Ic Engine Lab Manual

1
Experiment no.1
Objective:
To calculate the brake power of petrol engine and torque against engine speed.
Apparatus:
Dynamometer
Petrol engine
Tachometer
Theory:
Dynamometer:
A dynamometer is a device for measuring force, moment of force (torque) or power.
For example, the power produced by an engine, motor or other prime mover can be calculated by simultaneously
measuring torque and rotation speed (R.P.M).
There are many types of dynamometer.
Absorption dynamometer;
Engine dynamometer;
Eddy current dynamometer;
Power dynamometer;
Hysteresis dynamometer.
Eddy current dynamometer:
Department Of Mechanical Engineering
An eddy current absorption dynamometer produces breaking torque in a rotating metallic disk immersed in a
magnetic field. It is basically an eddy current brake mounted in trunnion bearings.
Its advantages are the maintenance, control, simple construction and desirable speed torque characteristics.
The speed torque characteristics make eddy current dynamometer ideal for engine testing with versatility that allow
effective use in testing transmissions turbines electric motors, gears pump and many mother machines.
Brake power & indicating power:

In an engine, indicating power is the power produced in the cylinder and the brake power is the useful power. Power
at output shaft.
Brake power is always less than indicative due to losses by mechanical friction.
Torque meter:
Torque meter is a device for measuring and recording torque on the rotating system.
Tachometer:
It is an instrument which measures the working speed of an engine typically in revolution per minute.
Operational principal:
The principal of operation of a dynamometer is based on Newtons third law of motion which states that the force of
action and reaction are equal and coexistent. In motors and generators for example, the torque developed by the
armature current of the machine exerts an equal and opposite torque on the machine frame. When a dynamometer is
used to test such machines, its reaction torque is used as a measure of tested machines torque.
In tests with a DC dynamometer, the frame is suspended in trunnion bearings supported by pedestals. The bearing
suspension allows the frame to rotate but this rotation is limited to a few degrees by mechanical stops. Electric power
connections to the dynamometer are made through flexible cables. The force required to prevent frame rotation is
usually measured by spring balance.
Applications:
The word dynamometer is also used to designate devices o structures that measure the linear reaction force
developed by jet engines and rocket engines and to designate devices that measure the drag of ship model as they are
towed in model tanks.
Engine dynamometer:
One of the most important type of dynamometer is engine dynamometer. It is directly attached to the engine of the
car chassis dynamometer is another type of specific dynamometer. Which is used to measure the twisting movement
and the power or energy emitted by the power train of an automobile directly from the wheels or the drive wheels.
This should be done without the removal of the engine from the framework of the vehicle.
The classification of the dynamometer is also done on the basis of the style of the absorption unit or driver or the
absorber used by a vehicle.
The dynamometers that are used only for absorption can be connected with the universal dynamometer. There are
various types of absorption or driver unit.
EC dynamometer:
EC dynamometer is the most commonly used dynamometer in modern chassis systems. They are capable of
changing the load most efficiently at a rapid speed. Most of them require an external cooling system where as some,
although very few have an automatic cooling system. Ina good model, 5 amps at 220 vac can give more or less 150
HP load. Eddy current dynamometer has a core made of iron which rotate in the magnetic field are to produce the
twisting movement known as torque. Due to this technique present in the eddy motor current stopping a motor is not
feasible.
Power dynamometer:
Power dynamometer is another kind which is very similar to eddy current. The only difference between the former
and the latter is that a magnetic powder is present in the space between coil and rotor. The fluctuation lines generate
metal chains which are continuously built up.
These chains are broken due to twisting movement. The seed of power dynamometer is restricted due to indulgence
of heat.
Hysteresis dynamometer:
The third important type of absorption dynamometer is hysteresis dynamometer. It uses the rotor made of steel which
moves in between the fluctuation lines which are further in between magnetic poles. It enables the torque to be
produced at the speed of zero and also in full speed. The air that is forced in produces heat.
The electric motor or generator is also another type. It adjusts the speed of the drive. It can have both alternating and
direct current motor. This motor when prepared properly with proper mechanism can be used s universal motor. It
can also transfer the power to electric current if the situation demands.
Procedure:
First of all, check the apparatus given to perform the experiment.

Turn on the dynamometer, set R.P.M. at 2800 and torque is noted on torque meter.
Break power can be calculated as
B.P= 2NT/60
Gradually load increase, R.P.M decreases and torque is calculated.
Calculate the brake power by formula and draw graph between R.P.M and torque & R.P.M and brake power.
Observations & Calculations:

Sr.
R.P.M
Torque
Brake power
No.
(N)
(Nm)
(watt)
2800
2700
.1x10
282
2600
.2x10
544
2500
0.7x10
1831
2400
1.1x10
2763
2300
1.4x10
3370
Sample Calculation:
Brake Power=2NT/60
B.P=2(3.14)(2800)(.1*10)/60
B.P=282 watt
Graph:
Conclusion:
Torque and R.P.M has inverse relation. When torque decreases on shaft R.P.M
Increases and vice versa. When brake power increases the R.P.M of engine decreases.
Torque and brake power has direct relation with each other when torque increases
Brake power also increases and vice versa.
Experiment no.2
Objective:
To determine petrol engine characteristics under varying load and constant R.P.M.
Apparatus:
Dynamometer;
Petrol engine;
Tachometer;
Torque meter.
Theory:
Throttle:
A throttle is a mechanism by which the flow of fluid is managed by constriction or abstraction.
An engines power can be increased or decreased by the restriction of inlet fluid i.e., by the use of throttle.
The term throttle has come to refer informally and incorrectly to any mechanism by which power or speed of an
engine is regulated.
In an aviation context, throttle is more correctly called a thrust lever.

at output shaft.
Torque meter:
Tachometer:
Applications:
Procedure:
Make the R.P.M of an engine constant and note the reading.
Now increase the torque on the shaft and open the throttle valve more to gain its constant R.P.M.
By increasing the torque, the throttle valve is also opened more and more.
Note the valve of throttle against the torque.
Calculate the brake power from the torque and fixed R.P.M. by
B.P.= 2NT/60
Sr.
Throttle
R.P.M
Torque
Brake power
No.
(%age)
(N)
(Nm)
(watt)
20
2500
30
2500
.2x10
523.33
40
2500
.6x10
1570
50
2500
.9x10
2355
60
2500
1.1x10
2878.33
Sample Calculation:
Brake power=2NT/60
B.P=2(3.14)(2800)(.2*10)/60
B.P=523.33 watt
Graph:
10
Conclusion:
When load on the engine increases we must open the throttle valve more to maintain
the engine at constant R.P.M. At constant R.P.M brake power is directly dependent on
throttle valve. When we open the throttle valve more widely more brake power
increases.
11
Experiment no.3
Objective:
To determine B.M.E.P (brake mean effective pressure) at wide open throttle and varying R.P.M.
Apparatus:
Dynamometer;
Petrol engine;
Tachometer;
Torque meter.
Theory
Torque:
Torque is the tendency of force to rotate an object about an axis. The horizontal axis is speed that crankshaft in
turning & vertical axis is the torque.
Throttle:
12
B.M.E.P
Break mean effective pressure is the mean pressure which if imposed on the piston uniformly from the top to the
bottom of each power stroke would produce the measured (brake) power output.
B.M.E.P is purely theoretical and has nothing to do with cylinder pressure.
B.M.E.P= B.P*r/(A*L)MN

at output shaft.
Swept Volume:
Swept volume is the volume of the cylinder swept by the piston while moving from top dead center to bottom dead
center.
It is expressed in cubic inches or cubic centimeter. It can also be used to describe a display known as volumetric
display.
It can also be defined as volume of air in diesel engine or the mixture of air and gasoline in petrol engine induced by
the cylinder while moving down from the top dead centre to bottom dead center.
Swept volume= cylinder total volume-clearance volume
Procedure:
Start the engine and open the throttle valve fully. Check the R.P.M. and note the value of torque.
Now gradually increase the load noted, value of R.P.M. and torque.
Calculate the brake power from the reading by formula:
13
B.P.= 2NT/60
Now calculate the brake mean effective pressure of the cylinder by formula as swept volume is mentioned on
cylinder.
Repeat the experiment for other reading and draw graph between R.P.M and B.M.E.P

Sr.
R.P.M
Torque
Brake power
No.
(N)
(Nm)
(watt)
2800
2700
.1x10
282.6
.07416x106
2600
.2x10
544
.1485x106
2500
.7x10
1831
.5197x106
2400
1.1x10
2763
.8174x106
2300
1.4x10
3370
1.040x106
Sample Calculation:
B.M.E.P=B.P x r/(AxL)xMxN ------------(i)
(AxL)=V=swept volume=169cc
r = no.of rev/cycle=2
M=no.of piston=1
A=cylinder area
L=stroke length
N=no.of R.P.M
Now putting values in equation (i)
B.M.E.P=282 x 60 x 2/(169x10-6)x1x200
B.M.E.P=0.07416x106 Pa
Where
Brake power=2NT/60
=2x3.14x2700x1/60
=282.6 watt
B.M.E.P
14
Graph:
Conclusion:
Break mean effective pressure is a pure theoratical. It is not related to actual
Cylinder pressure. As the brake power of engine increases brake mean effective
Pressure also increases. At wide open throttle on the shaft increases the engine R.P.M
decreases.
15
Experiment no.4
Objective:
To determine the fuel flow rate by using the fuel flow meter.
Apparatus:
Apparatus for measuring engine characteristics under varying load and constant R.P.M.
Fuel flow meter.
Theory
Mass Flow Rate:
The mass flow rate of a system is a measure of the mass of fluid passing a point in the system per unit time. Its unit
is mass divided by time. Kilogram per second in SI unit. Mass flow rate can also be calculated from the density of
the liquid or gas, its velocity and the cross-sectional area of flow.
Fuel flow meter:

Fuel flow meter is a simplest type of instrument which is used to measure the flow rate of fuel.
In fuel flow meter the measurement is taken for a specific interval of time and noted the value. How much fuel is
flowing in specific interval of time.
Carburetor:
It is a device that perform following functions:

It combines gasoline ad air creating a highly combustible mixture.
It regulates the ratio of air and fuel.
It controls engine speed.
16
Principle:
Carburetor works on Bernoullis principle.
Carburetor has an open plate, a throat or barrel through which the air passes into the inlet manifold of engine.
The throttle does not control the flow of liquid fuel but the amount of air that flows through the carburetor.
The pipe in the form of venture, its narrows in section and then widened again causing the airflow to increase
speed in the narrowest part. Inside the venture is a throttle side. This valve controls the flow of air through
throat.
Venturi Principle:
Venture principle states that a material in a funnel flows faster as the funnel narrows. Because this speeds up, the
flow of fuel it creates the pressure difference which continually draws more fuel in the carburetor.
Parts:
Float
Float needle
Fuel filter
Float bowl
Choke
Throttle
Venture
Needle
Float:
It is a part of float valve system that regulates flow into float bowl. The float is usually a hollow plastic floating
device inside the float bowl attached to pivoting hinge.
As the fuel level in the float bowl varies, the vertical level of this float changes as well. This movement controls the
opening and closing of float needle.
Needle:
Through the mid-range throttle application (not close and not wide open), the tip of needle regulates the fuel out of
the main by blocking its opening, typically adjusted by changing the position it controls the air-fuel mixture.
Float needle:
Regulate the flow into the float bowl, it is a two force compression member which is about a centimeter if not
smaller in length.As the float bowl moves, the float needle moves linearly.
Throttle:
17
A spring loaded gate valve which is directly controlled by the twistable throttle grip. The linear vertical displacement
of this valve is equal to the linear vertical displacement of the needle.
Choke:
At the top of carburetor provides the richer mixture by closing and choking off the carburetors air supply.
A choke mechanism is applied to restrict the passage of air through the venture increasing the fuel mixture.
Observation and calculations:

R.P.M.=2600
t=20 sec
=.74 kg/m3
Sr.
Throttle
Torque
Brake power
No.
(%age)
(Nm)
(watt)
Fuel
consumptio
n
Mass flow
rate
Kg/m3
(ml)
1
20
272.13
1.11x10-4
30
3.3
898.04
1.48x10-4
40
1360.66
1.85x10-4
50
10
272.33
2.22x10-4
Graph:
18
Conclusion:
From the experiment it is concluded that Fuel flow is totally depend upon the brake
power of the engine. Fuel flow rate is alsoInterconnected with the air flow rate to get
high efficiency.
19
Experiment no. 5
Objective:
To determine the air flow rate by using air flow meter
Apparatus:
Apparatus for measuring engine characteristics under varying load and constant R.P.M
Theory
Mass flow rate:
The mass flow rate of a system is a measure of the mass of fluid passing a point in a system per unit time. Its unit is
mass divided by time. Kilogram per second in SI unit.
Mass flow rate can also be calculated from the density of the liquid (or gas )its velocity and the cross sectional area
of flow.
Procedure:
Start the engine and increase the engine rpm to 2600 by providing the eddy current which produces flux and
make the opposed shaft motion.
Techometer gives the rpm reading load is applied in the form of torque and as a result rpm decreases to make it
constant open the throttle wide.
Note down the the reading of rpm torque and throttle calculate the air flow rate that comes to the engine.
Manometer gives reading in inches convert it into Pa multiplying 249
Calculate power by
B.P=2NT/60
air flow by
Ma=34.49d02 (HP)1/2
Observation and calculation:

do=20mm
R.P.M.=2600
=1.2
Pa=mm.W249
Sr.
Throttle
Torque
Brake
ma
20
No.
(%age)
(T)
power
mmw.249
kg/s
1
2
3
4
20
30
40
50
1
3.3
5
10
272.13
898.04
1360.06
2721.33
38.67
42.86
59.35
64.74
1.742x10-3
1.86x10-3
2.43x10-3
2.544x10-3
Graph:
Conclusion:
Air flow rate depends upon the throttle valve more the throttle valve open more air
Is required to make air fuel mixture.
Air flow is rate is directly proportional to the brake power more is the brake power
required more is the air flow rate.
Experiment no.6
Objective:
21
To determine the air fuel mixture ratio by using air flow meter and fuel flow meter.
Apparatus:
Engine ratio dynamometer apparatus
Fuel flow meter
Air flow meter
Theory
Air fuel ratio:
Air fuel ratio is the mass of air to fuel present in an internal combustion engine. The AFR can also refer to the
volume ratio for combustion carried out in industrial furnaces if exactly enough air is provided to completely burn
all of the fuel the ratio is known as stoichiomatric mixture.
Benefits:
The air fuel ratio has many advantages
Reducing emissions
Fuel economy
Engine performance
Procedure:
First of all set the apparatus according to the requirement of the experiment
Started the engine and also on the dynamometer and adjusted the throttle for constant RPM.
Record the manometer reading torque reading and fuel flow meter reading for a specific interval of time.
Slow increased the throttle valve and also increased the load on the engine with the help of dynamometer.
Record the air flow and fuel flow meter reading for constant interval of time
Repeated the experiment for different valve of throttle and calculate air fuel ratio.
Observations and Calculations:

Sr
No
.
Throttle
(%age)
Torque
(T)
Brake
power
(watt)
m*a
kg/s
m*f
kg/s
m*a/m*f
1
2
3
20
30
40
1
3.3
5
273.13
898.04
1360.66
1.742x10-3
1.866x10-3
2.43x10-3
1.11x10-4
1.48x10-4
1.85x10-4
15.69
12.60
13.13
22
50
10
2721.33
2.544x10-3
2.22x10-4
11.45
Sample Calculation:
R.P.M=2600
=.74 kg/m3 for fuel
=1.2 kg/m3 for air
t=20 sec
d0=20mm
PA=mm x w x 249
m*a=.65 x /4(.02)2 2x38.67x1.2=1.742 kg/sec
m*f=V/t x =3 x 10-3 /20 x 0.74=1.14 x 10-4
Brake power=2NT/60
=2 x 3.14 x 2600 x 3.3/60=898.04 watt
Conclusion:
The efficiency of the engine depends upon the air fuel ratio. If the perfect air fuel
Ratio is find to completely burn the fuel the efficiency will be high without the
Formation of dangerous gases.
Experiment 7
Objective:
To analyze the exhaust gas temperature of a four stroke single cylinder petrol engine.
Apparatus:
23
Four stroke single cylinder petrol engine

Temperature sensor
Theory
Four stroke single cylinder engine means combustion take place only in one cylinder.
Procedure:
First of all set the apparatus according to the requirement.
Start the four stroke single cylinder petrol engine and analyze the exhaust gas temperature.
Increase the rpm of the engine and again analyze the exhaust gas.
Take different readings at different rpm and then analyze it.
Draw graphs between rpm and exhaust gases.

Sr.
No.
R.P.M
(N)
COx
NOx
Temperature
0
C
1
2
3
4
5
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
2981
3122
4735
5613
5920
35
71
132
157
216
53
77
93
107
141
Graph:
24
Conclusion:
By increasing the R.P.M , concentration of gases like concentration of COx and NOx
aslo increases.It is also concluded that COx and NOx are produced due to
incomplete burning of fuel. If fuel is completely burn no COx and NOx will be
produced.
25
Experiment no.8
Objective:
To compare the exhaust gas analyzer of four stroke single cylinder with four stroke four cylinder.
Apparatus:
Cut model of turbocharger attached with engine
Thoery:
Introduction:
Gas analysis is a quick accurate way to determine the running condition of a engine by absorbing the gas with
26
analyzer.
The following major engine areas can be diagnosed.
Fuel delivery
Ignition
Engine mechanics
Why gas analyzer:

Identify engine performance and mechanical problems
Test the running efficieny of an engine
Test for exhaust emission against state and fedral standards/
Procedure:
First of all set the apparatus according to the given requirements.

An automatic gas analyzer is placed at the exhaust side to analyze the exhaust combustion gases.
At different rpm the digital display show different reading showing the concentration of gases at exhaust.
Note down the reading of NOx and SOx.
Plot the graph of NOx and SOx.
Analyze the exhaust gas behavior with the help of graph.

Sr.
No.
R.P.M
(N)
COx
NOx
Temperature
0
C
1
2
3
4
5
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
1059
1890
2065
2960
3288
20
28
33
49
95
30
31
38
40
65
Graph:
27
Conclusion:
By increasing the R.P.M , concentration of gases like concentration of COx and NOx
aslo increases.It is also concluded that COx and NOx are produced due to
28
incomplete burning of fuel. If fuel is completely burn no COx and NOx will be
produced.
Experiment no.9
Objective:
To calculate the brake power of a diesel engine and torque against engine speed.
Apparatus:
Dynamometer
Diesel engine
Tachometer
Theory:
For example, the power produced by an engine, motor or other prime mover can be calculated by simultaneously
measuring torque and rotation speed (R.P.M).
There are many types of dynamometer:
Absorption dynamometer
Engine dynamometer
Eddy current dynamometer
Power dynamometer
29
Hysteresis dynamometer

at output shaft.
Torque meter:
Tachometer:
30
Applications:
Engine dynamometer:
One of the most important type of dynamometer is engine dynamometer. It is directly attached to the engine of the
car chassis dynamometer is another type of specific dynamometer. Which is used to measure the twisting movement
and the power or energy emitted by the power train of an automobile directly from the wheels or the drive wheels.
This should be done without the removal of the engine from the framework of the vehicle.
The classification of the dynamometer is also done on the basis of the style of the absorption unit or driver or the
absorber used by a vehicle.
The dynamometers that are used only for absorption can be connected with the universal dynamometer. There are
various types of absorption or driver unit.
EC dynamometer:
EC dynamometer is the most commonly used dynamometer in modern chassis systems. They are capable of
changing the load most efficiently at a rapid speed. Most of them require an external cooling system where as some,
although very few have an automatic cooling system. Ina good model, 5 amps at 220 vac can give more or less 150
HP load. Eddy current dynamometer has a core made of iron which rotate in the magnetic field are to produce the
twisting movement known as torque. Due to this technique present in the eddy motor current stopping a motor is not
feasible.
Power dynamometer:
Power dynamometer is another kind which is very similar to eddy current. The only difference between the former
and the latter is that a magnetic powder is present in the space between coil and rotor. The fluctuation lines generate
metal chains which are continuously built up.
31
These chains are broken due to twisting movement. The seed of power dynamometer is restricted due to indulgence
of heat.
Hysteresis dynamometer:
The third important type of absorption dynamometer is hysteresis dynamometer. It uses the rotor made of steel which
moves in between the fluctuation lines which are further in between magnetic poles. It enables the torque to be
produced at the speed of zero and also in full speed. The air that is forced in produces heat.
The electric motor or generator is also another type. It adjusts the speed of the drive. It can have both alternating and
direct current motor. This motor when prepared properly with proper mechanism can be used s universal motor. It
can also transfer the power to electric current if the situation demands.
Procedure:
Turn on the dynamometer, set R.P.M. at 2800 and torque is noted on torque meter.
Break power can be calculated as
B.P.= 2NT/60
Gradually load and R.P.M is increased and torque is calculated.
Calculate the brake power by formula and draw graph between R.P.M and torque & R.P.M and brake power.
32

Sr.
R.P.M
Torque
Brake power
No.
(N)
(Nm)
(watt)
2800
2700
.1x10
282
2600
.2x10
544
2500
0.7x10
1831
2400
1.1x10
2763
2300
1.4x10
3370
Sample Calculation:
Brake Power=2NT/60
B.P=2(3.14)(2800)(.1*10)/60
B.P=282 watt
Graph:
33
Conclusion:
Torque and R.P.M has inverse relation. When torque decreases on shaft R.P.M
Increases and vice versa. When brake power increases the R.P.M of engine decreases.
Torque and brake power has direct relation with each other when torque increases
Brake power also increases and vice versa.
Experiment no.10
Objective:
34
To determine diesel engine characteristics under varying load and constant R.P.M.
Apparatus:
Dynamometer;
Diesel engine;
Tachometer;
Torque meter.
Theory
Throttle:
In an aviation context, throttle is more correctly called a thrust lever.
35

at output shaft.
Torque meter:
Tachometer:
Applications:
Procedure:
Make the R.P.M of an engine constant and note the reading.
Now increase the torque on the shaft and open the throttle valve more to gain its constant R.P.M.
36
By increasing the torque, the throttle valve is also opened more and more.
Note the valve of throttle against the torque.
Calculate the brake power from the torque and fixed R.P.M. by
B.P.= 2NT/60

Sr.
Throttle
R.P.M
Torque
Brake power
No.
(%age)
(N)
(T)
(watt)
20
2500
30
2500
.2x10
523.33
40
2500
.6x10
1570
50
2500
.9x10
2355
60
2500
1.1x10
2878.33
Sample Calculation:
Brake power=2NT/60
B.P=2(3.14)(2800)(.2*10)/60
B.P=523.33 watt
Graph:
37
Conclusion:
when load on the engine increases we must open the throttle valve more to maintain
the engine at constant R.P.M. At constant R.P.M brake power is directly dependent on
throttle valve. When we open the throttle valve more widely more brake power
increases.
38
Experiment no. 11
Objective:
Classification and Parts of Internal Combustion Engine.
Theory:
Internal combustion engines can be classified on a number of basis:
Application;
39
Basic Engine Design;

Operating Cycle;
Working Cycle;
Valve/Port Design and Location;
Fuel;
Mixture Preparation;
Ignition;
Stratification of Charge;
Combustion Chamber Design;
Method of Load Control;
Cooling.
Parts of a Diesel internal combustion engine:

A diesel engine is made up of hundreds of moving and stationary parts but most important of them are discussed as
follows.
Intake manifold:
An inlet or intake manifold is the part of an engine that supplies the fuel/airmixture to the cylinders. The primary
function of the intake manifold is to evenly distribute the combustion mixture (or just air in a direct injection engine)
to each intake port in the cylinder head(s).
Even distribution is important to optimize the efficiency and performance of the engine. It may also serve as a mount
for the carburetor, throttle body, fuel injectors and other components of the engine.
The intake manifold has historically been manufactured from aluminum or cast iron, but use of composite plastic
materials is gaining popularity.
Cylinder head:
40
The cylinder head sits above the cylinders on top of thecylinder block. It closes in the top of the cylinder, forming
the combustion chamber. This joint is sealed by a head gasket. In most engines, the head also provides space for the
passages that feed air and fuel to the cylinder, and that allow the exhaust to escape. The head can also be a place to
mount the valves, spark plugs, and fuel injectors.
Internally, the cylinder head has passages called ports or tracts for the fuel/air mixture to travel to the inlet valves
from the intake manifold, and for exhaust gases to travel from the exhaust valves to the exhaust manifold. In a watercooled engine, the cylinder head also contains integral ducts and passages for the engines' coolant - usually a mixture
of water and antifreeze - to facilitate the transfer of excess heat away from the head, and therefore the engine in
general.
Head gasket:
A head gasket is a gasket that sits between the engine block and cylinder head(s) in an internal combustion engine.
Its purpose is to seal the cylinders to ensure maximum compression and avoid leakage of coolant or engine oil into
the cylinders; as such, it is the most critical sealing application in any engine, and, as part of the combustion
chamber, it shares the same strength requirements as other combustion chamber components.
These are all vital, but must never be allowed to intermix. Apart from sealing the cylinder, the head gasket also seals
water and oil conduits between the head and block. Any connectivity between them will cause engine failure, or
significant problems like burning oil (smoke from the exhaust). Blue exhaust smoke may be indicative of oil
burning. White exhaust smoke is an indicator of coolant burning, another sign of head gasket wear.
Blown Head Gasket Symptoms:
Coolant leaking externally from bellow the exhaust manifold
White smoke from the exhaust pipe
Overheating engine
Bubbles in the radiator or coolant overflow tank
White milky oil
Significant loss of coolant with no visible leaks
Piston:
The piston performs the following functions:
Forms a movable gas-fight plug to confine the charge in the cylinder;
Transmits to the connecting rod the forces generated by combustion of
the charge;
Forms a guide and a bearing for the small end of the connecting rod,
and takes the lateral thrust due to the obliquity of that rod.
For the designer, the major problem is catering for the variation in operating temperatures. Additionally, the weight
41
of the piston must be kept to minimum to reduce vibration and the inertia loading on bearings, and to avoid friction
and other losses entailed in accelerating the pistons in both directions.
Piston rings:
The main functions of piston rings are:
To form a pressure seal, preventing blow-by of the gases, including combustion products at high temperatures;
The transfer of heat from the piston to the cylinder walls;
Control of the flow of oil in adequate quantity to the skirt and to the tings themselves, while preventing
excessive amounts from entering the combustion chamber.
Ring types:
There are two types of piston rings:
Compression Rings (Top and Second ring)
Oil Control Rings
There are different combinations of numbers of these rings with respect to the designs of engines. Some engines
require 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6 piston rings per piston.
Functions:
Piston Rings must complete 3 principle functions in engines.
Seal off the combustion chamber from the crankcase;
Limit and control oil consumption;
Transfer the heat absorbed by the piston in the combustion process to the cooled cylinder walls.
Top ring:
This is referred to as the upper compression ring. This ring operates under the harshest conditions with respect to
thermal and mechanical loading. Its job is to form a gas-tight barrier
between the piston and
cylinder wall in order to seal the combustion chamber. They also transfer
the heat to the cooled
cylinder walls like a bridge.
Second ring:
This is referred as the lower compression ring. One of its job is to work together with the top ring in order to seal the
combustion chamber and transfer the heat to the cylinder walls. They also
control
oil
consumption.
42
The scrapper or second compression ring behaves as both a compression ring and oil control ring.
Oil control ring:

Oil Control Rings regulate and limit oil consumption. They scrape off
from the cylinder walls and return it to the crankcase. They are designed to
ensure piston and ring lubrication.
excess lubricating oil

provide a thin oil film to
Improper control results in cooking (carbon residues) or blue smoke in the

excessive oil consumption.
exhaust gas and results
Gudgeon pin:
The gudgeon pin is of case-hardened steel; usually it is hollow and the conventional way of supporting it in two
internal bosses on the piston walls. Many different ways of securing the gudgeon pin against end movement have
been tried and abandoned, the device now most generally used being the spring circlip. Sometimes tightness of fit is
relied. An alternative arrangement is to secure the pin in the small end of the connecting rod and allow it to turn in
long piston bosses without bushes, while a 'floating'pin has also been used which is free to turn in both rod and
piston, end pads being fitted. When the connecting rod is free on the gudgeon pin, a phosphor bronze bush has to be
provided; this bush is a tight fit in the eye of the rod. The small end bush develops very little wear and requires
renewal only at long intervals.
In
view
of
the
very
heavy
alternating
loading
of
the
gudgeon
pins
of
compression-ignition engines, special care is taken to avoid risk of fatigue cracks originating at the surface of the
bore, by broaching or honing or rapid-traverse grinding with the object of eliminating circumferential tool marks.
The external beating surface is finished to a very high degree of accuracy to ensure correct fit in the piston and
connecting rod.
Connecting rod:
The connecting rod or rod connects the piston to the crank or crankshaft. Together with the crank, they form a simple
mechanism that converts reciprocating motion into rotating motion.
Small end and big end:

The small end attaches to the piston pin, gudgeon pin or wrist pin, which is currently most often press fit into the
connecting rod but can swivel in the piston, a "floating wrist pin" design. The big end connects to the bearing journal
on the crank throw. Typically there is a pinhole bored through the bearing and the big end of the connecting rod so
that the pressurized lubricating motor oil squirts out onto thethrust side of the cylinder wall to lubricate the travel of
the pistons and piston rings. Most small two-stroke engines and some single cylinder four-stroke engines avoid the
need for a pumped lubrication system by using a rolling-element bearing instead, however this requires the
crankshaft to be pressed apart and then back together in order to replace a connecting rod.
Crank shaft:
A crankshaft is a mechanical part able to perform a conversion between reciprocating motion and rotational. In
a reciprocating engine, it translates reciprocating motion of the piston into rotational motion; whereas in
areciprocating compressor, it converts the rotational motion into reciprocating motion. In order to do the conversion
43
between two motions, the crankshaft has "crank throws" or "crankpins", additional bearing surfaces whose axis is
offset from that of the crank, to which the "big ends" of the connecting rods from each cylinder attach.
It is typically connected to a flywheel to reduce the pulsation characteristic of the four-stroke cycle, and sometimes
a torsional or vibrational damper at the opposite end, to reduce the torsional vibrations often caused along the length
of the crankshaft by the cylinders farthest from the output end acting on the torsional elasticity of the metal.
Crank case/oil sump/lower engine block:

Also called oil sump and lower engine block, the crankcase is the housing for the crankshaft. The enclosure forms
the largest cavity in the engine and is located below the cylinder(s), which in a multi-cylinder engine is usually
integrated into one or several cylinder. Crankcases have often been discrete parts, but more often they are integral
with the cylinder bank(s), forming an engine block. Nevertheless, the area around the crankshaft is still usually called
the crankcase. Crankcases and other basic engine structural components (e.g., cylinders, cylinder blocks, cylinder
heads, and integrated combinations thereof) are typically made of cast iron or cast aluminum via sand casting. Today
the foundry processes are usually highly automated, with a few skilled workers to manage the casting of thousands
of parts.
A crankcase often has an opening in the bottom to which an oil pan is attached with a gasketed bolted joint. Some
crankcase designs fully surround the crank's main bearing journals, whereas many others form only one half, with a
bearing cap forming the other. Both the crankcase and any rigid cast oil pan often have reinforcing ribs cast into
them, as well as bosses which are drilled and tapped to receive mounting screws/bolts for various other engine parts.
Besides protecting the crankshaft and connecting rods from foreign objects, the crankcase serves other functions,
depending on engine type. These include keeping the motor oil contained, usually hermetically or nearly
hermetically (and in the hermetic variety, allowing the oil); providing the rigid structure with which to join the
engine to the transmission; and in some cases, even constituting part of the frame of the vehicle (such as in many
farm tractors).
44
Experiment no.12
Objective:
To study the cooling system of I.C engine.
Theory
Cooling system:
Cooling systems comprise of water pump and cavities. We know that in case of Internal Combustion engines,
combustion of air and fuel takes place inside the engine cylinder and hot gases are generated. The temperature of
gases will be around 2300-2500C. This is a very high temperature and may result into burning of oil lm between
the moving parts and may result into seizing or welding of the same.So, this temperature must be reduced to about
I80-200C at which the engine will work most efficiently. Too much cooling is also not desirable since it reduces the
thermal efciency. So, the object of cooling system is to keep the engine running at its most efcient operating
temperature.
It is to be noted that the engine is quite inefcient when it is cold and hence the cooling system is designed in such a
way that it prevents cooling when the engine is warming expand till it attains to maximum efcient operating
temperature, then it starts cooling.
It is also to be noted that:
(a) About 20-25% of total heat generated is used for producing brake power
(useful work).
(b) Cooling system is designed to remove 30-35% of total heat.
(c) Remaining heat is lost in friction and carried away by exhaust gases.
45
Air cooled system:

Air cooled system is generally used in small engines say up to 15-20 kW and in aero plane engines. In this system
ns or extended surfaces are provided on the cylinder walls, cylinder head, etc. Heat generated due to combustion in
the engine cylinder will be conducted to the ns and when the air ows over the ns, heat will be dissipated to air.
The amount of heat dissipated to air depends upon:
(a) Amount of air owing through the ns.
(b) Fin surface area.
(c) Thermal conductivity of metal used for ns.
Advantages of Air Cooled System:

Following are the advantages of air cooled system:
(a) Radiator/pump is absent hence the system is light.
(b) In case of water cooling system there are leakages, but in this case
there are no leakages.
(c) Coolant and antifreeze solutions are not required.
(d) This system can be used in cold climates, where if water is used it
may freeze.
Disadvantages of Air Cooled System:

(a) Comparatively less efcient.
(b) It is used in aero planes and motorcycle engines where the engines are
exposed to air directly.
Water Cooling System:

In this method, cooling water jackets are provided around the cylinder, cylinder head,valve seats etc. The water when
circulated through the jackets, it absorbs heat ofcombustion. This hot water will then be cooling in the radiator
partially by a fan andpartially by the ow developed by the forward motion of the vehicle. The cooled wateris again
46
recirculated through the water jackets.
Generator:
It works by taking up power from the crankshaft using a belt or gear arrangement. It produces power for AC system,
acid battery recharging, lights and circulatory systems pumps.
47
Case study 4
Objective:
To study the lubrication system.
Theory
Engine lubrication system:
When any two metal surfaces are in contact with each other and a relative motion takes place between them, then
force of friction is developed however smooth the surfaces may appear to be.The frictional force developed in an
I.C.Engine which consists of no. of sliding & rotating components like bearings, pistons, valve gears etc. may be so
large that it may cause excessive wear & tear due to which replacement of components is very necessary. A large
amount of the power developed by the engine may also be used to overcome this force of friction. Due to friction,
heat is also generated. Due to generation of heat, the temp. of various components may rise to so high a value that a
complete
seizure
of
the
engine
components
may
take
place.
Therefore, in order to overcome these difficulties, a thin film of a suitable lubricant is interposed where the metalmetal contact takes place. This thin film reduces the friction considerably by keeping the two metal surfaces apart
from each other and thus wear, tear & temp. developed are also reduced greatly.
Lubrication:
To supply lubricating oil between the moving parts is simply termed as lubrication. Its purpose is to
48
1. To reduce friction between the moving parts to a minimum value, thereby to reduce power loss due to friction.
2.
To
minimize
wear
of
moving
parts
as
far
as
possible.
3. To provide cooling effect by acting as a cooling medium & remove heat from various parts.
4. To form an effective seal between the piston rings & cylinder walls and thus prevent the escape of gases from the
cylinder
and
avoid
power
loss.
5. To keep the engine parts clean by washing off and carrying away the impurities from the engine parts.
6. To provide cushion (protection) to the engine by absorbing the shocks developed by sudden application of load
and
instant
combustion
of
fuel
in
the
cylinder
of
the
engine.
7.
To
reduce
noise
by
absorbing
shocks
between
the
bearings
and
engine
parts.
8. To prevent metallic components from corrosive attack by the acid formed during the combustion process.
Types
of
Lubricants:
Lubricants
are
at
following
three
types.
1.
Solid:
graphic,
mica
etc.
2.
Semi
solid:
grease
3. Liquid: mineral oil, vegetable oil, animal oil etc.
Graphite is often mixed with oil to lubricate automobile spring. Graphite is also used as a cylinder lubricant.
Grease is used for chassis lubrication.
Mineral oils are almost used for engine lubrication.
Lubrication System:
It is the system by means of which various engine parts are lubricated.
Engine Lubrication System: Engine lubrication system is mainly of following types.
1. Splash system
2. Pressure system
3. Petroil system
Splash System:
In this system of lubrication the lubricating oil is stored in an oil sump. A scoop or dipper is made in the lower part of
the connecting rod. When the engine runs, the dipper dips in the oil once in every revolution of the crank shaft, the
oil is splashed on the cylinder wall. Due to this action engine walls, piston ring, crank shaft bearings are lubricated.
Pressure System:
In this system of lubrication, the engine parts are lubricated under pressure feed. The lubricating oil is stored in a
separate tank (in case of dry sump system) or in the sump (in case of wet sump system), from where an oil pump
(gear pump) delivers the oil to the main oil gallery at a pressure of 2-4 kg/cm2 through an oil filter.
The oil from the main gallery goes to main bearing, from where some of it falls back to the sump after lubricating the
main bearing and some is splashed to lubricate the cylinder walls and remaining goes through a hole to the crank pin.
From the crank pin the lubricating oil goes to the piston pin through a hole in the connecting rod, where it lubricates
the
piston
rings.
For lubricating cam shaft and liming gears the oil is led trough a separate oil line from the oil gallery.
The oil pressure gauge used in the system indicates the oil pressure in the system. Oil filter & strainer in the system
clear
off
the
oil
from
dust,
metal
particles
and
other
harmful
particles.
Petrol System:
49
This system of lubrication is generally adopted in two stroke petrol engine line scooter and motor cycle. It is the
simplest form of lubricating system. It does not consist of any separate part like oil pump for the purpose of
lubrication.
In this system the lubricating oil is mixed into the fuel (petrol) while filling in the petrol tank of the vehicle in a
specified ratio (ratio of fuel and lubricating oil is from 12:1 to 50:10 as per manufacturers specifications or
recommendations.
When the fuel goes into the crank chamber during the engine operation, the oil particles go deep into the bearing
surfaces due to gravity and lubricate then. The piston rings, cylinder walls, piston pin etc. are lubricated in the same
way.
If the engine is allowed to remain unused for a considerable time, the lubricating oil separates oil from petrol & leads
to clogging (blocking) of passages in the carburetor, resulting the engine starting trouble. This is the main
disadvantage of this system.
Parts of lubricating system:

Oil sump:
It is the lowest part of the crank chamber. It provides a covering for the crank shaft and contains oil. It is usually
made of steel pressings. Sometimes it is made of aluminum or cast iron. It contains a drain plug at its bottom to drain
out the oil.
Oil pump:
Generally, gear pump is used for pressure lubrication of I.C Engine. The function of the oil pump is to supply oil
under pressure to various engine parts to be lubricated.
Gear pump:
It consists of two messed spur gears enclosed in a housing. There is a very little clearance between the gear teeth and
housing. One gear is attached to a shaft which is driven through suitable gear from the cam shaft or crank shaft of the
engine. The other gear is free to rotates on its own bearing. When the pump is in operation, the oil is driven between
the gear teeth from the inlet side to the outlet side. The pressure & quantity of the oil supplied by the pump can be
varied by varying the speed of the gears at which they rotate. It delivers oil at a pressure of about 2-4 kg/cm2. A
pressure relief valve is also provided in many oil pump to relieve the excessive pressure due to high engine speed.
Oil filter:
As its name indicates, lubricating oil is filtered through it. The function of filter is to remove the impurities from the
lubricating
oil
which
may
damage
the
engine
bearings.
It consists of a filtering element placed in metallic casing. At the center of the filtering element a perforated metal
tube is fitted which collect the filtered oil and supply it to oil gallery.
Oil strainer:
It is simply a wire mesh screen. It is attached to the inlet of the pump so that the oil going into the oil pump is free
from impurities.
50
Experiment no.15
Objective:
To study the braking system of I.C engine.
Braking System
Introduction:
Brakes are one of the most important control components of the vehicle. They contribute very much in running and
control of the vehicle. On the efficiency of brakes depend the lives and comfort not only of driver and passengers but
other persons moving on the road. Furthermore, it is the fact that owing to recent improvements in the braking
mechanism may be chiefly attributed the increased speeds of the modern cars on the road.
51
Function and principle:

The various functions performed by the brakes are as follows
To stop the moving vehicle in the shortest possible distance.
To help in controlling the speed of the vehicle and to reduce the speed and turnings and other crowded places.
To hold the vehicle in its stationary position, without the operator, after it has been brought to a stop.
Force of friction plays an important role in the operation of the brakes. Friction appears b/w two surfaces in contact
opposes the motion. So when a moving vehicle is stopped by the brakes kinetic energy of the wheel is converted into
heat energy.
In a moving vehicle, the friction b/w brake drum and brake shoes slows down the rotation of wheel or stops the
vehicle. In fact it is friction b/w the tyres and road which slow or stops the motion of the vehicle.
Necessity of breaking system:
The behavior of moving bodies according to NEWTONS first law of motion demonstrates the need for some
braking force as the 1st law of motion states that a body at rest tends to remain at rest while a body in motion tends to
remain in motion; with constant speed and in a straight line unless acted upon by an external force.
In an automobile, if the pressure from accelerator pedal is removed, the vehicle tends to slow up because of wind
resistance, drag of engine and road friction. These forces, of course, would stop the vehicle but in the present day
traffic, this would be quite unpractical and dangerous. The braking system provides added friction to overcome
motion and to slow up or to stop the vehicle. The momentum or kinetic energy developed by the vehicle when in
motion is converted to heat energy by the friction of brake shoes and drums which is dissipated into the surrounding
air.
Features of an efficient breaking system:

All the components and levers of the braking systemshould be strong enough to take the mechanical stresses and
strain which are encountered during brake actuation.
The material of the brake lining should be of good quality for providing sufficient friction so that the vehicle can
be stopped within the possible shortest distance.
52
The wear and tear of the material of the brake lining should be minimum for its longer life.
Due to the rubbing action of the brake shoes along with lining against drum, large amount of heat is generated
due to friction. The brake design system should be capable of dissipating the heat very quickly.
No braking system can work at its best through worn out or incorrectly inflated tyres. Good tyres are, therefore a
prime essential for efficient for braking.
Classification of brakes:
Brakes may be classified as follows:
Mechanical brakes.
Hydraulic brakes.
Air brakes.
Electric brakes.
Vacuum brakes.
Mechanical break:
In a mechanical system the pressure from the brake pedal is transmitted to the wheel brakes by means of cables,
cams and linkage etc. the cam operates the brake shoe against the revolving brake drum to stop or slow down the
motion of the car. The cam itself is actuated through various mechanical linkages. Each brake shoe is pivoted on
anchor pin and is made to contact a cam, so that when cam is turned, the shoes are forced towards the brake drum.
On the outside of the shoes, brake linings are riveted to it. Lining increases the co efficient of friction and also
prevents, the wearing away of the metallic surface of the brake shoe. Also when the brake linings are worn out, they
can be replaced.
Air brakes:
The operation of air brakes is similar to the hydraulic brakes except in their case compressed air is used to apply
brakes instead of hydraulic pressure. Air brakes are commonly used on heavy vehicles, like trucks, buses etc.
The complete layout circuit is shown in fig. The compressor takes air from the atmosphere through the filter and the
compressed air is sent to the reservoir through the unloader valve. The valve gets lifted at a predetermined reservoir
pressure (about 900 KPa) and relieves the compressor of load. From the reservoir the air goes to various accessories
and to the brake chambers located at each wheel. The control of brake valve is with the driver who can control the
intensity of braking according to the requirements. When the brakes are applied, the air pressure in the reservoir
decreases. When the pressure drops to 700 KPa, the governor again cuts in the compressor to raise system pressure.
When air system pressure falls to about 400 KPa, a warning in the form of a buzzer, is sounded.
53
The main components of air brake system are:

Air compressor with air filter to compress atmosphere air.
Unloader valve to maintain a set pressure.
Air reservoir to store compressed air at specified pressure.
Brake valve to control the intensity of braking.
Brake chambers are installed at each wheel to convert air pressure into useful mechanical energy.
Advantages of air breakes::

1.
2.
3.
Air brakes are more powerful than mechanical or hydraulic brakes, are exclusively used in heavy vehicles.
The air brake simplifies the chassis design. The components of the system can be located on the chassis
anywhere and are interconnected by a pipeline.
Apart from braking, the compressed air from the reservoir can be used for tyre inflation, windscreen wipers,
horns and many other accessories.
Disadvantages of air brakes:

1. Air brakes involve more parts.
2. Air compressors uses engine power.
Electrical brakes:
This types of brakes are not very popular, as service brakes. These are commonly used on trailers. The current from
the battery is utilized to energize an electromagnet within the brake drum. This actuates a cam to expand the brake
shoes. When current stops, the cam and brake shoes are returned to the release position by retractor springs. The
severity of braking is controlled by means of a rheostat, which is operated by the driver through the foot pedal.
Hydraulic pressure has also been used to apply electric brakes. As pedal is pressed more, hydraulic pressure actuates
the rheostat to increase current to the electromagnet.
Advantages of electric brakes:

1. The operating linkage is simplified in electrical brakes. They require only one cable for each drum.
2. There is less time lag b/w the pressing of the brake pedal and application of brakes at the wheels.
54
3. For tailor brakes, this type offers much simplified connection; simply one cable has to be carried to the tailor
side.
Engine exhaust brakes:

This type of brake is used on Tata vehicles as an auxiliary brake. It is meant for use while travelling on a length
downhill gradient and in heavy traffic. It becomes necessary to slow down continuously over a large distance.
Fig. shows the simplified layout of this type of brake. The main components of this brake are the pressure
regulator, a foot control valve for actuating the exhaust brake, and an air cylinder wherein the compressed air
operates the linkage to actuate the butterfly valve in the exhaust manifold and also the linkage to actuate the control
lever of the governor.
The brake comes into operation when the foot control valve pressed and remains engaged as long as this valve is
kept pressed. The moment the foot is taken off the valve, the brake gets released. When the foot control valve is
pressed, the compressed air from the air tank enters the air cylinder, where it operates a linkage to close the butterfly
valve at the exhaust manifold. This brake is used vehicle speed of 40kmph.
Hand brake:
Hand brakes or the parking brakes operate independently of the foot brakes. These are used for parking on slopes and
during emergency. Generally these brakes use the same brake shoes as are for the main foot brakes. But in many
cases, completely independent hand brakes including brake shoes are also provided. Hand brake is generally located
on the side of the drivers seat.
Summary:
Efficient brakes are necessary for the life and comfort of the driver and the passenger. There are many types of
brakes but mechanical brakes of shoe and drum type and hydraulic brakes are the most common types of brakes used
in automobiles. Vacuum brakes using partial vacuum as operating power for brakes is also used in some vehicles.
The adjustment of shoes bleeding of brakes to purge air are very important operations for efficient and reliable
working of the brakes. Air brake and electric brakes are new developments but not popular.
55
Experiment no.16
Objective:
To study the steering system of I.C engine.
Steering System
Principle and function:
The purpose of the steering system is to allow the driver to control the direction of the vehicle by turning the front
wheels. This is done by means of steering wheel, a steering column which transmits the rotation of steering wheel to
the steering gears, the steering gears which increase the rotational force of the steering wheel in order to transmit
greater torque to the steering linkage, and the steering linkage which transmits the steering gear movement to the
front wheels.
The relative motion b/w the wheels of a vehicle at the road surface should be a pure rolling type so that wear
of the tyres is minimum and uniform. When the vehicle is moving on a curved path, the steering gear must be so
designed that the paths of the points of contact of each wheel with the ground are concentric circular arcs. For proper
56
steering the axis of rotation of all the wheels should meet at G i.e. the instantaneous center of rotation of vehicle. To
satisfy this the inner wheels should be turned through a greater angle as shown in fig.
Requirements of steering system:

The steering system plays, together with the suspension system, an important role in ensuring easy, comfortable
driving all the way from the low speed range to the high speed ranges. The drive train transmits the power from the
engine to the driving wheels to move the car forward; the steering system steers the car in the desired direction; and
the brake system ensures positive, stable slowing and stopping.
(1) Excellent Maneuverability:

When the car is cornering on a narrow, twisting road, the steering system must be able to turn the front wheels
sharply yet easily and smoothly.
(2) Proper steering effort:

If nothing is done to prevent it, steering effort will be greater when the car is stopped and will decrease as the speed
of car increases. Therefore, in order to obtain easier steering and better feel of the road, the steering should be made
lighter at low speeds and heavier at high speeds.
(3) Smooth recovery:

While the car is turning, the driver must hold the steering wheel firmly. After the turn is completed, however,
recovery that is the return of the wheels to the straight ahead position should occur smoothly as the driver relaxes the
force with which he is turning the steering wheel.
(4) Minimum Transmition of shock from road surface:

Loss of steering wheel control and transmission of kickback due to road surface roughen must not occur.
Steering gear:
There are two types of steering gear mechanisms:
1. DAVIS STEERING GEAR
2. ACKERMANN STEERING GEAR
The main difference b/wthe two steering gear mechanisms is that the Davis steering gear has sliding pairs, whereas
57
the Ackermann steering gear has only turning pairs. The sliding pair has more friction than the turning pair,
therefore, the Davis steering gear will wear out earlier and become inaccurate after certain time. Although, the
Ackermann steering gear is not mathematically accurate except in the positions, contrary to the Davis steering gear
which is mathematically correct in all positions. However, the Ackermann steering gearis preferred to the Davis
steering gear.
Types of steering gear:

The steering gear converts the turning motion of the steering wheel into the to-and-fro motion of the link rod of the
steering linkage. Moreover it also provides the necessary leverage so that the driver is able to steer the vehicle
without fatigue.
(1) Worm and wheel steering gear:

The movement of the steering wheel turns the worm, which in turn drives the worm wheel. Attached to the wheel
spindle rigidly is drop arm, so that a rotation of the steering wheel corresponds to a linear motion of the drop arm
end, which is connected to the link rod.
(2) Cam and double roller steering gear:

This type of steering gear is employed in Ashok Leyland vehicles in India. Its working is similar to the worm
wheel type described above: the steering ratio as used in the vehicle 24.7: 1.
(3) Worm and nut steering gear:

The construction of a worm and nut type of steering gear is shown in fig. again the steering wheel rotation rotates
the worm which in turn moves the nut along its length. This causes the drop arm end to move linearly, further
moving the link rod and thus steering the wheels.
(4) Rack and pinion steering gear:

This type of steering gear is used on light vehicles like cars and in power steering. Maruti 800 cars employ this
steering gear. It is simply light and responsive. It occupies very small space and uses lesser number of linkage
components compared to the worm and wheel type of gear.
58
Power steering:
The driver supplies all the steering force in manual steering of vehicles making use of mechanical advantage
available in the steering gear and the linkage. In big and heavy vehicles, wide and low pressure tyres are used which
require high steering force and steering ratio. A great deal of physical strength is required especially in parking of
these vehicles. The problem is overcome by the use of power steering where hydraulic pressure is used to assist the
driver.
The power steering system consists of vane type hydraulic pump driven by a belt from the engine
crankshaft. The oil from reservoir is pumped to the power piston of servomotor through a control valve. The
installation of power system is shown in fig.
There are two types of power steering systems.
(1) Integral power steering system:

The power servomotor is contained within the steering gear housing.
(2) Linkage power steering system:

The power servomotor is connected between the frame and the steering linkage.
Rack and pinion power steering unitl:

An integral-type rack and pinion steering unit is shown in fig. Power steering fluid under pressure from the pump
passes through the control value and into the cylinder. As the steering wheel is turned to the or right, oil pressure is
transferred to the left or right seal to assist the manual steering.
59
Recirculating ball integral power steering unit:

Recirculating ball integral power steering unit show in fig. The worm bearing acts as the poison of the power
servomotor. The pressurized oil from the pump passes through a control value to to select right left or side of worm
bearing nut to give power bearing nut to give power assistance to right or left steering action.
Summary:
The transmission system transmits power from engine to the driving wheels to move the car forward; the
steering system steers, the car in the desired direction. This is done by means of steering wheel, a steering column,
the steering gears and steering linkage. The design of steering system depends upon the data type of the vehicle. The
Davis of steering Gear is mathematically accurate in all position but has more friction due to sliding pair, whereas
Ackermann steering Gear, through mathematically not accurate is preferred due to presence of less friction. There are
so many types of steering gear; worm and nut, worm and wheel, worm and roller lack and pinion type used in
various makes of automobiles, Rack and pinion steering system is used for Maruti 800 cars.
60
61
Experiment no.17
Objective:
To study the cut away MCPHERSON strut type suspension system.
Suspention system
Introduction:
The basic structure of an automobile consists of the
Frame
The suspension system
Axles
Wheels
Tyres
It provide support for other items of the vehicle. The rider of the vehicle can experience the jolts by its forward
movement and jerks due to unevenness of the road surface. These jolts and jerks are partially controlled by the spring
mounting of the front and rear axles, shock absorbers which dampen out sudden recoils in the springs, the paddling
and springs in the vehicles seats . The side swings are decreased by the chassis cross members and proper
distribution of the weight of the chassis and the body b/w the front and rear wheels.
The suspension system connects the body of the vehicle with the wheels and restricts direct impact of
the wheels to the chassis and body. The suspension system is made up of springs, shock absorbers and linkage so as
to allow the wheels and tyres to follow road roughness without exceedingly raising the frame and transmitting shock.
Frame:
The frame is a rigid structure that forms a skeleton to hold all the major units together. The engine is mounted in the
front of the frame and is connected to the clutch and transmission to form a compact power assembly. The unit is
fastened to the frame through rubber cushioned motor mounts to lessen the transfer of engine vibration. The
transmission is connected to the final drive gears through the propeller shafts and unit joints. The final drive gears
and differential are enclosed in a housing that is integral with a rear axle housing. The housing is attached to the
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frame through the rear springs. The two axles leading from the differential to the rear wheels revolve inside the rear
axle housing.
Suspension components:
The suspension system has the following principle components:
Springs:
To neutralize the shocks from the road surface. The main springs used are:
Leaf springs.
Coil springs.
Torsion bars.
Air springs.
Dampers improve:
comfort of the passengers by limiting the free oscillation of the springs. The following types of the shock absorbers
are used:
Telescope hydraulic shock absorbers.
Pneumatic shock absorbers.
Stabilizers bar:
Prevent lateral swaying of the vehicle. The following types of stabilizer bars are used:
Sway bar.
Anti-roll bar.
Linkage system:
To hold the various components of the suspension system and control the longitudinal and lateral movements of the
wheels.
Springs:
Springs are the most important component of the suspension system.
(a) Leaf spring:
Leaf springs are generally used for rigid axle suspension of trucks and other heavy duty vehicles. Leaf springs are
used at the rear for some passengers cars. Trucks often use leaf springs at the front.
Working :
One end of the spring assembly is attached to the frame through a spring bolt passing through the spring eye. The
other end is secured through a shackle. The shackle helps in accommodating the change in length of the spring.
When the wheel encounters a bump, the spring expands and increase in length takes place which is accommodated
by the shackle. Similarly, the reverse process of contraction is accommodated by the shackle. Bronze bushes are
generally fitted in the spring eye through which the bolt passes. In some cases rubber is used in place of bushes. The
rubber bushes are quiet in operation and require no lubrication.
(b) Coil spring:
Coil springs are generally used in independent suspension system in cars and light duty vehicles. An ideal spring
should absorb the road shock rapidly and returns to its normal position slowly. This satisfactory rendering quality is
achieved by using a fairly soft coil spring with a shock absorber.
63
Operation:
When the wheel of automobile experiences a bump on the road surface, the spring compresses to absorb the shock
energy. When the wheel comes up on an even road surface, the coil spring regains its original shape and length. The
process of compression and elongation action continues as per road surface condition. The action of coil spring is
shown in fig.
(c) Torsion bar:

The torsion bar is a round steel rod which performs the spring action by resisting to twisting. The torsion bar twists
and untwists to control wheel movement as shown in fig. Some front suspension system use torsion bar in place of a
coil spring.
Operation:
The torsion bar is attached to the frame at one end and control arm at the other. As the wheel moves up and down, the
torsion bar twists. When the torsion bar untwists the wheel returns to its normal position.
(d) Air springs:
Air suspension is used on some luxury cars and sports cars. This air spring system replaces the conventional spring
system. This system has excellent cornering, levelling and riding characteristics. It is also lighter in weight than
conventional suspension. However, this system requires high repair costs and complex troubleshooting procedures.
The system must be turned off before lifting the car off the ground.
System operation:
64
An air compressor belt driven from engine supplies high pressure air to the system.
The same pressure is maintained in the air receiver with the help of the air relief valve.
The air pressure is reduced to 12 bar by pressure regulator and admitted to four air bags through levelling valves.
The levelling valves feed or release air from the bags to keep the car level proper.
Dampers:
Springs alone are not satisfactory for suspension system. The ideal spring for automotive suspension would be one
that would absorb road shock rapidly and then return to its normal position slowly. This is quite impossible in case
of springs, as they are by nature to oscillate. The spring must be a compromise b/w flexibility and stiffness. An
extremely flexible spring or too soft a spring would allow too much movement of frame. A stiff or a hard spring on
the other hand would give too rough a ride. Satisfactory riding qualities are attained by using a fairly soft spring in
combination with a shock absorber which acts as a damper. The shock absorbers smooth out the oscillating effect of
the springs.
(a) Telescope shock absorbers:
A telescopic tube is partially filled with a fluid. An orifice plate is introduced to restrict the flow of fluid. The
resistance to the flow of fluid imposes a drag on spring movement, quickly dampening out spring oscillations.
There are usually four shock absorbers on a car, one located near each wheel. They are called direct-acting as they
make a direct connection b/w the frame and axle. They control motion in both directions of the suspension motion,
upward movement is called rebound and downward movement of the frame is called compression.
Working:
Compression sroke:
The shock absorber during compression stroke is shown in fig.
The compression movement of the shock absorber causes the piston to move downward in the cylinder tube. The
fluid is transferred from compression chamber B to rebound chamber A. The fluid moves through outer piston hole
and opening of piston intake valve. The fluid volume equal to volume of piston rod is discharged into reserve
chamber C through compression valve. The air in reserve chamber D is compressed accordingly.
Rebound stroke:
The operating of shock absorber during rebound stroke is shown in fig. During rebound stroke, the fluid pressure in
65
compression character B will fall below the pressure in reserve chamber C. The compression valve opens and fluid
flows from reserve chamber C into compression chamber B. The fluid from rebound chamber A is transferred into
compression chamber B through inner piston holes and rebound valves.The air is reserve chamber D expands equal
to volume of piston rod moved.
Types of suspension system:

There are many types of suspension systems used for rear axle and front axle depending upon front wheel or rear
wheel drive, type of vehicle, etc. However, suspensions can be roughly divided into two types.
(a) Rigid axle suspension system:
The rigid-axle suspension is used both for front axle as well as rear axle. The two front wheels or rear wheels are
connected on a large axle that runs under the vehicle. The two wheels bounce together through the axle resulting in
rough ride for the passengers.
The main characteristics of rigid-axle suspension are as follows;
The suspension system has small number of parts.
The construction is simple.
The maintenance is simple.
It is very durable for heavy duty use.
There is little tilting of the body when turning.
There is less tyre wear.
Riding comfort is poor as the unsprung weight is great.
(b) Independent suspension:
The independent suspension allows the two wheels to move up and down independently of one another. The wheel
can move up and down and yet not lift the frame. The action of independent suspension is explained in fig. there are
various constructions of independent suspension systems.
The main characteristics of independent suspensions are as follows:
The springs support the body only. The wheels are positioned not by suspension system but by linkage.
The riding comfort and handling stability are good.
There is no axle connecting the left and right wheels.
The floor and engine mounting position can be lowered.
The vehicles centre of gravity is low.
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The construction is rather complex.

Thread and alignment change with the up-and-down motions of the wheels.
Rear suspension:
The type of rear suspension depends upon whether it has front-wheel drive or rear-wheel drive. Vehicles with rearwheel drive have live axle suspension and with front-wheel drive have independent suspension.
Coil spring rear suspension:
Coil spring rear suspensions are used both on front-wheel and rear-wheel drive cars. The system consists of two coil
springs, two shock absorbers and a track bar.
Independent rear suspension:
The system consists of coil springs, shock absorbers, control arm, tie rod, and stabilizer bar. There is no control arm.
The system is shown in fig. each wheel can move independently of the other.
Front suspension:
(a) Independent front suspension:
It is most common in modern passenger cars. Two control arms hold the wheel in a vertical position. The spring and
shock absorber connect to the frame at top and control arm at the bottom. The steering knuckle is separated from
the control arms by ball joints. The wheel can move up and down independently of the frame and wheel and tyres
are kept vertical as in fig.
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Summary:
The suspension system consisting of springs, shock absorbers, stabilizers and linkage system to neutralize shocks
from rough road surface and provide riding comfort by limiting vertical and lateral movement of the vehicle. Leaf
springs are more rigid, simple and are used for heavy and goods carriers where riding comfort is not a criterion. The
complexity of suspension system of independent suspension using helical coil springs and hydraulic shock absorbers
can be justified in luxury cars.
Experiment no.18
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Objective:
To study the transmission system.
Transmission system
Introduction:
The mechanism that transmits the power developed by engine of the automobile to the driving wheels is called the
transmission system or the power train. It is composed of the
1: Clutch.
2: Gear Box.
3: Propeller Shaft.
4: Universal Joints.
5: Rear Axle.
6: Wheels and Tyres.
The vehicle which have four wheel drive in addition include a second set of propeller shafts, universal joints,
final drives and differentials for the front units . The transmission system is shown in fig:
1) Clutch:
The clutch is provided b/w the engine and gear box as means of engaging and disengaging the engine.
Function:
1: To permit engagement and disengagement of a gear when the vehicle is stationary and the engine is running.
2: To transmit the engine power to the road wheels smoothly without jerks to the transmission system while setting
69
the vehicle in motion.

3: To permit the engaging of the gears when the vehicle is in motion without damaging the gear wheels.
Principle of operation:
The main parts of clutch are divided into these groups:
1: Driving members.
2: Driven members.
3: Operating members.
The driving members consists of a flywheel mounted on the engine crankshaft. The flywheel is bolted to a
cover which carries a pressure plate or driving disc, pressure springs and releasing levers. Thus the entire assembly
of the flywheel and the cover rotate all the times.
The driven member consists of a disc or plate called the clutch plate. It is free to slide lengthwise on the splines
of the clutch shaft. It carries friction materials on both of its surfaces.
The operating members consist of a foot pedal, linkage, release or throw-out bearing, release levers and the
spring necessary to ensure the proper operation of the clutch.
Types of clutches:
Most commonly used clutches are:
1: Friction clutch
(a) Single plate clutch
(b) Multiple plate clutch
(c) Cone clutch.
2: Centrifugally assisted clutch.
3: Semi centrifugal clutch.
4: Hydraulic clutch.
5: Diaphragm of conical spring clutch
(a) Tapered finger type
(b) Crown spring type.
6: Positive clutch, Dog and spline type.
2) GEAR BOX
Function:
The automobile requires high torque when climbing hills and when starting, even though they are performed at low
speeds. On the other hand, when running at high speeds on level roads, high torque is not required because of
momentum and it would be more preferable to have just the wheels alone turning at high speed. However, the torque,
which the engine can produce, is limited to such an amount that the engine by itself cannot develop the torque
necessary for starting and for climbing hills.
70
The transmission acts in accordance with running conditions. When driving power is required, it reduces the
engine speed and transmits stronger torque to the driving wheels and when high running speed is desired, it transmits
high speed low-torque to the wheels
Gear ratio:
The transmission changes the engine speed and torque by meshing gears in various combinations when gear
combination shown in fig. is used ,the wheel rotational speed will be decreased but the torque at the wheel shaft will
be increased
GEAR RATION=ENGINE SPEED/PROPELLER SHAFT SPEED
Types of gear box:

Gear boxes used in automobiles can be classified into the types listed below:
1: Selective gear box
(a) Sliding mesh type
(b) Constant mesh type
(c) Synchromesh type.
2: Planetary gear transmission.
3: Automatic gear box
(a) Fluid type
(b) Electric type.
3) Propeller shaft and Rear axle:

Propeller shaft:
The propeller shaft connects the transmission main or the output shaft of the gear box to the differential of
the rear axle. The propeller shaft transmits the power from gear box to rare axle with the help of universal joints.
Universal joints are fitted on both the ends of the shaft.
Function:
The propeller shaft has to operate at varied lengths and varied angles. The engine of the automobile is
somewhat rigidly attached to the frame by springs. As the vehicle moves on the road, there are jerks and bumps due
to which the spring expand and contract. This changes angle of drive b/w propeller shaft and the transmission shaft.
The distance b/w the gear box and differential also changes due to movement of springs.
The propeller has to meet both of the changes i.e. the angular change coming b/w the gear box and
differential and the change in the length of the distance b/w the gear box and differential.
To adjust this type of angular motion universal joints are provided. To adjust for the change in length of the
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propeller shaft, a slip joint is provided.
Construction:
A propeller shaft may be solid or hollow. It is made of good quality alloy steel. As shown in fig. the propeller
shaft is provided with universal joints at the ends. A slip joint is provided to adjust for the change in length of the
shaft.
Slip joint:
The slip joint consists of two shafts having splines. On one shaft outside splines are there and on the second
shaft which is hollow tube, inside splines are there. Outside splines mesh into the splined tube shaft. The splines
cause the two shafts to rotate together and at the same time, one shaft can slide into the other whenever there arises
the necessity for change in length due to movement of the springs. When the leaf spring flatten due to the jerks on
the road, the distance b/w the gear box and differential increases and the slip joint allows the propeller shaft to
increase its length i.e., some sliding action in the splines takes place while the torque continues to be transmitted.
4)Universal joint:
A universal joint is a connection b/w two shafts that permits a driving shaft to drive a driven shaft at an angle.
Universal joints are needed because the rear end of the propeller shaft is constantly rising and falling due to:
(a) The flexing of the road springs.
(b) They also allow for the rear axle assembly to twist due to the drive and brake reaction.
A universal joint is shown in fig. This is also called Hookes joint. These joints are provided at the ends of the
propeller shaft to connect it to the gear box output shaft and the differential pinions shaft. The differential is located
ata lower level than the gear box. So these are connected at an angle and the universal joints can serve this purpose.
The universal joint not only makes a flexible connection b/w two rigid shafts at an angle but they permit to continue
the transmission of power when this angle is continuously changing. The change in the angle is due to the reason that
the differential goes up and down due to uneven road surface.
The universal joint is essentially a double hinged joint consisting of two Y-shaped yokes. One yoke is
provided on the driving shaft and second on the driven shaft. A crossed shaped member also known as the spider
connects the two yokes. The four arms of the cross are assembled into the bearings in the ends of the two shaft
yokes. The arms of the spider are also known as trunions. The driving shaft makes the spider to rotate and the other
two trunions of the spider make the driven shaft to rotate. When the two shafts are rotating at an angle, the bearing of
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the yokes permit them to swing around on the trunions with each revolution. The bearings of the universal joints
should be properly lubricated.
5) Rear axle drives:

Rear axle drive is a drive line to transmit torque from the engine to the rear wheels. The engine is mounted
lengthwise at the front of the vehicle. The clutch and gear box are bolted to the rear of the engine. A long propeller
shaft delivers the torque to the differential and rear axle assembly located at the rear of the vehicle. The rear axle
assembly is mounted on spring. The propeller shaft can move up and down and change both angle and length. There
are many types of rear axle drive assemblies.
(a) Torque tube drive:
It is a solid drive shaft enclosed in a large hollow torque tube as shown in fig. The change in length are achieved by a
slip joint. The assembly can move up and down by universal joint mounted near the gear box. The main limitations
of the assembly are:
1: The assembly is very heavy.
2: For servicing and repair complete axle assembly and propeller shaft have to be removed.
(b) Hotchkiss drive:

It is most widely used in front-engine, rear drive automobiles and overcomes the disadvantages of Torque
Tube Drive. The assembly is shown in fig. There are two universal joints at both ends of propeller shaft which is an
open shaft. There is a slip joint also.
6) Wheels and tyres:

The importance of wheels and tyres in the automobile is obvious. Without the engine the car may be towed,
but even that is not possible without the wheels. The wheel, along with the tyre has to take vehicle load. The various
requirements of an automobile wheel are:
1: It must be strong enough to perform the above functions.
2: It should be balanced both statically as well as dynamically.
73
3: It should be lightest possible so that the unsprung weight is least.

4: It should be possible to remove or mount the wheel easily.
Types of wheels:
There are three types of wheels
The pressure steel disc wheel.
The wire wheel.
Light alloy cast wheel
1) Disc wheel:
This type of wheel consists of two parts, a steel rim, which is generally based to receive the tyre and a
pressed steel disc. The rim and the disc may be integral, permanently attached or attachable, depending upon design.
A typical steel disc wheel is that in which the pressed steel disc is welded to the rim.
2)Wire wheel:
Unlike the disc wheel the wire wheel has a separate hub, which is attached to the rim though a number of
wire spokes. The spokes carry the weight, transmit the driving and braking torques and withstand the side forces
while concerning, in tension. All types of loads are sustained by the three planes. The component of vehicle weight
in the direction of spokes above the hub is sustained by these spokes in tension.
Causes of tire wear and their remedies:
PROBABLE CAUSES OF TYRE WEAR
OVER INFLATION: The wear in the
Centre of the tyre tread is increased by
excessive internal pressure. The air
pressure also causes the increase cord
stresses which reduces the tyre life.
UNDER INFLATION: It causes the side
walls of the tyre to bend sharply as the
wheel revolves, so that the line the cord
breaks and ultimately the tire blows out.
FRONT WHEEL MISALIGNMENT:
This is a frequent cause of rapid tyre
wear. Despite increased steering drag the
irregular tread wear will occur which will
slow feathered edges.
REAR WHEEL MISALIGNMENT: The
rear wheels will not be parallel to the
Centre line of the chassis if chassis frame
is distorted. Serious tyre wear will take
place due to sideway drag.
REMEDIES
Inflate the tyre to manufacturers
specifications to avoid more tyre wear.
Check tyre pressure once a week,

whether the car is in regular use or
standing in the garage.
Inflate the tyre to the makers
recommended values for the load carried,
as they tend to flatten out under load.
The condition of the tyres, themselves
are an indication of misalignment errors.
Check chassis frame thoroughly and get
it aligned.
Wheel balancing:
Wheel balancing is distributing the weight properly around a tyre and wheel assembly. This is required to counteract
74
the centrifugal forces due to heavy areas. There are two types of balancing:
1) Static balancing:
It is equal distribution of weight of wheel and tyre assembly about the axis of rotation so that the assembly does not
have tendency to rotate by itself. When the assembly is rotating in a running vehicle, there will be tramp and hop of
the vehicle.
2) Dynamic balancing:
Dynamic balance is the balance in motion. When a wheel and tyre assembly is in dynamic balance, it is also in static
balance. The requirements of dynamic balance are:
(a) Equal distribution of weight around the axis of rotation, also
(b) Equal distribution of weight about the Centre line of tyre and wheel assembly.
Summary:
The transmission system transmits the engine power to the driving wheels. Friction plate clutches are mostly
used to engage and disengage the engine and gear box, the latter transmits the desired torque under varying
conditions of load and speed. Helical and planetary gears are used in the gear boxes. In latest vehicles, hydraulic
torque converters have substituted the mechanical gear box. Over drive have been provided to ensure fuel economy
by reducing engine speeds still running the vehicles at high speed while driving on level roads and highways. The
propeller shaft connects the gear box to the driving axle through universal joints and differential mechanism. Still
tube type tyres and disc wheels are most widely used in the automobiles. Wheel alignment plays an important role in
the vehicle stability and tyre wear rate.
Experiment no.18
75
Objective:
To study the turbo charger and super charger.
Theory:
Introduction:
When people talk about race cars or high performance sports cars the topic of turbocharger usually come up.
Turbocharger also appear on large diesel engines. A turbocharger significantly boast on engine horse power without
significantly increasing its weight which is a huge benefit that makes turbocharger so popular. Turbochargers are of
type of forced induction system.
Main types are:
Turbocharger
Supercharger
Turbocharger
Turbocharger:
A turbocharger is a device which is a turbine force induction that makes an engine more efficient and produce more
power for its size by forcing more air into the combustion chamber.
Turbocharged engine is more efficient with respect to normal aspirate engine because it forced more air into the
combustion chamber, hence more fuel is injected into the combustion chamber than the atmospheric pressure alone.
Supercharger:
Supercharger is usually applied to only mechanically driven forced induction system device.
The key difference between the supercharger and the turbocharger is that supercharger s mechanically driven by the
belt connected to a crankshaft while as turbocharger is driven by turbine which is driven by engine exhaust gases.
Compared to mechanically driven supercharger turbocharger is more efficient but less responsive. They are used
76
`with Otto cycle and Diesel cycle in I.C engines.
Supercharger
Components:
a) Turbine:
A turbine housing directs the gas flow through the turbine. Size and shape dictate some performance characteristics
of overall turbocharger.
A turbine used is always radial flow turbine. The turbine and wheel size also dictate the amount of exhaust gas that
can flow through system.
b) Compressor:
The compressor used in turbochargers is always centrifugal compressor. It is attached with turbine head and operate
with the turbine power.
The compressor compresses the gas and inject into the cylinder.
Turbo lag:
It is the time required to change power output in response to a throttle change noticed as a hesitation or slowed
throttle response when accelerated from the inlet as compared to naturally aspired engine.
This is due to time needed for exhaust system and turbocharger.
Centre housing:
It houses the shaft that connects the compressor, impeller and turbine. It also must contain a bearing system to
suspend the shaft , allowing it to rotate at very high speed with minimal friction..
Ball bearing are used for high speed and it reduces turbo lag.
77
Inter cooling:
When the pressure of engines intake gas increases its temperature also increases.
In addition heat from the hot exhaust gases spinning the turbine may also heat the intake air. The warmer the intake
air lesser is its density which reduces the volumetric efficiency so inter cooling is necessary.
Water injection:
Water injection is alternate method of inter cooling. It has been used in automotives and air crafts application.
Waste gate:
It allows smaller turbo chargers to reduce turbo lag. It regulates the exhaust gases flow that enters the exhaust side
driving turbine and therefore the air intake into manifold.
Blow off valves:

It is used to flow large value of air between between the turbo and inlet. When the throttle is closed compressors air
flows to the throttle valve without an exit.
Free floating:
This configuration has no waste gate and can not control its own boost levels.
They are designed to attach max boost at fuel throttle.
Air fuel ratio:

When the compressed air is injected into the engine in more quantity extra fuel is also added to intake air. The
amount of extra fuel varies but typically reduces the air fuel ratio between 11 to 13.
This extra fuel is not burnt instead of burning it undergoes a phase change from vapour to gas. This phase change
absorb heat and added mass of extra fuel reduces the average K.E of charge and exhaust gas.
78
Principle:
A turbocharger is basically an air pump. Hot gases leaving the engine after combustion are routed directly to turbine
wheel side of turbocharger to make it rotate. Turbine wheel is connected to a shaft to the compressor wheel. As the
turbine wheel spin faster and faster it causes it cause the compressor wheel also to spin quickly. The rotation of
compressor wheel pulls the ambient air and compresses it before pumping it into the combustion chamber.
Conclusion:
Turbocharger is used to increase the efficiency of an engine. In sports cars turbo chargers are used due to attain a
high speed.
Turbocharger is more efficient than supercharger. In supercharger input is given by engine shaft.
Experiment no.19
Objective
To study working of jet engine, basic components and types.
Jet engine:
A jet engine is a reaction type engine discharging a fast moving jet that generates thrust by jet propulsion in
accordance with newtons law of motion. Jet is usually refers to internal combustion air breathing jet engine with
rotating air compressor powered by a turbine. (Brayton cycle) with the leftover power providing thrust via propelling
nozzle.
79
Types of jet engine:

There are large no. of different types of jet engines, all of which achieve forward thrust from principle of jet
propulsion.
Air breathing:
Commonly aircraft are propelled by air breathing jet engines. Most air breathing jet engines that are in use are
turbofan jet engines which give good efficiency at speeds just below the speed of sound.
Turbine powered:
Gas turbines are rotary engines that extract energy from a flow of combustion gas. They have an upstream
compressor coupled to a downstream turbine with a combustion chamber in between. In aircraft engines those three
core components are often called gas generator. There are many different varieties of gas turbines, but they all use a
gas generator system of some type.
Turbo jet:
A turbo jet engine is a gas turbine engine that works by compressing air with an inlet and a compressor mixing fuel
with compressed air, burning the mixture in combustor, and then passing the hot high pressure air through and
turbine and a nozzle. The compressor is powered by the turbine, which extracts energy from expanding gas passing
through it. The engine converts internal energy in the fuel to K.E in exhaust producing thrust.
Turbo fan:
A turbofan engine is a gas turbine engine that is very similar to a turbo jet like a turbo jet it uses gas generator core
to convert internal energy in fuel to kinetic energy in exhaust. Turbofansdiffer from turbo jet that they have an
additional component a fan. Likecompressor, the fan is powered by turbine section of engine. Turbo fan engines are
of generally two types
1. Low by-pass.
2. High by-pass.
Turbo propeller:
Turbo propeller engines are jet engines still gas turbines that extract work from hot exhaust jet to turn a rotating shaft
which is used to produce thrust by some other means. While not strictly jet engines and rely on an auxiliary
mechanism to produce thrust.
Major components of jet engine:

1. Air intake(inlet):
The inlet is a duct which is required to ensure smooth air flow into the engine despite air approaching the
inlet from the directions other than straight ahead.
80
2. Compressor:
The compressor is made up of stages. Each stage consists of rotating blades and stationary stators or
vanes. As the air moves through compressor its pressure and temperature increases.
3. By pass duct:
Deliver the flow from the fan with minimum losses to the bypass nozzle. The fan flow may be mixed with
the turbine exhausts before entering a single propelling nozzle.
4. Combustion chamber:
Fuel is burnt continuously after initially being ignited during the engine start.
5. After burner:
Produces extra thrust by burning fuel in the jet pipe. This reheating of turbine exhaust gas raises the
propelling nozzle entry temperature and exhaust velocity.
6. Exhaust:
Turbine exhaust gases pass through the propelling nozzle to produce a high velocity jet. The nozzle is
usually convergent with a fixed flow area.
Applications:
Jet engines are used in power aircraft cruise missiles and aerial vehicles. In the form of rocket engines
they power fire work model rocketry space light and military missiles.

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1

Eddy current dynamometer:

Department Of Mechanical Engineering

Brake power & indicating power:

Department Of Mechanical Engineering

First of all, check the apparatus given to perform the experiment.

Observations & Calculations:

Department Of Mechanical Engineering

Department Of Mechanical Engineering

Department Of Mechanical Engineering

Eddy current dynamometer:

Brake power & indicating power:

Observations & Calculations:

Department Of Mechanical Engineering

Department Of Mechanical Engineering

Department Of Mechanical Engineering

Department Of Mechanical Engineering

Brake power & indicating power:

Observations & Calculations:

Department Of Mechanical Engineering

Fuel flow meter:

It is a device that perform following functions:

Observation and calculations:

Department Of Mechanical Engineering

Department Of Mechanical Engineering

Observation and calculation:

Observations and Calculations:

Department Of Mechanical Engineering

Four stroke single cylinder petrol engine

Observation and calculations:

Department Of Mechanical Engineering

Department Of Mechanical Engineering

Why gas analyzer:

First of all set the apparatus according to the given requirements.

Observation and calculations:

Department Of Mechanical Engineering

Department Of Mechanical Engineering

Department Of Mechanical Engineering

Eddy current dynamometer:

Brake power & indicating power:

Department Of Mechanical Engineering

Department Of Mechanical Engineering

Observations & Calculations:

Eddy current dynamometer:

Department Of Mechanical Engineering

Brake power & indicating power:

Observations & Calculations:

Department Of Mechanical Engineering

Basic Engine Design;

Parts of a Diesel internal combustion engine:

Department Of Mechanical Engineering

Oil control ring:

excess lubricating oil

Improper control results in cooking (carbon residues) or blue smoke in the

exhaust gas and results

Small end and big end:

Crank case/oil sump/lower engine block:

Department Of Mechanical Engineering

Department Of Mechanical Engineering