 U Re L
1
U 2bL
2
1.1548
UL
Re L 1.1548
Re L
Re L
(1.59)
1.1548
Re L
2
Since
U 2
u
y
d
u
and w
dx
y
y 0
2U
u
y
y
2
U
(1.60)
y 0
therefore
d
U
2
dx
(1.61)
2
, therefore
15
(1.62)
or
d
15
dx
U
(1.63)
15
xC
U
At x 0, 0 and therefore C 0
(1.64)
30x
U
30xx
Ux
30 x 2
Ux
(1.65)
30 x 2
Re x
5.48 x
(1.66)
Re x
The boundary layer displacement and momentum thickness are calculated as follow
*
1.826 x
Re x
2 0.730 x
15
Re x
(1.67)
(1.68)
U
U
0.365
Re x
(1.69)
cf
1
U 2
2
U
0.365
Re x
x
1
U 2
2
0.730
0.730
Ux
Re x
(1.70)
Re x
Re x
0.730
Re x
FD
1
U 2 A
2
where
(1.71)
FD
wbdx
0.365
U Ux
0.365
bdx
x
Re x bdx
0.365U
1
2 bdx
(1.72a)
x 2
U
FD b 0.365U
1 2
(1.72b)
U 1 2
b 0.730 U
L b 0.730U Re L
Therefore
cD
b 0.730U Re L
1
U 2bL
2
1.46
UL
Re L 1.46
Re L
Re L
(1.73)
1.46
Re L
Since
U 2
du
dy
d
u
and w
dx
y
y 0
u 3 y 1 y
U 2 2
(1.74)
y 0
3U
therefore
2
d 3 U
dx 2
280
dx
2
(1.75)
39
, therefore
280
(1.76)
or
d
3
280 dx
420
U
dx
2
2
39 U
39 U
(1.77)
420
xC
39 U
At x 0, 0 and therefore C 0
(1.78)
840
x
39 U
x
21.538
x
Ux
x2
21.538
Ux
(1.79)
21.538
x
Re x
(1.80)
Re x
The boundary layer displacement and momentum thickness are calculated as follow
3 1.74 x
8
Re x
(1.81)
39 0.646 x
280
Re x
(1.82)
(1.83)
Re x
cf
1
U 2
2
U
0.323
Re x
x
1
U 2
2
0.647
Re x
0.647
(1.84)
Re x
Ux
Re x
0.647
Re x
cD
(1.85)
where
FD
wbdx
0.323
0.323
U Ux
bdx
x
Re x bdx
0.323U
1
2 bdx
(1.86a)
U x 2
FD b 0.323U
1 2
(1.87a)
U 1 2
b 0.646 U
L b 0.646U Re L
Therefore
cD
b 0.646U Re L
1
U 2bL
2
1.292
UL
Re L 1.292
Re L
Re L
(1.88)
1.292
Re L
d
u
and w
dx
y
u
y
sin
U
2
(1.89)
y 0
Since
y
du
U cos
dy
2 2
(1.90)
and
du
dy
y 0
U
therefore
2
U
d
U 2
2
dx
(1.91)
2 1
From the previous calculation, we know that , therefore
U
2 1
2 d
U
dx
2
2
(1.92)
or
d
1
2
U
2 dx
U
dx
2
4
U 2
(1.93)
or
d 11.4975
dx
U
(1.94)
11.4975
xC
U
(1.95)
At x 0, 0 and therefore C 0
2 22.995
x
x
Ux
x2
22.995
Ux
22.995
(1.96)
22.995
x
Re x
4.795 x
Re x
(1.97)
The boundary layer displacement and momentum thickness are calculated as follow
2
3.05 x
Re x
(1.98)
0.651x
4
2
Re x
(1.99)
* 1
U
U
0.328
Re x
2
x
(1.100)
cf
1
U 2
2
U
0.328
Re x
x
1
U 2
2
0.655
Re x
0.655
(1.101)
Re x
Ux
Re x
0.655
Re x
cD
(1.102)
1
U 2 A
2
where
FD
wbdx
0.328
0.328
U Ux
bdx
x
Re x bdx
0.328U
1
2 bdx
(1.103a)
U x 2
FD b 0.328U
1 2
U 1 2
b 0.656 U
L b 0.656U Re L
(1.103b)
Therefore
cD
b 0.656U Re L
1
U 2bL
2
1.312
UL
Re L 1.312
Re L
Re L
(1.104)
1.312
Re L
As mentioned earlier, most of the flow is turbulent in nature. When the Reynolds number of
the surface exceed approximately Re 5 105 , the boundary layer transitions from laminar to
turbulent.
u y 7
U
However, the difficulty arises when determining the wall shear stress as it approaches infinity
as below
u
y
y 0
1 U
.
7 1 7 y6 7
Here, the correlation for shear stress is taken from experimental work as
14
w 0.0226 U 2
Now we will determine , c f and cD for the region of turbulent boundary layer.
From the previous calculation, we know that
7
, therefore
72
14
7
d
U 2
0.0226 U 2
72
dx
U
(1.76)
or
14
1 4 d 0.232
dx
(1.77)
4 54
0.232
5
U
xC
At x 0, 0 and therefore C 0
(1.78)
14
5 4 0.291
14
x
0.291
Ux
(1.79)
14
0.291
Ux
0.291
54
x5 4
Re1x 4
0.372 x
Re1x 5
(1.80)
The boundary layer displacement and momentum thickness are calculated as follow
*
0.047 x
Re1x 5
(1.81)
7 0.36 x
72 Re1x 5
(1.82)
w 0.0226 U 2
0.372 x
U
Re1x 5
14
15
2 Re x
0.0289 U
Ux
14
Re1x 5
0.0289 U
Re
x
14
1
0.0289 U
Re4 5
x
(1.83)
0.0289 U 2
Re1x 5
w
1
U 2
2
14
0.0289 U
Re 4 5
x
1
2
U
2
2
14
1
0.0579 4 5
Re
x
0.0579
Re1x 5
(1.84)
FD
1
U 2 A
2
cD
(1.85)
where
FD
wbdx
0.0289 U 2
bdx
Re1x 5
15
0.0289 U bdx
Ux
15
0.0289 U b
U
2
1
5 dx
(1.86a)
4
x5
FD 0.0289 U 2b
U 4 5
0
15
(1.87a)
15
0.036 U 2b
U
L4 5
Therefore
15
0.036 U 2b
U
cD
1
U 2bL
2
15
0.072
U
L4 5
1
1
0
.
072
UL
L1 5
15
(1.88)
0.072
Re1L 5
Now the formulated expression for , c f and cD for various velocity distribution in laminar
region and turbulent region are tabulated in Table 1.3
Table 1.3 Results for various assumed laminar and turbulent flow velocity profiles
Types of velocity
distribution
Blassius Solution
Linear profile ,
u y
Parabolic profile,
2
u
y
y
2
U
Cubic profile,
u 3 y 1 y
U 2 2
Sin-Cos profile,
u
y
sin
U
2
Turbulent profile,
u y
U
cf
cD
5x
0.664
1.328
Re x
Re x
Re x
3.46 x
0.58
1.15
Re x
Re x
Re L
5.48 x
0.730
1.46
Re x
Re x
Re L
4.64 x
0.647
1.292
Re x
Re x
Re L
4.795 x
0.655
1.312
Re x
Re x
Re L
0.372 x
Re1x 5
0.058
Re1x 5
0.072
Re1L 5
Question:
1. Consider a flow over a horizontal flat plate (1.25m x 2.5m)with velocity 3.0m/s.
Calculate
a. Boundary layer thickness at the trailing edge
b. Shear stress at the middle of the flat plate
c. Resultant drag force on both sides of the flat plate
3
-5
-6
3. A barge with a rectangular bottom surface 30m long times 10m wide is traveling
down a river with a velocity of 0.6m/s. A laminar boundary layer exists up to a
5
Reynolds number equivalent to 5 x 10 and subsequently abrupt transition occurs to
turbulent boundary layer.
a. The maximum distance from the leading edge up to which laminar boundary
layer thickness persists and the boundary layer thickness at that point.
b. The total drag force on the flat bottom surface of the barge.
c. The power required to push the bottom surface through water at the given
3
-6
1.31
Re
, C Dturbulence =
0.074
5
, water = 1000 kg m 3 , v 1 10 6 m 2 s
Re
5. Calculate the ratio of drag force on the front half and rear half of the flat plate
(Length L and width b) in a uniform velocity, if the boundary layer is turbulent over
the whole plate.