TRANSFORMERS

Construction of Single Phase Transformer

The various constructions used for the single phase transformers are,
1. Core type
2. Shell type
and
3. Berry type
1. Core Type Transformer
It has a single magnetic circuit. The rectangular core having two limbs. The winding encircles the core.
The coils used are of cylindrical type. The coils are wound in helical layers with different layers insulated
from each other by paper or mica. Both the coils are placed on both the limbs. The low voltage coil is
placed inside near the core while high voltage coil surrounds the low voltage coil. Core is made up of large
number of thin laminations.
As the windings are uniformly distributed over the two limbs, the natural cooling is more effective.
The coils can be easily removed by removing the laminations of the top yoke, for maintenance.
The Fig. 1(a) shows the schematic representation of the core type transformer while the Fig 1(b) shows
the view of actual construction of the core type transformer.

Fig. 1 Core type transformer

2. Shell Type Transformer
It has a double magnetic circuit. The core has three limbs. Both the windings are placed on the central
limb. The core encircles most part of the windings. The coils used are generally multilayer disc type or
sandwich coils. As mentioned earlier, each high voltage coil is in between tow low voltage coils and low
voltage coils are nearest to top and bottom of the yokes.
The core is laminated. While arranging the laminations of the core, the care is taken that all the joints
at alternate layers are staggered. This is done to avoid narrow air gap at the joint, right through the crosssection of the core. Such joints are called over lapped or imbricated joint. Generally for very high voltage
transformers, the shell type construction is preferred. As the windings are surrounded by the core, the
natural cooling does not exist. For removing any winding for maintenance, large number of laminations are
required to be removed.
The Fig. 2(a) shows the schematic representation while the Fig. 2(b) shows the outaway view of the
construction of the shell type transformer.

Fig 2 Shell type transformer

3. Berry Type Transformer

1

This has distributed magnetic circuit. The number of independent magnetic circuits is more than 2. Its
core construction is like spokes of a wheel. Otherwise it is symmetrical to that of shell type.
Diagrammatically it can be shown as in the Fug. 3.

Fig. 3 Berry type transformer

The transformers are generally kept in tightly fitted sheet metal tanks. The tanks are constructed of
specified high quality steel plate cut, formed and welded into the rigid structures. All the joints are painted
with a solution of light blue chalk which turns dark in the presence of oil, disclosing even the minutes
leaks. The tanks are filled with the special insulating oil. The entire transformer assembly is immersed in
the oil. Oil serves two functions : i) Keeps the coil cool by circulation and ii) Provides the transformers an
additional insulation.
The oil should be absolutely free from alkalies, sulphur and especially from moisture. Presence of very
small moisture lowers the dielectric strength of oil, affecting its performance badly. Hence the tanks are
sealed air tight to avoid the contact of oil with atmospheric air and moisture. In large transformers, the
chambers called breather are provided. The breathers prevent the atmospheric moisture to pass on to the
oil. The breathers contain the silica gel crystal which immediately absorbs the atmospheric moisture. Due
to long and continuous use, the sludge is formed in the oil which can contaminate the oil. Hence to keep
such sludge separate from the oil in main tank, an air tight metal drum is provided, which is placed on the
top of tank. This is called conservator.
4. Comparison of Core and Shell Type Transformers

Principle of working
2

The principle of mutual induction states that when two coils are inductively coupled and if current in
one coil is changed uniformly then an e.m.f. gets induced in the other coil. This e.m.f can drive a current,
when a closed path is provided to it. The transformer works on the same principle. In its elementary form,
it consists of tow inductive coils which are electrically separated but linked through a common magnetic
circuit. The two coils have high mutual inductance. The basic transformer is shown in the Fig 1.2.
One of the two coils is connected to source of alternating voltage. This coil in which electrical energy
is fed with the help of source called primary winding (P). The other winding is connected to load. The
electrical energy transformed to this winding is drawn out to the load.

Fig.1.2 Basic transformer

Fig 1.3 Symbolic representation

This winding is called secondary winding (S). The primary winding has N 1 number of turns while the
secondary winding has N2 number of turns. Symbolically the transformer is indicated as shown in the Fig
1.3.
When primary winding is excited by an alternating voltage, it circulates an alternating current. This
current produces an alternating flux () which completes its path through common magnetic core as shown
dotted in the Fig 1.2. Thus an alternating, flux links with the secondary winding. As the flux is alternating,
according to Faraday's law of an electromagnetic induction, mutually induced e.m.f. gets developed in the
secondary winding. If now load is connected to the secondary winding, this e.m.f. drives a current through
it.
Thus through there is no electrical contact between the two windings, an electrical energy gets
transferred from primary to the secondary.

E.M.F Equation of a Transformer

The primary winding is excited by purely sinusoidal alternating voltage. Hence the flux produced
is also sinusoidal in nature having maximum value of m as show in the Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Sinusoidal flux

The various quantities which affect the magnitude of the induced e.m.f. are:
= Flux
m = Maximum value of flux
N1 = Number of primary winding turns
N2 = Number of secondary winding turns
f = Frequency of the supply voltage
E1 = R.M.S. value of the primary induced e.m.f.
E2 = R.M.S. value of the secondary induced e.m.f.
From Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction the voltage e.m.f. induced in each turn is proportional
to the average rate of change of flux.
...
average e.m.f. per turn = average rate of change of flux
...
average e.m.f. per turn = d/dt
Now
d/dt = Change in flux/Time required for change in flux
Consider the 1/4 th cycle of the flux as shown in the Fig.1. Complete cycle gets completed in 1/f
seconds. In 1/4 th time period, the change in flux is from 0 to m.
...
d/dt = (m - 0)/(1/4f)
as dt for 1/4 th time period is 1/4f seconds
= 4 f m
Wb/sec
... Average e.m.f. per turn = 4 f m volts
As is sinusoidal, the induced e.m.f. in each turn of both the windings is also sinusoidal in nature. For
sinusoidal quantity,
From factor = R.M.S. value/Average value = 1.11
.
. . R.M.S. value of induced e.m.f. per turn
= 1.11 x 4 f m = 4.44 f m
There are number of primary turns hence the R.M.S value of induced e.m.f. of primary denoted as is
E1,
E1 = N1 x 4.44 f m volts
While as there are number of secondary turns the R.M.S values of induced e.m.f. of secondary denoted
is E2 is,
E2 = N2 x 4.44 f m volts
The expression of E1 and E2 are called e.m.f. equation of a transformer.
Thus e.m.f. equations are,
E1 = 4.44 f m N1
volts
............(1)
E2 = 4.44 f m N2
volts
.............(2)

Ratios of a Transformer
Consider a transformer shown in Fig.1 indicating various voltages and currents.

Fig. 1 Ratios of transformer

Voltage Ratio
We know from the e.m.f. equations of a transformer that
E1 = 4.44 f m N1 and
E2 = 4.44 f m N2
Taking ratio of the two equations we get,

This ratio of secondary induced e.m.f. to primary induced e.m.f. is known as voltage transformation
ratio denoted as K,
Thus,

1. If N2 > N1 i.e. K > 1, E2 > E1 we get then the transformer is called step-up transformer.
2. If N2 < N1 i.e. K < 1, we get E2 < E1 then the transformer is called step-down transformer.
3. If = i.e. K= 1, we get E2 = E1 then the transformer is called isolation transformer or 1:1
transformer.
Concept of Ideal Transformer

Ideal transformer on no load

A transformer is said to be ideal if it satisfies following properties :
i) It has no losses.
ii) Its windings have zero resistance.
iii) Leakage flux is zero i.e. 100% flux produced by primary links with the secondary.
iv) Permeability of core is so high that negligible current is required to establish the flux in it.
Key point: For an ideal transformer, the primary applied voltage V1 is same as the primary induced e.m.f.
V2 as there are no voltage drops.
5

Similarly the secondary induced e.m.f. E2 is also same as the terminal voltage V2 across the load.
Hence for an ideal transformer we can write,

No transformer is ideal in practice but the value of E1 is almost equal to V1 for properly designed
transformer.

Phasor diagram for ideal transformer on no load

Current ratio
For an ideal transformer there are no losses. Hence the product of primary voltage V 1 and primary
current I1, is same as the product of secondary voltage V2 and the secondary current I2.
So
V1 I1 = input VA
and
V2 I2 = output VA
For an ideal transformer,
V1 I1 = V2 I2

Key point: Hence the currents are in the inverse ratio of the voltage transformation ratio.
Voltage ampere rating
When electrical power is transferred from primary winding to secondary there are few power losses in
between. These power losses appear in the form of heat which increases the temperature of the device.
Now this temperature must be maintained below certain limiting values as it is always harmful from
insulation point of view. As current is the main cause in producing heat, the output maximum rating is
generally specified as the product of output voltage and output current i.e.V 2 I2. This always indicates that
when transformer is operated under this specified rating, its temperature rise will not be excessive. The
copper loss (I2R) in the transformer depends on the current 'I' through the winding while the iron or core
loss depends on the voltage 'V' as frequency of operation is constant. None of these losses depend on the
power factor (cos ) of the load. Hence losses decide the temperature and hence the rating of the
transformer. As losses depend on V and I only, the rating of the transformer is specified as a product of
these two parameters VxI.
Key point: Thus the transformer rating is specified as the product of voltage and current called VA rating.
On both sides, primary and secondary VA rating remains same. This rating is generally expresses in
KVA (kilo volt amperes rating).
Now
V1 /V2 = I2 /I1 = K
...
V1 I1 = V2 I2
If V1 and V2 are the terminal voltages of primary and secondary then from specified KVA rating we
can decide full load currents of primary and secondary, I1 and I2. This is the safe maximum current limit
which may carry, keeping temperature rise below its limiting value.

Example 1: A single phase, 50 Hz transformer has 80 turns on the primary winding and 400 turns on the
secondary winding. The net cross-sectional area of the core is 200 cm 2. If the primary winding is connected
at a 240 V , 50 Hz supply, determine :
i) The e.m.f. induced in the secondary winding.
ii) The maximum value of the flux density in the core.
Solution
N1 = 80 , f = 50 Hz , N2 = 400 , a = 200 cm2 = 200 x 10-4 cm2
E1 = 240
K = N2 /N1 = 400/80 = 5/1
.
..
K =E2 /E1 = E2 /240= 5/1
E2 = 5 x 240 = 1200 V
Now
E1 = 4.44 f m N1
240 = 4.44 x 50 x m x 80
...
m = 240/(4.44 x 50 x 80) = 0.01351 Wb
...
Bm = m /a = 0.01351/(200 x 10-4) = 0.6756 Wb/m2
Example 2: For a single phase transformer having primary and secondary turns of 440 and 880
respectively, determine the transformer KVA rating if half load secondary current is 7.5 A and maximum
value of core flux is 2.25 Wb.
Solution
N1 = 440 ,
N2 = 880 ,
(I2)H.L. = 7.5 A,
fm = 2.25 mWb , E2 = 4.44 m f N2
Assuming
f = 50 Hz,
.
..
E2 = 4.44 x 2.25 x 10-3x 50x880 = 439.56 V
(I2)F.L. = KVA rating / E2
And
(I2)H.L. = 0.5 (I2)F.L.
...
(I2)H.L. = 0.5 x (KVA rating /E2 )
.
..
7.5 = 0.5 x (KVA rating / 439.56)
... KVA rating
= 2 x 7.5 x 439.56 x 10-3
= 6.5934 KVA
.....(10-3 for KVA)
Example 3: A single phase transformer has 350 primary and 1050 secondary turns. The primary is
connected to 400 V, 50 Hz a.c. supply. If the net cross-sectional area of the core is 50 cm 2, calculate i) The
maximum value of the flux density in the core ii) The induced e.m.f. in the secondary winding.
Solution
The given value are,
N1 = 350 turns,
N2 = 1050 turns
V1 = 400 V ,
A = 50 cm2= 50 x 10-4 m2
The e.m.f. of the transformer is,
E1 = 4.44 f m N1
E1 = 4.44 Bm A f N1
as m = Bm A
Flux density
Bm = E1 / (4.44 A f N1)
= 400 / (4.44 x 50 x 10-4 x50 x 350)
assume E1 = V1
2
= 1.0296 Wb/m
K = N2 /N1 = 1050/350 = 3
And
K = E2 /E1 = 3
...
E2 = 3 x E1 = 3 x 400 = 1200 V

Practical Transformer on No Load

Actually in practical transformer iron core causes hysteresis and eddy current losses as it is subjected
to alternating flux. While designing the transformer the efforts are made to keep these losses minimum by,
1. Using high grade material as silicon steel to reduce hysteresis loss.
2. Manufacturing core in the form of laminations or stacks of thin lamination to reduce eddy
current loss.
Apart from this there are iron losses in the practical transformer. Practically primary winding has
certain resistance hence there are small primary copper loss present.
Thus the primary current under no load condition has to supply the iron losses i.e. hysteresis loss and
eddy current loss and a small amount of primary copper loss. This current is denoted as Io.
Now the no load input current Io has two components:
1. A purely reactive component Im called magnetizing component of no load current required to
produce the flux. This is also called wattless component.
2. An active component Ic which supplies total losses under no load condition called power component
of no load current. This also called wattful component or core loss component of Io.
The total no load current Io is the vector addition of Im and Ic.

In practical transformer, due to winding resistance, no load current I o is no longer at 90o with respect to V1.
But it lags V1 by angle o which is less than 90o. Thus cos o is called no load power factor of practical
transformer.

Fig 1. Practical transformer on no load

The phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 1. It can be seen that the two components Io are,

This is magnetizing component lagging V1 exactly by 90o .

This is core loss component which is in phase withV1.

The magnitude of the no load current is given by,

While o = no load primary power factor angle

The total power input on no load is denoted as Wo and is given by,

It may be denoted that the current is very small, about 3 to 5% of the full load rated current. Hence the
primary copper loss is negligibly small hence I c is called core loss or iron loss component. Hence power
input Wo on no load always represent the iron losses, as copper loss is negligibly small. The iron losses are
denoted as Pi and are constant for all load conditions.

Example 1 : The no load current of a transformer is 10 A at a power factor 0f 0.25 lagging, when
connected to 400 V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate,
a) Magnetising component of the no load current
b) Iron loss and c) Maximum value of flux in the core.
Assume primary winding turns as 500.
Solution : The given value are, = 10 A, cos = 0.25, = 400 V and f = 50 Hz
a)
Im = Io sin o = magnetising component
o = cos-1(0.25) = 75.522o
...
Im = 10 x sin (75.522o ) = 9.6824 A
b)
Pi = iron loss = power input on no load
= Wo = V1 Io cos o = 400 x 10 x 0.25
= 1000 W
c) On no load,
E1 = V1 = 400 V and N1 = 500
Now
E1 = 4.44 f m N1
...
400 = 4.44 x 50 x m x 500
...
m = 3.6036 mWb

Effect of Winding Resistances

Effect of Leakage Reactance

Equivalent circuit of Transformer

The term equivalent circuit of a machine means the combination of fixed and variable resistances and
reactances, which exactly simulates performance and working of the machine.
For a transformer, no load primary current has two components,
Im = Io sino = Magnetizing component
Ic = Io coso = Active component
Im produces the flux and is assumed to flow through reactance X o called no load reactance while Ic is
active component representing core losses hence is assumed to flow through the reactance R o. Hence
equivalent circuit on no load can be shown as in the Fig. 1. This circuit consisting of R o and Xo in parallel is
called exciting circuit. From the equivalent circuit we can write,
Ro = V1/Ic
and Xo= V1/Im

Fig. 1 No load equivalent circuit

When the load is connected to the transformer then secondary current I 2 flows. This causes voltage
drop across R2 and X2. Due to I2, primary draws an additional current
10

I2' = I2/ K. Now I1 is the phasor addition of Io and I2'. This I1 causes the voltage drop across primary
resistance R1 and reactance X1.
Hence the equivalent circuit can be shown as in the Fig. 2.

Fig. 2
But in the equivalent circuit, windings are not shown and it is further simplified by transferring all the
values to the primary or secondary. This makes the transformer calculation much easy.
So transferring secondary parameters to primary we get,
R2'= R2/K2 ,
X2' = X2/K2' ,
Z2' = Z2/K2
While
E2' = E2/K'
I2' = K I2
Where
K = N2 /N1
While transferring the values remember the rule that
Low voltage winding High current Low impedance
High voltage winding Low current High impedance
Thus the exact equivalent circuit referred to primary can be shown as in the Fig. 3.

Fig. 3 Exact equivalent circuit referred to primary

Similarly all the primary value can be referred to secondary and we can obtain the equivalent circuit
referred to secondary.
R1' = K2 R1 ,
X1' = K2 X1,
Z1' = K2 Z1
E1'= K E1,
Io' = I1 /K' Io' = Io /K
Similarly the exciting circuit parameters also gets transferred to secondary as R o'and Xo '. The circuit is
shown in the Fig.4.

Fig. 4 Exact equivalent circuit referred to secondary

11

Now as long as no load branch i.e. exciting branch is in between Z 1 and Z2', the impedances cannot be
combined. So further simplification of the circuit can be done. Such circuit is called approximate
equivalent circuit.
Approximate Equivalent Circuit
To get approximate equivalent circuit, shift the no load branch containing Ro and Xo to the left of R1 and
X1. By doing this we are creating an error that the drop across R 1 and X1due to Io is neglected. Hence such
an equivalent circuit is called approximate equivalent circuit.
So approximate equivalent circuit referred to primary can be as shown in the Fig. 5.

Fig. 5 Approximate equivalent circuit referred to primary

In this circuit now R1 and R2' can be combined to get equivalent resistance referred to primary R 1e as
discussed earlier. Similarly X1and X1' can be combined to get X1e. And equivalent circuit can be simplified
as shown in the Fig. 6.

Fig. 6
We know that, R1e = R1 + R2'= R1 + R2/K2
X1e = X1 + X2' = X1 + X2/K2
Z1e = R1e + j X1e
Ro = V1 /Ic and Xo = V1 /Im
Ic = Io coso and Im = Io sino
In the similar fashion, the approximate equivalent circuit referred to secondary also can be obtained.
Approximate Voltage Drop in Transformer
Consider the equivalent circuit referred to secondary as shown in the Fig. 1.

12

Fig. 1
From the Fig. 1 we can write,

As primary parameters are referred to secondary, there are no voltage drops in primary.
When there is no load, I2 = 0 and we get no load terminal voltage V20 as E2.
.
..
V20 = E2 = No load terminal voltage
while
V2 = Terminal voltage on load
Consider the phasor diagram for lagging p.f. load. The current I2 lags V2 by angle 2. Take V2 as
reference phasor. I2 R2e is in phase with I2 while I2 X2e leads I2 by 90o. The phasor diagram is shown in the
Fig.2.

Fig. 2
To derive the expression for approximate voltage drop, draw the circle with O as centre and OC as
redius, cutting extended OA at M. As OA = V2 and now OM = E2, the total voltage drop is AM = I2 Z2e.
But approximating this voltage drop is equal to AN instead of AM where N is intersection of
perpendicular drawn from C on AM. This is because angle is practically very very small and in practice M
and N are very close to each other.
Approximate voltage drop = AN
Draw perpendicular from B on AM intersecting it at D and draw parallel to DN from B to the point L
shown in the Fig. 2.
...
AD = AB cos 2= I2 R2e cos 2
and
DN = BL = BC sin 2 = I2 X2e sin 2
.
..
AN = AD + DN = I2 R2e cos 2 + I2 X2e sin 2
Assuming
2= 1=
... Approximate voltage drop = I2 R2e cos + I2 X2e sin
If all the parameters are referred to primary then we get,
Approximate voltage drop = I1 R1e cos + I1 X1e sin
13

If the load has leading p.f. then we get the phasor diagram as shown in the Fig. 3. The I 2 leads V2 by
angle 2 .

Fig. 3
In this case, the expression for approximate voltage drop remains same but the sign of I2 X2e sin
reverses.
Approximate voltage drop = I2 R2e cos - I2 X2e sin ....... Using referred to secondary values
= I1 R1e cos - I1 X1e sin ...........Using referred to primary values
It can be noticed that for leading power factor E2 < V2.
For the unity power factor, the phasor diagram is simple and is shown in the Fig. 4. For this case, as
cos = 1 and sin = 0, the approximate voltage drop is I2 R2e or I1R1e.

Fig. 4
Thus the general expression for the total approximate voltage drop is,
Approximate voltage drop = E2 - V2
= I2e R2e cos I2e X2e sin ........Using referred to secondary values
= I1e R1e cos I1e X1e sin ........Using referred to primary values
+ sing for lagging power factor while - sign for leading power factor loads.
Voltage Regulation of Transformer
The decrease in the secondary terminal voltage expressed as a fraction of the no load secondary
terminal voltage is called regulation of a transformer.
Let

E2 = Secondary terminal voltage on no load

V2 = Secondary terminal voltage on given load
then mathematically voltage regulation at given load can be expressed as,

The ratio (E2 - V2 / V2 ) is called per unit regulation.

The secondary terminal voltage does not depend only on the magnitude of the load current but also on
the nature of the power factor of the load. If V2 is determined for full load and specified power factor
condition the regulation is called full load regulation.
As load current increases, the voltage drops tend to increase V2 and drops more and more. In case of
lagging power factor V2 < E2 and we get positive voltage regulation, while for leading power factor E2 < V2
and we get negative voltage regulation.

14

The voltage drop should be as small as possible hence less the regulation better is the performance of a
transformer.
Expression for Voltage Regulation
Total voltage drop = I2 R2e cos I2 X2e sin
Hence the regulation can be expressed as,

'+' sing for lagging power factor while '-' sing for leading power factor loads.
The regulation van be further expressed in terms of I1 , V1, R1e and X1e.

Example 1 : 250/125 V, 5 KVA single phase transformer has primary resistance of 0.2 and reactance of
0.75. The secondary resistance is 0.05 and reactance of 0.2
i) Determine its regulation while supplying full load on 0.8 leading p.f.
ii) The secondary terminal voltage on full load 0.8 and leading p.f.
Solution : The given values are,
R1 = 0.2 , X1 = 0.75 , R2 = 0.05 , X2 = 0.2 , cos = 0.8 leading
K= E2 /E1 = 125/250 = 1/2 = 0.5
(I2) F.L.= KVA/V2 = 5x103 /125 = 40 A
...... full load
R2e = R2 + K2 R1 = 0.05 + (0.5)2 x 0.2 = 0.1
X2e = X2 + K2 X1 = 0.2 + (0.5)2 x 0.75 = 0.3875
i) Regulation on full load, cos = 0.8 leading
sin = 0.6
...
%R = ((I2 R2e cos - I2 X2e sin )/E2 ) x 100
where I2 = Full load current
...
% R = ((40 x 0.1 x 0.8 - 40 x 0.3875 x 0.6)/125) x 100 = -4.88%
ii) For secondary terminal voltage, use basic expression of regulation
% R = ((E2 - V2 )/E2 ) x 100
.
..
-4.88 = ((125- V2) /125) x 100
...
-6.1 = 125 - V2
.
..
V2 = 131.1 V
It can be seen that for leading p.f. E2 <V2.
Phasor Diagrams for Transformer on Load
Consider a transformer supplying the load as shown in the Fig. 1.

Fig. 1
The various transformer parameters are,
R1 = Primary winding resistance
X1 = Primary leakage reactance
R2 = Secondary winding resistance
X2 = Secondary leakage reactance
15

ZL = Load impedance
I1= Primary current
I2 = Secondary current = IL = Load current
now
1 = o + 2'
where
Io = No load current
I2'= Load component of current decided by the load
= K I2 where K is transformer component
The primary voltage V1 has now three components,
1. -E1, the induced e.m.f. which opposes V1
2. I1 R1, the drop across the resistance, in phase with I1
3. I1 X1, the drop across the reactance, leading I1 by 90o

The secondary induced e.m.f. has also three components,

1. V2, the terminal voltage across the load
2. I2 R2, the drop across the resistance, in phase with I2
3. I2 X2, the drop across the reactance, leading I2 by 90o

The phasor diagram for the transformer on load depends on the nature of the load power factor. Let us
consider the various cases of the load power factor.
Unity power factor load, cos2 = 1
As load power factor is unity, the voltage V2 and I2 are in phase. Steps to draw the phasor diagram are,
1. Consider flux as reference
2. E1 lags by 90o. Reverse E1 to get -E1.
3. E1 and E2 are inphase
4. Assume V2 in a particular direction
5. I2 is in phase with V2.
6. Add I2 R2 and I2 X2 to to get E2.
7. Reverse I2 to get I2'.
8. Add Io and I2' to get I1.
9. Add I1 R1 and to -E1 to get V1.
Angle between V1 and I1 is 1 and cos1 is primary power factor. Remember that I 1X1 leads I1 direction
by 90o and I2 X2 leads I2 by 90o as current through inductance lags voltage across inductance by 90 o. The
phasor diagram is shown in the Fig.2

16

Fig. 2 Phasor diagram for unity power factor load

Lagging Power Factor Load, cos 2
As load power factor is lagging cos 2, the current I2 lags V2 by angle 2. So only changes in drawing
the phasor diagram is to draw I 2 lagging V2 by 2 in step 5 discussed earlier. Accordingly direction of I 2 R2,
I2 X2, I2', I1, I1 R1 and I1X1 will change. Remember that whatever may be the power factor of load, I 2X2 leads
I2 by 90o and I1X1 leads I1 by 90o.
The complete phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 3.

Fig. 3 Phasor diagram for lagging power factor

Leading Power Factor Load, cos 2
As load power factor is leading, the current I2 leads V2 by angle 2. So change is to draw I2 leading I2
by angle 2. All other steps remain same as before. The complete phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 4

17

Fig. 4 Phasor diagram for leading power factor

Losses in a Transformer
1. Losses in a Transformer
In a transformer, there exists two types of losses.
i) The core gets subjected to an alternating flux, causing core losses.
ii) The windings carry currents when transformer is loaded, causing copper losses.
1.1 Core or Iron Losses
Due to alternating flux set up in the magnetic core of the transformer, it undergoes a cycle of
magnetisation and demagnetisation. Due to hysteresis effect there is loss of energy in this process which is
called hysteresis loss.
It is given by,
hysteresis loss = Kh Bm1.67 f v watts
where
Kh = Hysteresis constant depends on material.
Bm = Maximum flux density.
f = Frequency.
v = Volume of the core.
The induced e.m.f. in the core tries to set up eddy currents in the core and hence responsible for the
eddy current losses. The eddy current loss is given by,
Eddy current loss = Ke Bm2 f2 t2 watts/ unit volume
where
Ke = Eddy current constant
t = Thickness of the core
As seen earlier, the flux in the core is almost constant as supply voltage V 1 at rated frequency f is
always constant. Hence the flux density Bm in the core and hence both hysteresis and eddy current losses
are constants at all the loads. Hence the core or iron losses are also called constant losses. The iron losses
are denoted as Pi.
The iron losses are minimized by using high grade core material like silicon steel having very low
hysteresis loop by manufacturing the core in the form of laminations.
1.2 Copper Losses
The copper losses are due to the power wasted in the form of I2 R loss due to the resistances of the
primary and secondary windings. The copper loss depends on the magnitude of the currents flowing
through the windings.
Total Cu loss = I12 R1 + I22 R2 = I12 ( R1 + R2' )= I22 ( R2 +R1' )
= I12 R1e = I22 R2e
The copper looses are denoted as. If the current through the windings is full load current, we get
copper losses at full load. If the load on transformer is half then we get copper losses at half load which are
18

less than full load copper losses. Thus copper losses are called variable losses. For transformer VA rating is
or. As is constant, we can say that copper losses are proportional to the square of the KVA rating.
So, Pcu I2 (KVA)2
Thus for a transformer,
Total losses = Iron losses + Copper losses
= Pi + Pcu

Efficiency of a Transformer
Due to the losses in a transformer, the output power of a transformer is less than the input power
supplied.
...
Power output = Power input - Total losses
...
Power input = Power output + Total losses
= Power output + Pi + Pcu
The efficiency of any device is defined as the ratio of the power output to power input. So for a
transformer the efficiency can be expresses as,
= Power output/power input
...
= Power output/(power output + Pi + Pcu )
Now power output = V2 I2 cos
where
cos = Load power factor
The transformer supplies full load of current I2 and with terminal voltage V2.
Pcu = Copper losses on full load = I22 R2e
...
= (V2 I2 cos 2 )/(V2 I2 cos 2 + Pi + I22 R2e)
But
V2 I2 = VA rating of a transformer
.
..
= (VA rating x cos ) / (VA rating x cos + Pi + I22 R2e)

This is full load percentage efficiency with,

I2 = Full load secondary current
But if the transformer is subjected to fractional load then using the appropriate values of various
quantities, the efficiency can be obtained.
Let n =Fraction by which load is less than full load = Actual load/Full load
For example, if transformer is subjected to half load then,
n = Half load/Full load = (1/2)/2 = 0.5
when load changes, the load current changes by same proportion.
... new I2 = n (I2) F.L.
Similarly the output V2 I2 cos2 also reduces by the same fraction. Thus fraction of VA rating is
available at the output.
Similarly as copper losses are proportional to square of current then,
new Pcu = n2 (Pcu ) F.L.
Key Point : So copper losses get reduced by n2.
In general for fractional load the efficiency is given by,

where n = Fraction by which load power factor lagging, leading and unity the efficiency expression
does not change, and remains same.
Example : A 4 KVA, 200/400 V, 50 Hz, single phase transformer has equivalent resistance referred to
primary as 0.15 Calculate,
i) The total copper losses on full load.
ii) The efficiency while supplying full load at 0.9 p.f. lagging.
iii) The efficiency while supplying half load at 0.8 p.f. leading.
Assume total iron losses equal to 60 W.
19

Solution : The given values are,

V1 = 200 V, V2 = 400 V, S = 4 KVA, R1e= 0.15 , Pi = 60 W
K = 400/200 = 2
...
R2e = K2 R1e = (2)2 x 0.15 = 0.6
(I2)F.L. = KVA/V2 = 4 x 103/400 = 10 A
(i) Total copper losses on full load,
(Pcu)F.L. = {(I2) F.L.}2 R2e = (10)2 x 0.6 = 60 W
(ii) cos = 0.9 lagging and full load

(iii) cos = 0.8 leading, half load

As half load,
n = 0.5

Condition for Maximum Efficiency

When a transformer works on a constant input voltage and frequency then efficiency varies with the
load. As load increases, the efficiency increases. At a certain load current, it achieves a maximum value. If
the transformer is loaded further the efficiency starts decreasing. The graph of efficiency against load
current I2 is shown in the Fig.1

Fig. 1
The load current at which the efficiency attains maximum value is denoted as I2m and maximum
efficiency is denoted as max.
Let us determine,
1. Condition for maximum efficiency.
2. Load current at which max occurs.
3. KVA supplied at maximum efficiency.
The efficiency is a function of load i.e. load current I 2 assuming cos constant. The secondary
terminal voltage V2 is also assumed constant. So for maximum efficiency,
d /d I2 = 0
Now
= (V2 I2 cos 2 )/(V2 I2 cos 2 + Pi + I22 R2e)

20

...
...
...

(V2 I2 cos 2 + Pi + I22 R2e)(V2 cos 2) - (V2 I2 cos 2)(V2 cos 2 + 2I2 R2e) = 0
Cancelling (V2 cos 2) from both the terms we get,
V2 I2 cos 2 + Pi +I22 R2e - V2 I2 2 - 2I22 R2e = 0
Pi - I22 R2e= 0
Pi = I22 R2e = Pcu
So condition to achieve maximum efficiency is that,
Copper losses = Iron losses

Load Current I2m at Maximum Efficiency

For max,
I22 R2e = Pi but I2 = I2m
I2m2 R2e = Pi
I2m = (Pi / R2e)
This is the load current at max,
Let
(I2)F.L. = Full load current
...
I2m /(I2) F.L.= (1/(I2) F.L.)(Pi / R2e)
...
I2m /(I2) F.L.= (Pi )/({(I2) F.L.}2 R2e)
= (Pi )/((Pcu) F.L.)
...
I2m = (I2 )F.L.(Pi )/((Pcu) F.L.)
This is the load current at max interms of full load current.
KVA supplied at maximum Efficiency
For constant V2 the KVA supplied is the function of.
KVA at max = I2m V2= V2 (I2) F.L. x (Pi) /((Pcu)F.L.)
KVA at max = (KVA rating) x (Pi) /((Pcu)F.L.)
Substituting condition for in the expression of efficiency, we can write expression for max as,

Example : A 250 KVA single phase transformer has iron loss of 1.8 KW. The full load copper loss is 2000
watts. Calculate
i) Efficiency at full load, 0.8 lagging p.f.
ii) KVA supplied at maximum eficiency
iii) Maximum efficiency at 0.8 lagging p.f.
Solution : The given values are,
Pi = 1800 W , (Pcu)F.L. = 2000 W
i)

= 98.135%
ii)

KVA at = KVA rating x (Pi) /((Pcu)F.L.)

= 250 x (1800/2000)
= 237.1708 KVA

iii)

21

where

Pcu = Pi =1800W

= 98.137%
All Day Efficiency of a Transformer
For a transformer, the efficiency is defined as the ratio of output power to input power. This is its
efficiency. But power efficiency is not the true measure of the performance of some special types of
transformers such as distribution transformers.
Distribution transformer serve residential and commercial loads. The load on such transformers varies
considerably during the period of the day. For most period of the day these transformers are working at 30
to 40 % of full load only or even less than that. But the primary of such transformers is energized at its
rated voltage for 24 hours, to provide continuous supply to the consumer. The core loss which depends on
voltage, takes place continuously for all the loads. But copper loss depends on the load condition. For no
load, copper loss is negligibly small while on full load it is at its rated value. Hence power efficiency can
not give the measure of true efficiency of such transformers. in such transformers, the energy output is
calculated in kilo watt hour (kWh). Then ratio of total energy output to total energy input (output + losses)
is calculated. Such ratio is called energy efficiency or All Day Efficiency of a transformer. Based on this
efficiency, the performance of various distribution transformers is compared. All day efficiency is defined
as,

O.C. and S.C. Tests on Single Phase Transformer

The efficiency and regulation of a transformer on any load condition and at any power factor condition
can be predetermined by indirect loading method. In this method, the actual load is not used on
transformer. But the equivalent circuit parameters of a transformer are determined by conducting two tests
on a transformer which are,
1. Open circuit test (O.C Test)
2. Short circuit test (S.C.Test)
The parameters calculated from these test results are effective in determining the regulation and
efficiency of a transformer at any load and power factor condition, without actually loading the
transformer. The advantage of this method is that without much power loss the tests can be performed and
results can be obtained. Let us discuss in detail how to perform these tests and how to use the results to
calculate equivalent circuit parameters.
Open Circuit Test (O.C. Test)
The experimental circuit to conduct O.C test is shown in the Fig. 1.

22

Fig 1. Experimental circuit for O.C. test

The transformer primary is connected to a.c. supply through ammeter, wattmeter and variac. The
secondary of transformer is kept open. Usually low voltage side is used as primary and high voltage side as
secondary to conduct O.C test.
The primary is excited by rated voltage, which is adjusted precisely with the help of a variac. The
wattmeter measures input power. The ammeter measures input current. The voltemeter gives the value of
rated primary voltage applied at rated frequency.
Sometimes a voltmeter may be connected across secondary to measure secondary voltage which is V 2
= E2 when primary is supplied with rated voltage. As voltmeter resistance is very high, though voltmeter is
connected, secondary is treated to be open circuit as voltmeter current is always negligibly small.
When the primary voltage is adjusted to its rated value with the help of variac, readings of ammeter and
wattmeter are to be recorded.
The observation table is as follows

Vo = Rated voltage
Wo = Input power
Io = Input current = no load current
As transformer secondary is open, it is on no load. So current drawn by the primary is no load current
Io. The two components of this no load current are,
Im = Io sin o
Ic = Io cos o
where cos o = No load power factor
And hence power input can be written as,
Wo = Vo Io cos o
The phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 2.
23

Fig. 2

As secondary is open, I2 = 0. Thus its reflected current on primary is also zero. So we have primary
current I1 =Io. The transformer no load current is always very small, hardly 2 to 4 % of its full load value.
As I2 = 0, secondary copper losses are zero. And I1 = Io is very low hence copper losses on primary are also
very very low. Thus the total copper losses in O.C. test are negligibly small. As against this the input
voltage is rated at rated frequency hence flux density in the core is at its maximum value. Hence iron losses
are at rated voltage. As output power is zero and copper losses are very low, the total input power is used to
supply iron losses. This power is measured by the wattmeter i.e. Wo. Hence the wattmeter in O.C. test gives
iron losses which remain constant for all the loads.
...

Wo = Pi = Iron losses
Calculations : We know that,
Wo = Vo Io cos
cos o = Wo /(Vo Io ) = no load power factor
Once cos o is known we can obtain,
Ic = Io cos o
and
Im = Io sin o
Once Ic and Im are known we can determine exciting circuit parameters as,
Ro = Vo /Ic
and
Xo = Vo /Im
Key Point : The no load power factor cos o is very low hence wattmeter used must be low power factor
type otherwise there might be error in the results. If the meters are connected on secondary and primary is
kept open then from O.C. test we get R o' and Xo' with which we can obtain Ro and Xo knowing the
transformation ratio K.
Short Circuit Test (S.C. Test)
In this test, primary is connected to a.c. supply through variac, ammeter and voltmeter as shown in the
Fig. 3.

24

Fig. 3 Fig 1. Experimental circuit for O.C. test

The secondary is short circuited with the help of thick copper wire or solid link. As high voltage side is
always low current side, it is convenient to connect high voltage side to supply and shorting the low
voltage side.
As secondary is shorted, its resistance is very very small and on rated voltage it may draw very large
current. Such large current can cause overheating and burning of the transformer. To limit this short circuit
current, primary is supplied with low voltage which is just enough to cause rated current to flow through
primary which can be observed on an ammeter. The low voltage can be adjusted with the help of variac.
Hence this test is also called low voltage test or reduced voltage test. The wattmeter reading as well as
voltmeter, ammeter readings are recorded. The observation table is as follows,

Now the current flowing through the windings are rated current hence the total copper loss is full load
copper loss. Now the voltage supplied is low which is a small fraction of the rated voltage. The iron losses
are function of applied voltage. So the iron losses in reduced voltage test are very small. Hence the
wattmeter reading is the power loss which is equal to full load copper losses as iron losses are very low.
...

Wsc = (Pcu) F.L. = Full load copper loss

Calculations : From S.C. test readings we can write,
Wsc = Vsc Isc cos sc
...
cos sc = Vsc Isc /Wsc = short circuit power factor
Wsc = Isc2 R1e = copper loss
.
..
R1e =Wsc /Isc2
while
Z1e =Vsc /Isc = (R1e2 + X1e2)
...
X1e = (Z1e2 - R1e2)
Thus we get the equivalent circuit parameters R 1e, X1e and Z1e. Knowing the transformation ratio K, the
equivalent circuit parameters referred to secondary also can be obtained.
Important Note : If the transformer is step up transformer, its primary is L.V. while secondary is H.V.
winding. In S.C. test, supply is given to H.V. winding and L.V is shorted. In such case we connect meters
on H.V. side which is transformer secondary through for S.C. test purpose H.V side acts as primary. In such
case the parameters calculated from S.C. test readings are referred to secondary which are R 2e, Z2e and X2e.
So before doing calculations it is necessary to find out where the readings are recorded on transformer
primary or secondary and accordingly the parameters are to be determined. In step down transformer,
25

primary is high voltage itself to which supply is given in S.C. test. So in such case test results give us
parameters referred to primary i.e. R1e, Z1e and X1e.
Key point : In short, if meters are connected to primary of transformer in S.C. test, calculations give us R 1e
and Z1e if meters are connected to secondary of transformer in S.C. test calculations give us R2e and Z2e.
1.3 Calculation of Efficiency from O.C. and S.C. Tests
We know that,
From O.C. test, Wo = Pi
From S.C. test, Wsc = (Pcu) F.L.

Thus for any p.f. cos 2 the efficiency can be predetermined. Similarly at any load which is fraction of full
load then also efficiency can be predetermined as,

where

n = fraction of full load

where

I2= n (I2) F.L.

Calculation of Regulation
From S.C. test we get the equivalent circuit parameters referred to primary or secondary.
The rated voltages V1, V2 and rated currents (I1) F.L. and (I2) F.L. are known for the given transformer.
Hence the regulation can be determined as,

...

where I1, I2 are rated currents for full load regulation.

For any other load the currents I1, I2 must be changed by fraction n.
I1, I2 at any other load = n (I1) F.L., n (I2) F.L.

Key Point : Thus regulation at any load and any power factor can be predetermined, without actually
loading the transformer.
26

Example 1 : A 5 KVA, 500/250 V, 50 Hz, single phase transformer gave the following readings,
O.C. Test : 500 V, 1 A, 50 W (L.V. side open)
S.C. Test : 25 V, 10 A, 60 W (L.V. side shorted)
Determine : i) The efficiency on full load, 0.8 lagging p.f.
ii) The voltage regulation on full load, 0.8 leading p.f.
iii) The efficiency on 60% of full load, 0.8 leading p.f.
iv) Draw the equivalent circuit referred to primary and insert all the values in it.
Solution : In both the tests, meters are on H.V. side which is primary of the transformer. Hence the
parameters obtained from test results will be referred to primary.
From O.C. test,
Vo = 500 V, Io = 1 A, Wo= 50 W
..
cos o = Wo/Vo Io = 50/(500x1) = 0.1
...
Ic = Io cos = 1 x 0.1 = 0.1 A
and
Im = Io sin o = 1 x 0.9949 = 0.9949 A
...
Ro =Vo /Ic = 500/0.1 = 5000
and
Xo = Vo/Im = 500/0.9949 = 502.52
and
Wo = Pi= iron losses = 50 W
From S.C. test,
Vsc = 25 V, Isc = 10 A, Wsc = 60 W
.
..
R1e = Wsc /Isc2 = 60/(10)2 = 0.6
Z1e = Vsc /Isc = 25/10 = 2.5
.
..
X1e= (2.52 - 0.62) = 2.4269
(I1) F.L. = VA rating/V1
= (5 x 103 )/500 = 10 A
and
Isc = (I1) F.L.
.
..
Wsc = (Pcu) F.L. = 60 W
i) on full load, cos = 0.8 lagging
.

ii) Regulation on full load, cos 2 = 0.8 leading

= - 1.95 %
iii) For 60% of full load, n = 0.6 and cos 2 = 0.8 leading]
...
Pcu = copper loss on new load = n2 x (Pcu) F.L.
= (0.6)2 x 60 = 21.6 W
= 97.103 %
iv) The equivalent circuit referred to primary is shown in the Fig. 4.

27

Fig. 4
Example 2 : The open circuit and short circuit tests on a 10 KVA, 125/250 V, 50 Hz, single phase
transformer gave the following results :
O.C. test : 125 V, 0.6 A, 50 W (on L.V. side)
S.C. test : 15 V, 30 A. 100 W (on H.V. side)
Calculate : i) copper loss on full load
ii) full load efficiency at 0.8 leading p.f.
iii) half load efficiency at 0.8 leading p.f.
iv) regulation at full load, 0.9 leading p.f.
Solution : From O.C. test we can weite,
Wo = Pi = 50 W = Iron loss
From S.C. test we can find the parameters of equivalent circuit. Now S.C. test is conducted on H.V.
side i.e. meters are on H.V. side which is transformer secondary. Hence parameters from S.C. test results
will be referred to secondary.
Vsc = 15 V, Isc = 30 A, Wsc = 100 W
R2e = Wsc/(Isc)2 =10/(30)2 = 0.111
Z1e = Vsc /Isc = 15/30 = 0.5
...
X2e = (Z2e2 - R2e2) = 0.4875
i) Copper loss on full load
(I2) F.L. = VA rating/V2 = (10 x 103)/250 = 40 A
In short circuit test, Isc = 30 A and not equal to full load value 40 A.
Hence Wsc does not give copper loss on full load
...
Wsc = Pcu at 30 A = 100 W
Now
Pcu I2
( Pcu at 30 A)/( Pcu at 40 A) = (30/40) 2
100/( Pcu at 40 A) = 900/1600
Pcu at 40 A = 177.78 W
...
(Pcu) F.L. = 177.78 W
ii) Full load , cos 2 = 0.8
...

28

iii) Half load , cos 2 = 0.8

n = 0.5 as half load,

(I2) H.L. = 0.5 x 40 = 20

= 97.69%
iv) Regulation at full load, cos = 0.9 leading

= -1.8015%
Methods of Cooling Transformers
When transformer supplies a load, two types of losses occur inside the transformer. The iron losses
occur in the core while copper losses occur in the windings. The power lost due to these losses appears in
the form of heat. This heat increases the temperature of the transformer.
Key Point : To keep the temperature rise of the transformer within limits, it is necessary to dissipate the
heat developed to the surroundings.
A suitable coolant and cooling method is necessary for each transformer to dissipate the heat,
effectively to the surroundings.
Basically there are two types of transformers, dry type transformers and oil immersed transformers. In
dry type, the heat is taken to the walls of tank and dissipate to the surrounding air through convection. In
oil immersed type, the oil is used as coolant. The entire assembly including core and windings is kept
immersed in a suitable oil. The heat developed is transferred to the walls of tank by convection through oil.
And finally heat is transferred to the surroundings from the tank walls by radiation.
The various cooling methods are designated using letter symbols which depend upon :
i) Cooling medium used and ii) Type of circulation employed
The various coolants used along with their symbols are,
1. Air - A,
2. Gas - G,
3. Synthetic oil - L,
4. Mineral oil - O,
5- Solid insulation - S and 6. Water - W
There are two types of circulations which are,
1. Neutral - N and 2. Forced - F
In natural cooling, the coolant circulating inside the transformer transfers entire heat to the tank walls
from where it is dissipated to the surroundings and transformers gets cooled by natural air circulating
surrounding the tank walls.
In forced cooling, the coolant circulating inside the transformer gets heated as it comes in contact with
windings and core. The coolant partly transfers heat to the tank walls but mainly coolant is taken to the
external heat exchanger where air or water is used in order to dissipate heat of the coolant.
1.1 Cooling Methods by Dry Type Transformers
The cooling methods of dry type transformers are classified as,
1. Air Natural (AN) :
29

This method uses atmospheric air as cooling medium. The natural air surrounding the tank walls is
used to carry away the heat generated, by natural convection. It is used for small voltage transformers. Due
to the available insulating materials like glass and silicon resins now a days, the method can be used for the
transformers upto ratings 1.5 MVA.
2. Air Blast (AB) :
In large transformers, cooling by natural air is inadequate. In such cases, the transformer is located
above the air chamber and a blast of compressed air is forced on core and windings with the help of
blowers or fans. This improves the heat dissipation and hence higher specific loadings are allowed in dry
type transformers. This reduced the size of transformers. The air supply must be property filtered to prevent
accumulation of dust particles.
1.2 Cooling Methods for Oil Immersed Transformers
The oil used as a coolant has following advantages,
1. It is good conductor of heat than air.
2. It has high coefficient of volume expansion. Due to this, adequate circulation is easily obtained.
3. The oil acts as an insulating medium, which increases the insulating strength.
The only limitation of oil immersed transformers is that these transformers can not be used at places
like mines where there are chances of fire hazard.
The various cooling methods used for such oil immersed transformers are classified as,
1. Oil natural (ON) :
The transformer is immersed in oil so heat generated in core and windings is passed on to oil by
conduction. The heated oil transfer heat to the tank wall from where it is taken away to the surrounding air.
The assembly of oil immersed transformer is shown in the Fig.1.

Fig. 1 Oil immersed transformer

The tubes are provided on the sides of a transformer tank. The oil in the tank is taken to the tubes. The
circulation of oil through tubes causes the cooling.
The temperature rise of a transformer can be reduced by,
1. Increasing the area of heat dissipation.
2. Decreasing the cooling coefficient.
As the rating of transformer increases the plain walled tank can not be used. It is necessary to reduce
the cooling coefficient. This is achieved by use of some improved methods of cooling.
The transformers upto 30 KVA use plain walled tanks. But transformer with ratings higher than 30
KVA use corrugations, fins, tubes and radiator tanks. The Fig. 2 shows the fins and corrugations provided
on tank walls.

Fig. 2 Tanks with fins and corrugations

The Fig. 3 shows the tanks with the tubes and the external radiators.
30

Fig. 3 Tanks with tubes and radiators

The heat developed inside the transformer is taken outside with the help of oil. The oil is cooled with
the help of fins, tubes or external radiations by natural circulation of air.
Hence these methods are called Oil Natural and Air Natural (ONAN) methods. The tubes are used for
transformers upto ratings 5 MVA.
2. Oil Natural Air Forced (ONAF) :
In this method, the tank is made hollow and compressed air is blown into the hollow space to cool the
transformer. The oil circulating inside takes heat to the tank walls. The method is effective and can be used
for large rating transformers. Another way to force air blast is to use elliptical tubes separated from tank
walls through which air is forced by fans.
3. Oil Natural Water Forced (ONWF) :
In this method, the copper cooling coils or pipes are fitted above the core but below the oil surface.
The cool water is forced through these coils or pipes which provides the additional cooling where natural
water head is available, this method is very cheap. The pipes are provided with fans to increase conduction
of heat from oil to pipes. The major disadvantage of this method is, incase of leakage of water. the water
can contaminate the oil reducing the dielectric strength of oil.
1.3 Oil Forced Methods With Heat Exchangers
In these method, forced circulation oil (OF) is the main feature. The motor driven pump is used to
force the oil from top of transformer to the external heat exchanger. In the heat exchanger, the oil is cooled
with some methods like use of air blast, water blast etc. The cold oil is circulated back to the transformer
from the bottom.
The oil forced methods are classified depending on how the oil is cooled in the heat exchangers. These
methods are,
1. Oil Forced Air Natural (OFAN) :
The oil is circulated with the help of pump and in the heat exchanger it is cooled with the help of
natural air. This method is rarely used in practice.
2. Oil Forced Air Forced (OFAF) :
In the external heat exchanger the compressed air is blasted with the help of fans to cool is the oil. The
advantage of this method is at low loads when losses are less there is no need to use the fans to cool the oil.
The natural air is sufficient. At higher loads, both fans and pump are switched on by sensing the
temperature which improves the cooling. Hence efficiency of this system is higher. The scheme is shown in
the Fig. 4.

Fig. 4 Oil forced air forced cooling method

31

3. Oil Forced Water Forced (OFWF) :

In this method, in the heat exchanger instead of air blast, water blast is used to cool the oil. The
pressure oil is kept higher than water so oil mixes with water in case of leakage but water dose not mix
with oil. Due to this method, smaller transformer size is sufficient as it is not necessary to employ water
tubes inside the transformer tank. The method is suitable for transformers having ratings more than 30
MVA. The method is used for the transformers at hydroelectric stations as large water supply with
appropriate water head is easily available. The scheme is shown in the Fig. 5

Fig. 5 Oil forced water forced cooling method

32