INTRODUCTION

1.1 FACTS CONTROLLER

A Flexible Alternating Current Transmission System (FACTS) is a static power electronics-based
system used for maximizing the transmission of AC electrical energy and also is used to enhance
the controllability of power transfer in long transmission line.
As per IEEE FACTS controller is defined as a power electronics based system other static
equipment that provide control of one or more AC transmission system parameters to enhance
controllability and increase power transfer capability.
1.2 REACTIVE POWER CONTROL
To make transmission networks operate within desired voltage limits and methods of making up
or taking away reactive power is called reactive-power control.
The AC networks and the devices connected to them create associated time-varying electrical
fields related to the applied voltage and as well as magnetic fields dependent on the current flow
and they build up these fields to store energy that is released when they collapse.
Apart from the energy dissipation in resistive components, all energy-coupling devices (e.g:
motors and generators) operate based on their capacity to store and release energy.
While the major means of control of reactive power and voltage is via the excitation systems of
synchronous generators and devices may be deployed in a transmission network to maintain a
good voltage profile in the system.
The shunt connected devices like shunt capacitors or inductors or synchronous inductors may be
fixed or switched (using circuit breaker) are used to control reactive power.
The Vernier or smooth control of reactive power is also possible by varying effective
susceptance characteristics by use of power electronic devices. Example: Static Var Componsator
(SVC) and a Thyristor Controlled Reactor (TCR).

1.3 UNCOMPENSATED TRANSMISSION LINES

For simplicity let us consider only the inductive reactance

From the above figure it is clear that between the sending and the receiving end, voltages magnitude
variation as well as a phase difference is created and the most significant part of the voltage drop in the
line reactance is due to the reactive component of the load current. In order to maintain the voltages in
the network nearly to desired the rated value two compensation methods are being used and are:
1. Load compensation
2. System compensation
1.3.1 Load Compensation
It is possible to compensate for the reactive current of the load by adding a parallel capacitive
load so that Ic = Ix and the effective power factor to become unity.
In the figure the absence of Ix eliminates the voltage drop V1 bringing Vr closer in magnitude to
Vs, this condition is called load compensation and actually by charging extra for supplying the
reactive power, a power utility company makes it advantageous for customers to use load
compensation on their premises.
Loads compensated to the unity power factor reduce the line drop but do not eliminate it. They
still experience a drop of V2 from jIrX1.

1.3.2 System compensation

To regulate the receiving-end voltage at the rated value a power utility may install a reactivepower compensator as shown in the figure and this compensator draws a reactive current to
overcome both components of the voltage drop V1 and V2 as a consequence of the load
current I1 through the line reactance X1.
To compensate for V2 an additional capacitive current Ic over and above Ic that compensates
for Ix is drawn by the compensator.
When IcX1 = V2 the receiving end voltage Vr equals the sending end voltage Vs and such
compensators are employed by power utilities to ensure the quality of supply to their customers.

1.3.3 Lossless Distributed Parameter Lines

Most power transmission lines are characterized by distributed parameters: Series Resistance,
Series Inductance, Shunt Conductance and Shunt Capacitance all per-unit length and these
parameters all depend on the conductor size, spacing, and clearance above the ground, frequency
and temperature of operation.
In addition these parameters depend on the bundling arrangement of the line conductors and the
nearness to other parallel lines.
1.3.4 Symmetrical Lines
To control the receiving end voltage and increase the power transfer capability of the line it is necessary to
have a generator or a controlled reactive power source (with fast control) such as a SVC at the receiving
end. The reactive power injected is QR . If line is symmetrical (VS = VR = V), then from symmetry, QS =
-QR . Thus, the reactive power requirements of the line are shared equally at both ends of the line.

When the voltage magnitudes at the two ends of a line are equal that is Vs = Vr =V and the line is
said to be symmetrical because power networks operate as voltage sources attempts are made to
hold almost all node voltages at nearly rated values. Therefore a symmetrical line presents a
realistic situation.
Active and Reactive powers of a transmission line are frequently normalized by choosing the
Surge-Impedance Load (SIL) as the base.
1.3.5 Midpoint Conditions of a Symmetrical Line
The magnitude of the midpoint voltage depends on the power transfer and this voltage influences the line
insulation. For a symmetrical line where the end voltages are held at nominal values the midpoint voltage
shows the highest magnitude variation.
Performance of uncompensated lines:

1. The dynamic regulation of voltage at the receiving (load) end of the line by using a controllable reactive
source, improves power transfer and voltage profile along the line.
2. However, even with symmetrical lines (with voltages maintained at both ends), the power transfer
capability is decreased as the line length increases. Assuming that a line is operated with max = 30o, the
maximum power transfer reduces below SIL for line lengths > 30o (approximately 500 km long line in
systems operating at 50 Hz).
3. The problems of voltage control and charging reactive power (at no load) become severe as line length
increases. For a symmetric line, the voltage variation is maximum at the mid point of the line.

1.4 PASSIVE COMPENSATION

The transmission line has series inductance which absorbs reactive power while the shunt capacitance
releases (generates reactive power). For light loads, the absorption is less than the generation and voltage
in the line tends to rise. On the other hand, at loads exceeding Surge Impedance Loading (SIL), the
absorption is higher than the generation and the voltage tends to fall. By connecting series capacitors and
shunt inductors in the line, we can control the reactive power flow in the line to limit the voltage
variations and increase (active) power transfer capability.
The reactive-power control for a line is often called reactive-power compensation and external devices or
subsystems that control reactive power on transmission lines are known as compensators. A

compensator mitigates the undesirable effects of the circuit parameters of a given line and the objectives
of line compensation are invariably
1. To increase the power-transmission capacity of the line.
2. To keep the voltage profile of the line along its length within acceptable bounds to ensure the
quality of supply to the connected customers, to minimize the line insulation costs.
1.4.1 Distributed Compensation
Let us consider distributed series compensation (capacitive) whose effect, in steady state, is to counteract
the effect of the distributed series inductance of the line. Similarly, by providing distributed shunt
(inductive) compensation, the effect of line capacitance is reduced.
1. The distributed shunt compensation reduces the no load voltage and charging reactive power, but
has little effect on the maximum power flow in the line.
2. The distributed series compensation reduces the no load voltage and increases the power transfer
capacity, but less little effect on the no load charging reactive power.
1.4.2 Discrete Passive Compensation
It is not practical to provide distributed compensation. Here, we will consider discrete series and shunt
compensation.
Types of passive compensations:
1. Shunt Compensation
2. Series Compensation
1.4.2.1 Shunt Compensation
In a weak system, voltage control can be implemented by parallel compensation using a Static
Var Compensator (SVC) for fast control of shunt connected capacitors and reactors. It also helps
in improve the power quality and as well as improvement of the voltage profile for different
system and load conditions.
Shunt compensation can also be employed as a local remedy against voltage collapse which can
occur when large induction machines are connected to the system.
After system faults the machines load the power system heavily with high reactive power
consumption and the remedy for such fault is strong capacitive power injection for example by
using an either SVC or STATCOM or just switched capacitors.
The reactive current is injected into the line to maintain voltage magnitude and transmittable
active power (P) is increased but more reactive power (Q) is to be provided.

2V 2

P
sin
X
2

2V 2
Q
X

cos

1.4.2.2 Series Compensation

The Series Compensation is a well established technology that primarily used to transfer
reactance in most of bulk transmission corridors. The result is that a significant increase in the
transmission system transient and voltage stability.
Series Compensation is self regulating in the sense that its reactive power output follows the
variations in transmission line current that makes the series compensation concept extremely
straight forward and cost effective.
The thyristor controlled series capacitors adds another controllability dimension as thyristors are
used to dynamically modulate the reactance provided by the inserted capacitor and this is
primarily used to provide inter-area damping of prospective low frequency electromechanical
oscillations but it also makes the whole Series Compensation scheme immune to Sub
Synchronous Resonance (SSR).
Series compensation is used to improve system stability and to increase the transmission capacity
in radial or bulk power long distance AC systems and referring to below the equation and a series
capacitor reduces the line impedance X hence the transmission of power P will increase.
This principle can also be applied in meshed systems for balancing the loads on parallel lines and
the simplest form of series compensation is the fixed series compensator for reducing the
transmission angle thus providing stability enhancement.
FACTS controller for series compensation modify line impedance X is decreased so as to
increase the transmittable active power (P), however more reactive power (Q) must be provided.

V2
P
sin
X X C

V2
1 cos
Q
X X C

1.5 OVERVIEW OF FACTS DEVICES

1.5.1 SVC Static Var Compensator
A SVC is an electrical device for providing fast acting reactive power on high-voltage electricity
transmission networks.
SVCs are part of the FACTS device family and regulating voltage and stabilizing the system.
Unlike a synchronous condenser which is a rotating electrical machine a SVC has no significant
moving parts and prior to the invention of the SVC power factor compensation was the preserve
of large rotating machines such as synchronous condensers or switched capacitor banks.
The SVC is an automated impedance matching device designed to bring the system closer to
unity power factor.
SVCs are used in two main situations:
i) Connected to the power system, to regulate the transmission voltage.
ii) Connected near large industrial loads, to improve power quality.
In transmission applications the SVC is used to regulate the grid voltage.
If the power systems reactive load is capacitive (leading) the SVC will use thyristor controlled
reactors to consume vars from the system lowering the system voltage.
Under inductive (lagging) conditions the capacitor banks are automatically switched on thus
providing a higher system voltage and by connecting the thyristor-controlled reactor which is
continuously variable along with a capacitor bank step and the net result is continuously-variable
leading or lagging power.
In industrial applications SVCs are typically placed near high and rapidly varying loads such as
arc furnaces where they can smooth flicker voltage.
Description:

Typically an SVC comprises one or more banks of fixed or switched shunt capacitors or reactors of
which at-least one bank is switched by thyristors.
The elements which may be used to make an SVC typically include:
Thyristor Controlled Reactor (TCR) where the reactor may be air or iron cored.
Thyristor Switched Capacitor (TSC).
Harmonic filter(s).
Mechanically switched capacitors or reactors.
Connection:
Generally SVC is not done at line voltage; a bank of transformers steps the transmission voltage
down to a much lower level. This reduces the size and number of components needed in the SVC
although the conductors must be very large to handle high currents associated with the lower
voltage.
In some SVC for industrial applications such as electric arc furnaces where there may be an
existing medium-voltage bus bar present the SVC may be directly connected in order to save the
cost of the transformer.
The dynamic nature of the SVC lies in the use of thyristors connected in series and inverseparallel forming thyristor valves and the disc-shaped semiconductors usually several inches in
diameter are usually located indoors in a valve house.
Advantages:
Near instantaneous response to changes in the system voltage. For this reason they are often
operated at close to their zero-point in order to maximize the reactive power correction they can
rapidly provide when required.
In general, cheaper, higher-capacity, faster and more reliable than dynamic compensation schemes
such as synchronous condensers.

1.5.2 Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC)

TCSC is a power electronic based system and Thyristor Switched Capacitor is connected in series
with a bidirectional thyristor valve.
The TCSC can control power flow, mitigate sub-synchronous resonance, improve transient
stability, damp out power system oscillations resulting increase of power transfer capability.
A single diagram of TCSC shows two modules connected in series and there can be one or more
module depending on the requirement to reduce the costs and TCSC may be used in conjunction
with fixed series capacitors.
Nowadays TCSC is being included in some of the transmission systems and the basic circuit of a
TCSC in one of the phase is shown in the fig. controls the current through the reactor.
The forward-looking thyristor has firing angle 90o 180o and firing the thyristors at this time
results in a current flow through the inductor that is opposite to the capacitor current and in this
loop current increases the voltage across the capacitor.
Further the loop current increases as firing angle decreases from 180o.
The different compensation levels are obtained by varying the firing angle of the reactor-circuitthyristor.
1.5.3 UNIFIED POWER FLOW CONTROLLER (UPFC)

 The UPFC is the most versatile member of FACTS family using power electronics to control
power flow on power grids.
The UPFC uses a combination of a shunt controller (STATCOM) and a series controller (SSSC)
interconnected through a common DC bus.
This FACTS topology provides much more flexibility than the SSSC for controlling the line
active and reactive power because active power can now be transferred from the shunt converter
to the series converter through the DC bus.

1.5.4 INTEGRAL POWER FLOW CONTROLLER (IPFC)

In other FACTS controllers there are two or more VSCs coupled together via a common DC bus
which increases not only the controllability but also the complexity.
For UPFC the connection between the shunt VSC and series VSC allows active power exchange
of the two VSCs so the series VSC can control both the line active and reactive power flow.
The shunt VSC regulates the bus voltage and satisfies the balance of power circulation through
the DC capacitor.
For IPFC two series VSCs connect to each other at the DC bus so one of them (assumed as the
Master VSC) can control both line active and reactive power and the other one (assumed as Slave
VSC) can only regulate line active power supporting sufficient active power to the Master VSC
through the DC tie.

STATIC VAR COMPENSATOR (SVC) AND APPLICATION

2.1 VOLTAGE CONTROL BY SVC
The voltage-control action can be explained through a simplified block representation of the SVC and
power system shown below. The power system is modeled as an equivalent voltage source Vs behind
equivalent system impedance Xs as viewed from the SVC terminals.

The system impedance Xs indeed corresponds to the short circuit MVA at the SVC bus and is obtained
as

Xs

Vb MVAb
Sc

in p.u.

Where, Sc is the 3 phase short circuit MVA at the SVC bus, Vb is the base line-line voltage and MVAb is
the base MVA
The SVC bus voltage is given by
Vs = VSVC + ISVC . Xs
The SVC current thus results in a voltage drop of ISVC . Xs in phase with the system voltage Vs.
The SVC bus voltage decreases with the inductive SVC current and increases with the capacitive current.
The intersection of the SVC dynamic characteristic and the system load line provides the quiescent
operating of the SVC as illustrated in the below figure.

The voltage control action in the linear range is described as

VSVC = Vref + Xs.ISVC
Where ISVC is positive if inductive and ISVC is negative if capacitive.
It is emphasized that the V-I characteristics described here relate SVC current or reactive power to the
voltage on the high-voltage side of the coupling transformer.
2.2 ADVANTAGES OF THE SLOPE IN THE SVC DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS
1. Substantially reduces the reactive-power rating of the SVC for achieving nearly the same
control objectives.
2. Prevents the SVC from reaching its reactive-power limits too frequently.
3. Facilitates the sharing of reactive power among multiple compensators operating in parallel.
2.3 INFLUENCE OF SVC ON THE SYSTEM VOLTAGE
2.3.1 Coupling Transformer Ignored
The SVC behaves like a controlled susceptance and its effectiveness in regulating the system voltage is
dependent on the relative strength of the connected AC system. The system strength or equivalent system
impedance, primarily determines the magnitude of voltage variation caused by the change in the SVC
reactive current.
The variation in the VSVC as a function of change in the SVC current ISVC. Thus for constant equivalent
source voltage Vs,
VSVC = -X. ISVC
And also
VSVC = ISVC. BSVC
For incremental changes the equation is linearized to give
ISVC = BSVCO .VSVC + BSVC.VSVCO
On substitution
VSVC
VSVCO

BSVC ESCR BSVCO

Where ESCR is the Effective Short Circuit Ratio
2.3.2 Coupling Transformer Considered
Representation of power system and the SVC including the coupling transformer is given in below
figure. The representation of the SVC coupling transformer creates a low voltage bus connected to the
SVC and the transformer reactance XT is separated from Xs. The high voltage VH is related to low
voltage side VSVC as

VSVC
1

1 X T .BSVC
VH

Linearizing the above equation gives

VSVC (1+ XT .BSVC0) + VSVC0 .XT BSVC = VH
On substitution

VH

BSVC

VH

ESCR BSVCO 1 X T .ESCR

1 BSVCO

XS

VH

XT
VSVC
BSVC

2.4 SVC APPLICATIONS

2.4.1 Introduction
Static var compensators (SVCs) constitute a mature technology that is finding widespread usage in
modern power systems for load compensation as well as transmission-line applications. In high-power
networks, SVCs are used for voltage control and for attaining several other objectives such as damping
and stability control.
2.4.2 Enhancement of Transient Stability
2.4.2.1 Power-angle curves
An enhancement in transient stability is achieved primarily through voltage control exercised by
the SVC at the interconnected bus.
A simple understanding of this aspect can be obtained from the power-angle curves, of the
uncompensated and midpoint SVCcompensated Single machine infinite bus (SMIB) system.
Consider both the uncompensated and SVC-compensated power system given in Fig.
Assume that both systems are transmitting the same level of power and are subject to an identical
fault at the generator terminals for an equal length of time.

The SMIB system: (a) an uncompensated system (b) an SVC-compensated system

The power-angle curves for both systems are depicted in Fig.

The initial operating point in the uncompensated and compensated systems are indicated by rotor
angles 1 and c1. These points correspond to the intersection between the respective power-angle
curves with the mechanical input line PM, which is same for both the cases.
In the event of a 3-phase-to-ground fault at the generator terminals, even though the short-circuit
current increases enormously, the active-power output from the generator reduces to zero.
Because the mechanical input remains unchanged, the generator accelerates until fault clearing,
by which time the rotor angle has reached values 2 and c2 and the accelerating energy, A1 and
AC1, has been accumulated in the uncompensated and compensated system, respectively.
When the fault is isolated, the electrical power exceeds the mechanical input power, and the
generator starts decelerating.
The rotor angle, however, continues to increase until 3 and c3 from the stored kinetic energy in
the rotor.
The decline in the rotor angle commences only when the decelerating energies represented by A2
and AC2 in the two cases, respectively, become equal to the accelerating energies A1 and AC1.
The power system in each case returns to stable operation if the post-fault angular swing, denoted
by d3 and dC3, does not exceed the maximum limit of dmax and dcmax, respectively. Should these
limits be exceeded, the rotor will not decelerate.

 The farther the angular overswing from its maximum limit, the more transient stability in the
system.
An index of the transient stability is the available decelerating energy, termed the transientstability margin, and is denoted by areas Amargin and Acmargin in the two cases, respectively.
Clearly, as Acmargin significantly exceeds Amargin, the system-transient stability is greatly enhanced
by the installation of an SVC. The increase in transient stability is thus obtained by the
enhancement of the steady-state power-transfer limit provided by the voltage-control operation of
the midline SVC.
2.4.2.2 Synchronizing Torque
The synchronous generator is assumed to be driven with a mechanical-power input, PM. The
transmission line is further assumed to be lossless; hence the electrical power output of the generator, PE,
and the power received by the infinite bus are same. The swing equation of the system can be written as

d 2
M 2 PM PE
dt

Where M is the angular momentum of the synchronous generator,

For small signal analysis, the equation is linearized as,

d 2
M
PM PE
dt 2
The mechanical-input power is assumed to be constant during the time of analysis; hence PM =0. The
linearized-swing equation then becomes

d 2
M
PE
dt 2

d 2
1

dt 2
M

(or)

KS
PE

Where KS = the synchronizing power coefficient

= the slope of the power-angle curve
= PE/
or

d 2 K S

0
dt 2
M
The characteristic equation of the differential equation provides two roots:

1 , 2

KS
M

If the synchronizing torque KS is positive, the resulting system is oscillatory with imaginary roots:

1 , 2 js

where

KS
M

On the other hand, if the synchronizing torque KS is negative, the roots are real. A positive real root
characterizes instability. The synchronizing-torque coefficient is now determined for both the
uncompensated and SVC-compensated systems.
2.4.3 Steady State Power Transfer Capacity
An SVC can be used to enhance the power-transfer capacity of a transmission line, which is also
characterized as the steady-state power limit. Consider a single-machine infinite-bus (SMIB) system with
an interconnecting lossless tie line having reactance X shown in Fig.

Let the voltages of the synchronous generator and infinite bus be V1/ and V2/, respectively. The
power transferred from the synchronous machine to the infinite bus is expressed as

For simplicity, if V1 = V2 =V, then

The power thus varies as a sinusoidal function of the angular difference of the voltages at the
synchronous machine and infinite bus, as depicted in Fig. The maximum steady-state power that can be
transferred across the uncompensated line without SVC corresponds at = 90o; it is given by

Let the transmission line be compensated at its midpoint by an ideal SVC. The term ideal corresponds to
an SVC with an unlimited reactive-power rating that can maintain the magnitude of the midpoint voltage
constant for all real power flows across the transmission line. The SVC bus voltage is then given by
VM/(/ 2).The electrical power flow across the half-line section connecting the generator and the SVC is
expressed as

The maximum transmittable power across the line is then given by

which is twice the maximum power transmitted in the uncompensated case and occurs at /2 =90 o. If the
transmission line is divided into n equal sections, with an ideal SVC at each junction of these sections
maintaining a constant-voltage magnitude (V), then the power transfer (PC) of this line can be expressed
theoretically by

The maximum power, Pcmax, that can be transmitted along this line is nV2/X. In other words, with n
sections the power transfer can be increased n times that of the uncompensated line. It may be
understood that this is only a theoretical limit, as the actual maximum power flow is restricted by the
thermal limit of the transmission line. It can be shown that the reactive-power requirement, QSVC, of the
midpoint SVC for the voltage stabilization is given by

This curve is based on the corresponding equivalent reactance between the synchronous generator and
the infinite bus. If an SVC incorporating a limited-rating capacitor as in the preceding text (QSVC -2Pmax)
is connected at the line midpoint, it ensures voltage regulation until its capacitive output reaches its limit.
In case the system voltage declines further, the SVC cannot provide any voltage support, and behaves as
a fixed capacitor. Curve (d) represents the power-angle curve that shows this fixed-capacitor behavior
and demonstrates that the realistic maximum power transfer will be much lower than the theoretical limit
of 2Pmax if the SVC has a limited reactive-power rating.
2.4.4 Enhancement of Power System Damping

The power-transfer capacity along a transmission corridor is limited by several factors; for example, the
thermal limit, the steady-state stability limit, the transient-stability limit, and system damping. In certain
situations, a power system may have inadequateeven negativedamping; therefore, a strong need
arises to enhance the electrical damping of power systems to ensure stable, oscillation-free power
transfer.
A typical scenario of the magnitude of various limits, especially where damping plays a
determining role, is depicted graphically in Fig. Oscillations in power systems are caused by
various disturbances.
If the system is not series-compensated, the typical range of oscillation frequencies extends from
several tenths of 1 Hz to nearly 2 Hz.
Several modes of oscillation may exist in a complex, interconnected power system.
The behavior of generator oscillations is determined by the two torque components: the
synchronizing torque and damping torque.
The synchronizing torque ensures that the rotor angles of different generators do not drift away
following a large disturbance.
In addition, the magnitude of the synchronizing torque determines the frequency of oscillation.
Meanwhile, damping torque influences the decay time of oscillations.
Even if a power system is stable, the oscillations may be sustained for a long period without
adequate damping torque.

2.4.5 Prevention of Voltage Stability

Voltage instability is caused by the inadequacy of the power system to supply the reactive-power
demand of certain loads, such as induction motors. A drop in the load voltage leads to an increased
demand for reactive power that, if not met by the power system, leads to a further decline in the bus
voltage. This decline eventually leads to a progressive yet rapid decline of voltage at that location, which
may have a cascading effect on neighboring regions that causes a system voltage collapse.
2.4.5.1 Principle of SVC Control
The voltage at a load bus supplied by a transmission line is dependent on the magnitude of the load, the
load-power factor, and the impedance of the transmission line. Consider an SVC connected to a load bus,
as shown in Fig. The load has a varying power factor and is fed by a lossless radial transmission line.
The voltage profile at the load bus, which is situated at the receiver end of the transmission line, is
depicted in Fig. For a given load-power factor, as the transmitted power is gradually increased, a
maximum power limit is reached beyond which the voltage collapse takes place. In this typical system, if
the combined power factor of the load and SVC is appropriately controlled through the reactive-power
support from the SVC, a constant voltage of the receiving-end bus can be maintained with increasing
magnitude of transmitted power, and voltage instability can be avoided.